Am & Fm Transmitter & Receiver 2024-2025

2.
1 CLASSIFICATION OF RADIO RECEIVERS-

Radio receivers are classified in two ways.
(A) Depending upon the applications, the radio receivers are classified as:
1. Amplitude Modulation broadcast receivers: These receivers are used to receive the broadcast of speech
or music transmitted from amplitude modulation broadcast transmitters which operate on long wave,
medium wave or short wave bands
2. Frequency Modulation broadcast receivers: These receivers are used to receive the broadcast programs
from FM broadcast transmitters which operate in VHF or UHF bands.
3. Communication receivers: Communication receivers are used for reception of telegraph and short wave
telephone signals. This means that communication receivers are used for various purposes other than
broadcast services.
4. Television receivers: Television receivers are used to receive television broadcast in VHF or in UHF
bands.
5. Radar receivers: Radar receivers are used to receive radar signals.
(B) Depending upon the fundamental aspects, the radio receivers are classified as:
1. Tuned Radio Frequency receivers
2. Super Heterodyne receiver
2.2 DEFINATION-
FIDELITY:
The fidelity of a receiver is its ability to accurately reproduce in its output, the signal that appears at its
input.
SENSITIVITY:
The sensitivity of a radio receiver is its ability to amplify weak signal.
SELECTIVITY:
The ability of a device to respond to a particular frequency without interference from others. The selectivity
of a receiver is its ability to reject unwanted signal and accept the desired signal.
NOISE FIGURE:
It is defined as the ratio of signal to noise ratio at the input to that at the output.
Noise figure is the measures of degradation of the signal to noise ratio caused by components in a signal
chain. It is a number by which the performance of an amplifier or a radio receiver can be specified with
lower values indicating better performance.
2.3 AM Transmitter
Master Oscillator:
It generates the carrier signal, which lies in the RF range. As we know the frequency of the carrier
is always very high. But it very difficult to generate high frequencies with good frequency stability. The
master oscillator generates a sub multiple with the required carrier frequency.
This submultiple frequency is multiplied by the frequency multiplier stage to get the required carrier
frequency. A crystal oscillator can be used in this stage to generate a low frequency carrier with the best
frequency stability. The frequency multiplier stage then increases the frequency of the carrier to its required
value.
Buffer Amplifier:
A buffer amplifier is one that provides electrical impedance transformation from one circuit to
another and helps to prevent the signal source from being affected by whatever currents that the load may
be produced with. The signal is buffered from load currents.
It first matches the output impedance of the carrier oscillator with the input impedance of the
frequency multiplier. It then isolates the carrier oscillator and frequency multiplier. This is required so that
the multiplier does not draw a large current from the carrier oscillator. If this occurs the frequency of the
carrier oscillator will not remain stable.
Frequency Multiplier:
Frequency multiplier is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal whose output frequency
is a multiple of its input frequency. The submultiple frequency of the carrier signal generated by the carrier
oscillator is applied to the frequency multiplier through the buffer amplifier. This stage is also called
harmonic generator.
The frequency multiplier generates high carrier frequency. The frequency multiplier is a tuned
circuit that can be tuned to the required carrier frequency that is to be transmitted.
Class-C tuned power amplifier:
A class-C power amplifier gives high power current pulses of the carrier signal at its output.
Modulated Amplifier (Class-C):
The modulating audio signal and the carrier signal after power amplification are applied to this
modulating stage. The modulation takes place at this stage. This signal finally passed to the antenna.
Antenna:
The output of the modulated class-C power amplifier feeds the signal to the transmitting antenna.
To transfer maximum power from the output stage to the antenna it is necessary that the impedance of the
two sections match. For this a matching network is required. The matching network consists of L & C
components.
2.4 CONCEPT OF FREQUENCY CONVERSION, RF AMPLIFIER & IF AMPLIFIER, TUNING,
S/N RATIO:
2.4.1 CONCEPT OF FREQUENCY CONVERSION:
It is the process of converting the carrier frequency of a received signal from its original value to
the intermediate frequency value in a super heterodyne receiver.
In radio reception using the super heterodyne principle the incoming signal is changed in frequency
by converter stage of the receiver to a new and lower frequency known as the intermediate frequency.
2.4.2 RF AMPLIFIER:
The antenna not only provides very low amplitude input signals but it picks up all available
transmissions at the same time.
The receiver circuits generate noise signals, which are added to the wanted signals. We hear this as
a 'background hiss' and are particularly noticeable if the receiver is tuned between stations or if a weak
station is being received. The RF amplifier is the first stage of amplification. It has to amplify the incoming
signal above the level of the internally generated noise and also to start the process of selecting the wanted
station and rejecting the unwanted ones.
2.4.3 IF AMPLIFIER:
The IF Amplifier consists of two stages of amplification and provides the main signal amplification
and selectivity. Operating at a fixed IF frequency means that the design of the amplifiers can be simplified.
If it were not for the fixed frequency, all the amplifiers may need to be tunable across the whole range of
incoming RF frequencies and it would be difficult to arrange for all the amplifiers to keep in step as they
are re-tuned.
The radio must select the wanted transmission and reject all the others. To do this the band pass of
all the stages must carefully controlled. Each IF stage does not necessarily have the same band pass
characteristics. The overall response is important. Again, this is something which is much more easily
achieved without the added complication of making them tunable. At the final output from the IF amplifiers,
we have a 455 KHz wave which is amplitude modulated by the wanted audio information. The selectivity
of the IF amplifiers has removed the unwanted components generated by the mixing process.
2.4.4 TUNING:
In super heterodyne receiver the front end RF tuning circuit is required to remove the image signal.
LC tuned circuit is used. The tuning of this tracks that of the local oscillator, so that frequency of both
sections changes simultaneously.
Now a days the tuning is normally carried out using varactor diodes that are driven by a voltage that is
programmed from the microprocessor that controls the operation of the radio. This controls the frequency
synthesizer used as the local oscillator.
S/N RATIO
2.5 SUPER HETERODYNE RECEIVER-
It is difficult to design amplifiers which give uniform high gain over a wide range of radio
frequencies. However, it is possible to design amplifiers which can provide high gain and uniform
amplification over a narrow band of lower frequencies called intermediate frequencies.
Hence it is necessary to convert the modulated RF signal into modulated IF signal by using a
frequency converter. For this we use super heterodyne receiver.
The word heterodyne stands for mixing. Here we have mixed the incoming signal frequency with
the local oscillator frequency. Therefore, this receiver is called super heterodyne receiver.
RF Amplifier-
RF low noise amplifiers are designed to increase the desired RF signal amplitude without adding
distortion or noise.
Mixer-
Mixer circuit is designed to combine two radio frequencies. It has two input one from RF amplifier
and other from local oscillator.
When mixer combined the two signal we get, 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑠 (𝑆𝑢𝑚)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑠 (𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒).

The sum frequency is removed by band pass filtering. The difference frequency given to the input
of IF amplifier.
The difference frequency is always maintained at 455KHz.
Local Oscillator-
The local oscillator is an RF oscillator whose frequency of oscillation can be controlled by varying
the capacitance of its capacitor. The frequency of local oscillator always maintained higher than incoming
signal.
IF Amplifier-
The 455 KHz output of the mixer is then passed on to IF amplifier. The IF amplifier amplifies the
signal and the output of IF is demodulated by a detector which provides the audio signal.
A.F Amplifier-
The audio signal is amplified by the audio frequency amplifier whose output is fed to a loud speaker
which reproduces the original signal.
Ganged Tuning-
If the incoming signal changes, then the local oscillator frequency also changes to maintain the
difference frequency. For this purpose, the tuning capacitor of the oscillator ganged with the capacitor of
the input circuit i.e., RF amplifier. So that the difference in the frequency of the incoming signal and
oscillator frequency is always constant i.e., 455 KHz.
Example- if the 𝑓𝑠= 1500KHz
𝑓𝑜 = 1955 KHz
Then 𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑠= 455 KHz
Or if the 𝑓𝑠 = 1345 KHz
𝑓𝑜 = 1800 KHz
Then 𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑠 = 455 KHz

Am & Fm Transmitter & Receiver 2024-2025

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2.

1 CLASSIFICATION OF RADIO RECEIVERS-

When mixer combined the two signal we get, 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑠 (𝑆𝑢𝑚)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑠 (𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒).

Example- if the 𝑓𝑠= 1500KHz

Or if the 𝑓𝑠 = 1345 KHz

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