0% found this document useful (0 votes)
4 views121 pages

Chemical Hazards - ILO1

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1/ 121

Introduction to chemicals in

the world of work and the


environment
2

Session objectives

At the end of the session, you will be able to:


1. Understand how occupational chemical emissions are impacting the
environment.
2. List the top ten polluting industries.
3. Explain how chemicals are contributing to climate change.
4. Identify the key impacts of climate change on worker health.
5. Recognize how climate change is affecting chemical use in the work of work.
6. Pinpoint the worker groups who will be most vulnerable to the impacts of climate
change. Nepal
Introduction
4

Introduction to chemicals
Chemicals are integral to almost all areas of society and
are used in numerous industries globally.
 They provide multiple benefits, including preventing
diseases and increasing agricultural productivity.
 The chemical industry is the second largest
manufacturing industry in the world, with more and
more chemicals produced every year.
 However, many have hazardous properties and can
adversely impact human health.
 They can also cause devastating and irreversible
damage to the environment.
5

Chemicals and worker health


Every year >1 billion workers are exposed to hazardous
substances in the workplace, including pollutants, dusts,
vapours and fumes.
▸ Workers are exposed to higher concentrations of
chemicals, over longer periods.
▸ One worker dies every 30 seconds due to occupational
chemical exposure (UN 2018).
▸ Many lives are lost due to fatal diseases, cancers and
poisonings, or from fatal injuries following fires or explosions.
▸ The burden of non-fatal injuries, resulting in disability and
debilitating chronic diseases, must also be considered.
6

Chemicals and environmental health

▸ Anthropogenic chemical pollution has devastated the


environment, endangering global ecosystems upon which life
depends (Persson et al. 2022).
▸ Greenhouse gases, climate change and contaminants in the air, water
and soil are largely caused by chemicals.
▸ Industrial sources of hazardous chemicals contribute significantly to
this burden, which now poses one of the largest environmental
threats to humanity (Naidu et al. 2021).
▸ The sound management of chemicals and waste is directly linked to
the world of work and ultimately the natural environment.
▸ Urgent action is needed to protect the health of workers and the
planet, whilst maintaining a resilient global economy, employment
opportunities and decent work for all.
Chemicals and
worker health
9

Modes of entry

 Inhalation (breathing in).


 Absorption (through skin or eyes).
 Ingestion (eating, swallowing).
 Transfer across placenta (pregnant woman to the unborn child).
 Transfer across breast milk from mother to infant.

Advancing social justice, promoting decent work


10

Health impacts for workers

 Health impacts may be:


• Acute e.g. poisoning incidents or allergic reactions.
• Chronic e.g. cancer or respiratory conditions.
 The production, use and storage of chemicals can also
cause fires and explosions, resulting in large scale
fatal and non-fatal injuries e.g. Beirut explosion.

Advancing social justice, promoting decent work


11

Double burden of exposure for some workers

Occupational Environmental
 Some workers at may face a double burden chemical exposures chemical exposures
of exposure, from environmental e.g. toxic vapour from e.g. contaminated
industrial processes food sources
exposures, as well as occupational
exposures.
 This may occur when workers live near their
place of work. In this case food sources,
such as fish and seafood, may be
contaminated by waste chemicals.
 For example, waste mercury from factories Double burden of
can bioaccumulate in fish as methylmercury. chemical exposure

Advancing social justice, promoting decent work


Chemicals and the
environment
13

Global chemical industry


 Global chemical sales were valued at €3.47 trillion in 2017.
 The chemicals industry is the world's second largest
production sector (ILO 2018). Largest global
chemical sales:
 Asia currently produces and consumes the largest amount
China (37%),
of chemicals.
European Union
 Workers are exposed to chemicals across almost all (16%),
economic sectors, including agriculture, mining, United States of
construction, manufacturing and services. America (13%).
 Hazardous chemical are both classic (e.g. asbestos) or
emerging (e.g. manufactured nanomaterials).
Advancing social justice, promoting decent work
Chemical emissions into the environment

▸Release of chemical pollutants into the environment has accelerated


considerably in the past half-century.
▸Trillions of tonnes of chemicals are discharged into the environment by
different sectors, including mining, agriculture, construction and energy
(Naidu 2021).
▸The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) lists 275
priority chemicals as pollutants.
▸Chemicals can migrate globally in air and water, in human and animal
vectors, in waste materials and nanoparticles, such as microplastics (Naidu
et al. 2021).
15

Impact of everyday use of chemicals on the environment

 The environment has a certain capacity to biodegrade toxic


substances.
 However, some substances are resistant to decomposition
processes.
 Adverse effects increase with the concentration of
substances and their accumulation in food chains.
 Chemicals released from worksites can cause long-term
environmental damage.
 Damage highest in agricultural, chemical and energy sectors.
Advancing social justice, promoting decent work
16

Special topic: Chemical pollution and biodiversity loss

Chemical pollution is one of the main drivers of biodiversity loss


 Mercury: Anthropogenic emissions are increasing, polluting the air, freshwater and oceans.
 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs): Human-made chemicals that are persistent in the
environment and are found around the globe in air, water and soil. PCBs and DDT continue to be
found in biota, despite being banned in many countries.
 Pesticides: Threats to bees and soil ecosystems, impacting global food security. Agricultural
runoff is a major source of water pollution.
 Hazardous waste dumps: Mismanagement of hazardous wastes in large waste dumps globally
is resulting in serious impacts on biological diversity.
 Plastics: Production is expected to double by 2050, have demonstrated impacts on marine
species and terrestrial ecosystems, including soils.
Question:
Can you guess which industries are the worst polluters?
18

The world’s worst polluters

▸2016 report by Pure Earth and Green Cross


Switzerland.
▸Update on the top ten polluting industries
globally.
▸Identified that a staggering 200 million people in
the developing work face health risks from
industrial pollution.
▸The top ten industries account for 7 to 17 million
Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) in LMIC.
19

The top ten polluting industries - Pure Earth and Green Cross Report 2016
How workers are exposed to hazardous Examples of potential chemical
Rank Industries
chemicals pollutants
Chemicals are released in manual recycling
Used lead acid
1 processes, such as breaking batteries and Lead
batteries
smelting metallic components.
Mining and ore Chemicals used in mining or processing Lead, arsenic, cadmium,
2
processing activities and those produced as by-products. mercury, hexavalent chromium
Chemicals are emitted during smelting
3 Lead smelting Lead, cadmium, mercury
processes.
Chemicals used in the tanning process are
4 Tanneries released in wastewater, leading to Hexavalent chromium
contaminated food and water.
Artisanal and Chemicals are released during the heating of
5 small-scale gold amalgam and other processes. Food sources Mercury
mining may also be contaminated.
20

The top ten polluting industries - Pure Earth and Green Cross Report 2016

How workers are exposed to hazardous Examples of potential chemical


Rank Industries
chemicals pollutants
Waste-pickers and scavengers are exposed to
Industrial
6 chemicals from products in the form of leachate, dust Lead, hexavalent chromium
dumpsites
and gases.
Exposures are industry dependent, however may be
7 Industrial zones Lead, hexavalent chromium
from chemical processes, waste products and dust.
Chemical Workers may be exposed from emissions, accidental Pesticides, volatile organic
8
manufacturing spills and waste products. compounds, heavy metals
Worker exposures depend on product type and
Lead, mercury, hexavalent
Product chemicals used, but may be from inhalation of
9 chromium, dioxins, volatile organic
manufacturing contaminated dust and gases, the burning of solid
compounds, sulfur dioxide
waste and emissions from energy sources.
Workers may be exposed when handling dyes and Lead, mercury, cadmium, chlorine
10 Dye industries
from ingestion of contaminated water and food. compounds
New update report to The Lancet Commission on
Pollution and Health (Woodruff et al. 2022)
▸ Pollution was responsible for 9 million deaths in 2019 (equivalent to one in six deaths worldwide).
▸ Increases in deaths from modern types of pollution (e.g. ambient air and toxic chemical pollution)
overshadow progress made in reducing pollution deaths associated with extreme poverty (e.g.
household air and water pollution).
▸ Pollution remains the world’s largest environmental risk factor for disease and premature death,
especially affecting low- and middle-income countries (LMIC).
▸ Air pollution accounts for nearly 75% of the nine million deaths. More than 1.8 million deaths are
caused by toxic chemical pollution (including lead), an increase of 66% since 2000.
▸ Excess deaths due to pollution have led to economic losses totalling US$ 4.6 trillion in 2019,
equating to 6∙2% of global economic output.
▸ 92% of pollution-related deaths and the greatest burden of economic losses occur in LMIC.
22

Case study: Leather tanning in Hazaribagh, Bangladesh

 Chromium is widely used in under-regulated tannery sites to make leather goods more durable.
 Hazaribagh is densely populated and heavily contaminated, housing up to 95% of all tanneries in
Bangladesh.
 About 85,000 tons of rawhides are processed for leather production in Bangladesh annually.
 Most tanneries in Hazaribagh do not have proper systems for treating high-volume chromium
waste. More than 60% of the chromium used can be found in the resulting waste.
 Workers may be exposed when handling hazardous chemicals without PPE or other protections,
from waste-water or from contaminated food and water.
 Over 8,000 workers in Hazaribagh tanneries suffer from gastrointestinal, dermatological and other
diseases.
(Source: Pure Earth and Green Cross Report 2016)
Chemicals and climate change
24

Greenhouse gases and global warming – A recap


 Greenhouse gases occur naturally and are essential to the
human survival.
 However, industrialization, deforestation and large-
scale agriculture have caused quantities of greenhouse
gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere to rise to record levels.
 The concentration of GHGs in the earth’s atmosphere is
directly linked to the average global temperature on Earth.
 The Greenhouse Effect is the warming of the earth’s
surface and troposphere caused by increased
concentrations of GHGs.
 The most abundant GHG, accounting for about two-thirds
of GHGs, carbon dioxide (CO2), is largely the product of (Source: www.climate-change.com)
burning fossil fuels.
25

Climate change

 Climate change is defined as a change in the statistical properties of the climate


system, when considered over long periods of time, regardless of cause (ENSAA 2011;
IPCC 2001).
 There is concordance amongst scientists that climate change encompasses atmospheric
carbon dioxide variations, altered worldwide temperatures and precipitation variation,
all directly or indirectly influencing the following (Delcour et al. 2014):
• Sea levels and salinity
• Alterations in arable land
• Crop yields
• Changes in soil quality
• Nitrogen deposition
• Plant diversity
26

The impacts of climate change


 The world is warming faster than ever before.
 Global average temperature are now 1.1°C higher than at
the beginning of last century (IPCC 2021).
 All regions of the world are impacted, with shifting weather
patterns threatening food production and water availability
and rising sea levels increasing the risk of catastrophic
flooding (IPCC 2021).
 Between 2030 and 2050, climate change is expected to
cause approximately 250,000 additional deaths per year,
from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea and heat stress (WHO
2021).
 There is alarming evidence that important tipping points,
leading to irreversible damage may already have been
reached or passed (Persson et al. 2022).
27

The global chemicals industry and greenhouse gases


 The single biggest user of fossil fuels and therefore an
important contributor to greenhouse gas emissions and the climate Perfluorinated
crisis (UNEP 2021). chemicals (PFAS), a
 The third largest emitter of carbon dioxide, the primary toxic ‘forever
greenhouse gas emitted through human activities (IEA 2018). chemical’, emits
HCFC-22, a
 Greenhouse gases are emitted at every stage of a chemical’s
greenhouse gas that
lifecycle, including production, use and waste.
is 5,000 times more
 The industry's production capacity nearly doubled to around 2.3 potent than carbon
billion tons between 2000 and 2017 (Cayuela and Hagan 2019). dioxide (Chem Trust
 The petrochemical industry specifically is projected as one of the 2021).
main drivers of increases in fossil fuel demand in the next
decade (IEA 2018).
Climate change and the
world of work
29

Climate change and


health

 MajorHealth Risks
Associated with Climate
Change (Haines and Ebi
2019).
30

Linkages between climate change and the world of work

 Today, 1.2 billion jobs or 40% of the global labour force are
at risk because of environmental degradation (ILO 2018a). Between 2000 and
2015, 23 million
 As global warming intensifies, it will damage infrastructure,
working-life years were
disrupt business activity and destroy jobs. lost annually as a
 The harm resulting from unmitigated climate change is likely result of various
to cause significant economic and employment losses. environment-related
hazards caused or
 It is a direct threat to the growth of real gross domestic exacerbated by human
product (GDP), as well as to labour productivity and activity (ILO 2018b).
working conditions (ILO 2019).

Advancing social justice, promoting decent work


31

The relationship between climate change and the world of


work
The relationship between climate change and the world of work is influenced by
three crucial aspects (ILO 2018):
1. Healthy ecosystems - Jobs rely on the services ecosystems provide. Climate
change threatens the provision of vital services, thus endangering jobs which
depend on them.
2. Environmental stability - Jobs and decent working conditions depend on the
absence of environmental hazards and the maintenance of environmental stability.
3. Worker vulnerability - The risks and hazards associated with environmental
degradation will impact vulnerable workers most.
32

Climate change and worker health

 Climate change can impact human health both


directly, and indirectly through the ecosystem.
 Increasing evidence demonstrates that climate
change and environmental degradation continues
to present increased risk of occupational injury,
disease and death (Kiefer et al. 2016).
 Informal sector workers in developing countries are
particularly at risk, as they have minimal OSH and
social protections. Also, those in physically
demanding jobs e.g. construction and agriculture.
33

Environmental health

 23% of global deaths are


linked to modifiable
environment factors.
(Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016).

Advancing social justice, promoting decent work


34

Main occupational health risks associated with climate


change (Ansah et al. 2021)

● Heatstroke ● Heavy sweating ● Respiratory conditions

● Cardiovascular disease ● Exhaustion ● Immune dysfunction

● Fatigue ● Headache ● Fainting

● Sleeplessness ● Chemical poisoning ● Asthma

● Skin rashes ● Zoonotic infections ● Cancer

● Digestive problems ● Injuries ● Kidney diseases


35

Why are workers most at risk?

 Workers are particularly at risk because:


1. They are often the first to be exposed
to the effects of climate change.
2. They may be exposed for longer
durations and at greater intensities.
3. They are often exposed to conditions
that the general public can choose to
avoid (Kiefer et al. 2016).
36

Sectors at risk

 Sectors which are heavily dependent on natural resources,


such as agriculture and forestry.
 Fisheries will be impacted by ocean acidification and
changing ocean temperatures.
 Natural disasters will destroy critical infrastructure and take
lives, disrupting sectors such as energy and water
providers, construction, transport and tourism. They
will put pressure on emergency and rescue services, the
health care sector and other public services.
 More extreme weather events will affect banking and
insurance companies.
 The manufacturing sector will be exposed, mainly
through spill-over effects coming from the most affected
sectors. (Source: ETUC 2020)
Key impacts of climate
change on the world of work
38

Climate change impacts worker health AND chemical use at work

 A number of key impacts of climate change on


worker health and the use of chemicals in the
world of work have been identified:
• Heat stress
• Air pollution
• Ozone depletion
• Pests and pesticides
• Infertile soil and fertilizers
• Vector distribution and ecology
• Major industrial accidents
• Freshwater cycle
• Ocean acidification
Heat stress
40

Heat stress and health

 The rise in global temperatures will make ‘heat stress’ more common.
 Heat stress refers to heat received in excess of that which the body can tolerate
without suffering physiological impairment.
 Heat stress during work restricts a worker’s physical functions and capabilities,
work capacity and productivity.
 Excessive heat can increase OSH risks and workers’ vulnerability, impacting
physical, as well as mental health.
 It can lead to heat stroke, heat exhaustion, rhabdomyolysis, heat syncope, heat
cramps, heat rash and even death (NIOSH n.d.).
Advancing social justice, promoting decent work
41

Heat stress and productivity

 At high temperatures, worker productivity is reduced because it is either too hot to


work or workers must work at a slower pace.
 Temperatures above 24–26°C are associated with reduced labour productivity.
 At 33–34°C, a worker operating at moderate work intensity loses 50% of his or her work
capacity (ILO 2019).
 It is projected that by 2030, 2.2% of total working hours worldwide will be lost to high
temperatures – a productivity loss equivalent to 80 million full-time jobs (ILO 2019).
 Heat stress is projected to reduce global GDP by USD 2.4 billion in 2030 (ILO 2019).
42

Working hours lost to heat stress by


subregion, 1995 and projections for 2030
The geography of heat stress (percentages) (ILO 2019)

 Countries most affected by heat stress have higher rates


of working poverty, informal employment and
subsistence agriculture.
 The impact of heat stress is unevenly distributed
geographically.
 Southern Asia and Western Africa are expected to be
most affected by heat stress, with productivity losses in
2030 of 5.3% and 4.8%, corresponding to around 43 and 9
million full-time jobs, respectively.
 Agricultural and construction workers will be the worst
impacted. The agricultural sector alone accounts for 83%
and 60% of global working hours lost to heat stress in 1995
and 2030, respectively.

Advancing social justice, promoting decent work


43

Air pollution
44

Special topic: Heat stress may increase the number of


migrant workers
 Migration is considered to be a likely response to climate change (IOM 2017).
 Temperature levels have a causal effect on out-migration decisions.
 For example, if global temperature increases by 2°C by the end of the century, asylum applications to
the EU are expected to double (Missirian and Schlenker 2017).
 Out-migration may be linked to the country of origin’s dependence on agriculture (Cai et al. 2016).
 Weather shocks also affect internal population movements, including on migration to urban areas, as a
study of sub-Saharan Africa has shown (Barrios et al. 2006).
 Migrant workers are considered a vulnerable worker group, due to their work in informal sectors, often
with limited OSH protections.
 Climate change and rising temperatures are therefore likely to lead to larger populations of vulnerable
migrant workers.
45
46

Workers most at risk of heat stress


 Outdoor workers in physically demanding jobs e.g. agriculture,
construction and refuse collection.
 Indoor workers inside factories and workshops, where
It is a serious
temperature is not regulated (ILO 2019).
problem for a large
 Workers in heavy clothes or protective equipment e.g. pesticide proportion of the
spreaders and firefighters.
world’s 1 billion
 Vulnerable worker groups are at particular risk of heat stress, for agricultural workers
example, child labourers and pregnant workers. and 66 million textile
 Workers of all ages can suffer from heat stress, even younger workers (ILO 2019).
populations (Ansah et al 2021).
 Older workers are particularly affected, because of their reduced
heat tolerance and aerobic capacity (Lundgren et al 2013).
47

Case study: Heat stress and heavy PPE


 A study by Havenith et al. (2011) looked at improvements to protective clothing to
alleviate heat strain, whilst maintaining protection against chemicals.
 Selectively permeable membranes with low vapour resistance were compared to
textile-based outer layers with similar ensemble vapour resistance and also
layers with increased air permeability.
 Heat strain was shown to be significantly higher with selectively permeable
membranes compared to air permeable ensembles.
 Air permeability of the textile version improved ventilation and allowed better
cooling by sweat evaporation.
 This was reflected in lower values of core and skin temperatures, and heart rate.
 Based on protection requirements, it is concluded that air permeability increases
can reduce heat strain levels allowing optimization of chemical protective
clothing.
48

Chemicals and heat exposure


 Absorption of chemicals
• Absorption via pulmonary and cutaneous routes can significantly increase due to the
elevation in pulmonary ventilation and vasodilation (Gordon et al. 2008; Leon 2008).
• Warm wet skin also promotes the absorption of chemicals (ETUC 2020).
 Distribution of chemicals
• The redistribution of blood flow can have an impact on the distribution and accumulation
of chemicals in the body (Gordon 2005).
• Retention of some chemicals may be increased in soft tissues, due to a reduction in
urinary excretion (Leon 2008).
 Biotransformation
• Can lead to an increase in enzymatic activity and protein binding, two factors that can
theoretically modify the toxicokinetics of chemicals (Lenz 2011).
49

Chemicals and heat exposure

 Excretion
• Renal excretion of chemicals can decrease due
to dehydration and a reduction in renal blood
flow (Gordon 2005; Vanakoski and Seppäla,
1998).
 Toxicity
• Can increase biological processes e.g. rate of
enzymatic reactions, binding to receptors, lipid
peroxidation, oxidative phosphorylation.
• May lead to an increase in the intensity of the
effects of chemicals (Leon 2008).
50

Chemicals and thermoregulatory systems

Chemical agents can affect thermoregulatory mechanisms, which could reduce


workers' capacity to adapt to thermal stress (Johnson Rowsey et al. 2003).
 Vasoconstricting substances, such as lead and inorganic compounds, can hinder heat
dissipation (Vyskocil et al. 2005).
 Organophosphorus compounds and carbamates can cause acetylcholinesterase
inhibition, which can modify responses associated with maintaining body temperature, such
as skin blood flow, heart rate, respiration, and sweat secretion (Leon 2008).
 Exposure to the metal oxides present in welding fumes can lead to a series of symptoms
including fever (metal fume fever) (Fine at al. 1997).
 Pentachlorophenol (PCP) can cause increases in metabolism, body temperature and
sweating (Gordon 2005).
51

Conditions of the outdoor environment (Truchon et al. 2014)

 Solar radiation, wind and humidity can affect the concentrations and distribution of
chemicals present in the work environment.
 A high temperature promotes the dispersion of chemicals in the air.
 In higher temperatures, more volatile substances will tend to be present in vapour form,
thus increasing the levels of exposure via the respiratory tract.
 Humidity and wind velocity are the most important factors related to heat losses by
evaporation.
 Low humidity coupled with wind promotes the evaporation of perspiration from the skin
surface, making this mechanism more effective. Wind can also promote heat losses by
convection.
52

 A study in Quebec, Canada, by


Truchon et al. (2014) looked at the
occupations most at risk from
concomitant exposure to chemicals
and thermal stress.

 Risks were calculated for 136


occupations.

Increasing risk
 Lower mean ratings were linked to
higher risks.

 A risk rating equal to 1 was


associated with occupations for
which simultaneous exposure to
thermal stress and chemicals was
assessed as very high risk.

 Gold casters, roofers, casters,


smelter operators and forge helpers
were found to be most at risk,
however all occupations show here
were considered high risk.
53

Case study: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) in tropical countries


 Epidemics of Chronic Kidney Disease of unknown aetiology (CKDu) are affecting large numbers of
people doing heavy manual labour in hot temperatures.
 CKDu has emerged in hot, rural regions of the Americas, Africa, the Middle East and India, where
abnormally high numbers of agricultural workers have begun dying from irreversible kidney failure.
 It is likely caused by a combination of factors, such as heat exposure and dehydration, chemicals (e.g.
agrochemicals), poverty and malnutrition.
 Over 30 factors have been proposed as causative, including agrochemicals and heavy metals, but
none has been properly tested nor proven as causative (Wimalawansa et al. 2019).
 There are no published field studies that consider multiple risk factors in both Latin American and
Asian regions with high CKDu prevalence (Redmon et al. 2021).
 Conditions such as, having favourable climatic patterns, adequate hydration, and less poverty and
malnutrition seem to prevent the disease (Wimalawansa et al. 2019).
Ozone depletion
55

What is ozone depletion?

 The gradual thinning of Earth’s ozone layer in the upper atmosphere.


 Caused by the release of chemical compounds containing
gaseous chlorine or bromine, from industry and other human activities.
 Thinning is most pronounced in the polar regions, especially over Antarctica.
 Major environmental problem, because it increases the amount of ultraviolet (UV)
radiation that reaches Earth’s surface, which increases prevalence of skin cancer, eye
cataracts, and genetic and immune system damage.
 The Montreal Protocol, ratified in 1987, was the first of several comprehensive
international agreements enacted to halt the production and use of ozone-depleting
chemicals.
56

Ozone depletion
 The complex interaction of greenhouse gases, climate change,
and stratospheric ozone depletion, results in increased
ultraviolet (UV) radiation that can affect all people, particularly
outdoor workers.
 Outdoor construction workers, for example, can accumulate
sufficient solar UV exposure over 30-40 years of work to more
than double their risk of non-melanoma skin cancer (Cherrie
et al. 2021).
 Other high-risk occupations include lifeguards, power utility
workers, gardeners, postal workers and dock workers (John
et al. 2020).
 Other health conditions include sunburn, pterygium, cataracts
and melanoma (Wright and Norval 2021).
57

Case study: Airline pilots and UV exposure

 A few studies have demonstrated that airline pilots are at risk of adverse health effects in their eyes
from exposure to UV radiation (Schulte et al. 2016).
 Hammer et al. (2009) noted some evidence of increased melanoma occurrence in professional pilots.
 Chorley et al. (2011) concluded that pilots flying in daylight hours are exposed to solar radiation that is
2 or 3 times greater at cruising altitudes compared to exposures at sea level.
 Although pilots are protected by the aircraft windshield which blocks most UVB radiation, there is no
standard for the optical transmission properties of the aircraft windshields (Schulte et al. 2016).
 It is known that UV radiation increases by 10–12% every 1,000 meters of altitude and thereby
subsequently affects pilots (Chorley et al. 2014).
 Therefore, UV radiation at 10,000 m of altitude for commercial aircraft may be 2–3 times higher than
at sea level.
Air pollution
59

Climate change and air pollution


 Various air pollutants increase global warming and global
warming leads to formation of various air pollutants 860,000 deaths a
(Schulte et al 2016). year can be
 The most common pollutants considered in air pollution attributed to
estimates include fine (PM2.5) and course (PM10) occupational
particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and exposure to air
sulfur dioxide (SO2). pollutants, although
the real magnitude is
 Globally, over 1.2 billion workers spend most of their
likely to be much
working hours outdoors, at risk for exposure to outdoor air
higher (WHO 2018).
pollution (WHO 2018).
 Indoor workers are also impacted by air pollution.
60

Air pollution
61

Air pollution and health

 The 2021 ILO Global Review linked ambient air pollution to numerous health impacts (ILO 2021).
 Air pollution has been classified by IARC as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1).
 According to IARC there is sufficient evidence that air pollution can cause cancer of the lung (IARC
2013a).
 Particulate matter, a major component of outdoor air pollution, has also been classified by IARC as
carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) (IARC 2013a).
 For lung cancer alone, air pollution causes 223,000 deaths/year worldwide (IARC 2013b).
 Air pollution has also been linked to stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, and both chronic and acute
respiratory diseases, including asthma.
 Outdoor workers in hot environments have increased respiratory rates and thus may be more affected
by air pollution than other members of the general population (Schulte et al. 2016).
Pests and pesticides
63

What are pesticides?


 Chemicals with biologically active ingredients which kill pests, including insects, rodents,
fungi and unwanted plants.
 Used by agricultural workers and those in vector control.
 Toxic by design and all present some level of risk.
 Most are designed to act on the nervous system of animals.
 Approximately 1.8 billion people are engaged in agricultural activities worldwide and most
use pesticides to protect food and commercial products that they produce (Carvalho 2017).
 LMICs account for about 70% of worldwide Highly Hazardous Pesticides (HHP) use, i.e. over
1.2 million tonnes in 2017 (Public Eye 2020).
 Global pesticide use has continued to grow steadily to 4.1 million tonnes per year in 2017, an
increase of nearly 81% from 1990 (FAOSTAT 2019).
64

How do pesticides contribute to


climate change?

 The manufacture, transport and application of


pesticides creates GHG emissions through energy use
in production.
 Three main GHGs are emitted during production:
carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide (Heimpel
et al. 2013).
 Pesticides also cause further emissions through their
effects on soils. Widely used soil fumigants such as
chloropicrin can increase soil nitrous oxide
emissions seven-fold (Spokas and Wang 2003).
65

Why does climate change increase dependence on


pesticides?

 Pesticide use is directly impacted by:


• Pesticide efficacy
• Crop characteristics
• Pest occurrence
 All of these are influenced by climate
change (Delcour et al. 2015).
66

Pesticide efficacy

 Pesticide transport and degradation are the two main routes that affect pesticide
availability and efficacy (Delcour et al. 2015).
 Climate change can reduce concentrations of pesticides due to a combination of
increased volatilization and accelerated degradation (Noyes et al. 2009; Zhang et al.
2006).
 Increased volatilization and accelerated degradation are both strongly affected by a
high moisture content, elevated temperatures and direct exposure to sunlight
(Johnson et al. 1995; Otieno et al. 2013).
 In general, a warmer climate may necessitate an increased pesticide usage (Noyes et
al. 2009; Rosenzweig et al. 2001).
67

Crop characteristics

 Pesticide adhesion and uptake into a plant is driven by plant growth and soil properties, both strongly liable
to climatic influences (Delcour et al. 2015).
 Most food crops are sensitive to the direct effects of high temperature and precipitation extremes or
indirect effects of the climate on soil processes, nutrient dynamics and pest organisms (Rosenzweig et
al. 2001).
 Increased temperatures will affect plant productivity (Rosenzweig et al. 2001), giving rise to a potential
increase in volume and array of pesticides used (Noyes et al. 2009).
 Precipitation is the other major determining factor of crop productivity, influencing variations in crop yields,
yield quality and pests in both a positive and negative way. Intense rainfall can damage younger plants
and be detrimental to crop productivity (Rosenzweig et al. 2001).
 Climatic changes can influence the location and availability of host plants for pest species and provide a
green bridge for pests during winter (Delcour et al. 2015).
68

Pest occurrence
 Pest infestations often coincide with modifications in climatic conditions (Rosenzweig et al. 2001).
 Temperature increases and precipitation changes are the main pest infection determinants.
 Insect pests: Climate change promotes distribution and abundance due to migration and range shifts, increases pest
outbreaks and alters the dissemination of vectors, all favouring insect pests compared to crops (Delcour et al. 2015).
 Plant diseases: Plant diseases are mainly affected by temperature, rainfall, humidity, radiation and dew (Patterson et al.
1999). For example, wet conditions promote the germination of spores, the spread and activity of zoospores and the
proliferation of fungi and bacteria (Roos et al. 2011; Rosenzweig et al. 2001).
 Weeds: A temperature increase appears to cause fundamentally altered weed communities and a geographic niche
expansion of many species (Jackson et al. 2011; Patterson et al. 1999). Also, an increased atmospheric CO2
concentration directly increases weeds' herbicide tolerance and severity (Gutierrez et al. 2008).
 The challenge of pests will rise due to increased prevalence of pests, diseases and weeds.
 Stronger pesticides and more frequent sprayings may be necessary.
69

Case study: Climate warming promotes pesticide resistance through


expanding overwintering range of a global pest
 Ma et al. (2021) looked at how increasing winter temperatures affect the range limits and pesticide resistance of a
global pest, the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella).
 This moth originated from South America and spread to all other continents.
 It now ranges from tropic to temperate zones, causing economic loss as high as US$ 4–5 billion per year,
making it the most destructive pest of cruciferous crops around the world.
 The species is also famous for its strong resistance to over 97 different insecticide active ingredients.
 Importantly, it can only overwinter in warm areas, from which it quickly migrates far north during the growing
season, damaging local crops.
 By analysing experimentally parameterised and field-tested models, the study showed that climate change over
the past 50 years increased the overwintering range of this pest by ~2.4 million km2 worldwide.
 Also, mean pesticide resistance was 158 times higher in overwintering sites compared to sites with only
seasonal occurrence.
70

Pesticides: Health impacts


WHO considers HHPs as a major public health concern (WHO 2019) and the introduction of
regulations to phase out the use of HHPs has saved uncountable lives (WHO/FAO 2019).
 Health effects may be acute or chronic.
 Acute effects are related to pesticide poisonings, which occur commonly in developing economies
where pesticides are mislabelled.
 It is estimated that 385 million cases of unintentional, acute pesticide poisoning occur annually
and 44% of farmers are poisoned by pesticides every year (Boedeker 2020).
 A range of different pesticides have been classified by IARC as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)
and probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A).
 Other health impacts include neurotoxic effects e.g. Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease
and endocrine disruption.
71

Pesticides: IARC classification

Probably carcinogenic to humans


Carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)
(Group 2A)

 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
 Arsenic and arsenical compounds
 Organophosphates (malathion, diazinon,
 Pentachlorophenol (PCP)
glyphosate)
 Lindane
 Aldrin and dieldrin captafol
 Ethylene oxide
 Ethylene dibromide formaldehyde

Advancing social justice, promoting decent work


Infertile soil and fertilizers
73

Fertilizers
 Fertilizers are plant nutrients and trace elements applied generally to the soil
to promote the growth of crops.
 May be of natural or synthetic origin.
• Nitrogen: Nitrogen fertilizers are made from ammonia (NH3) produced by
the Haber-Bosch process. 80% of ammonia use worldwide is for the
manufacture of agricultural fertilizers (ammonium nitrate and ammonium
sulphate). Boom in use: 800% increase between 1961 and 2019.
• Phosphorus: Widely used, but are of little toxicological concern.
• Potassium: Potash is a mixture of potassium minerals used to make
potassium fertilizers. Potash fertilizers are usually potassium
chloride, potassium sulfate, potassium carbonate or potassium nitrate.
74

Fertilizers and climate change

 Fertilizer use can impact climate change, however climate change can also
impact fertilizer use.
 The use of nitrogen-based fertilizers is driving up global emissions of nitrous
oxide, a highly potent greenhouse gas which impacts global warming 300
times more than carbon dioxide (Tian et al. 2020).
 Increased precipitation due to climate change can cause erosion and thus
decrease essential soil nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, which are
essential for plant growth.
 Loss of fertile soil can pressure agricultural workers to increase use of chemical
fertilizers and other agrochemicals, impacting safety and health.
75
76

Fertilizers: Health impacts


 Phosphorus
• Local effects include severe skin burns, burns to the upper airways and gastrointestinal tract and
severe pulmonary inflammation,
• Systemic effects include multi-organ toxicity (hepatotoxicity, renal, gastrointestinal and
cardiovascular).
 Ammonia
• The toxic effects are typically limited to tissues in direct contact with ammonia.
• Exposure to high concentrations of liquid or vapour causes severe burns to the skin, eyes, upper
airways and gastrointestinal tract.
• In the respiratory tract it can cause laryngeal oedema, pneumonitis and pulmonary oedema.
Airway obstruction and respiratory insufficiency may be fatal.
• There may be permanent effects including visual impairment, and chronic pulmonary disease
such as obstruction of small and large airways, bronchiectasis and interstitial lung disease.
77

Case study: Fertilizer use among chili farmers in Thailand

 Chemical fertilizer use has increased in Thailand over the past decades.
 A cross-sectional descriptive study 76 chili farmers was carried out by Nganchamung and
Robson (2017).
 All chili farmers used both chemical and organic fertilizers in chili farms.
 80.3% used chemical fertilizers 1-3 times monthly.
 Improper behaviours regarding chemical fertilizer use were found e.g. handling chemical
fertilizers with bare hands and no personal protective equipment.
 About 26.3% of them reported having some symptoms within 48 hours while working with
chemical fertilizers.
 Most common symptoms were coughing or sneezing (15.8%) and skin irritation or itching
(14.5%).
Vector distribution
and ecology
79

Vector-borne diseases
 Vector-borne diseases are human illnesses caused by parasites, viruses and bacteria that are
transmitted by vectors.
 Vectors are living organisms that can transmit infectious pathogens between humans, or from
animals to humans.
 Examples of vector-borne diseases include malaria, dengue, schistosomiasis, human African
trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis and
onchocerciasis.
 Vector-borne diseases account for more than 17% of all infectious diseases, causing more than
700,000 deaths annually (WHO 2020).
 The burden of these diseases is highest in tropical and subtropical areas, and they
disproportionately affect the poorest populations.
 Changed in weather patterns due to climate change can impact vector-borne disease transmission
both directly and indirectly.
80
Vectors and the diseases they can transmit
Vector Diseases
Mosquitoes:
Aedes aegypti Dengue, yellow fever, chikungunya, Zika virus
Aedes albopictus Chikungunya, dengue, West Nile virus
Culex quinquefasciatus Lymphatic filariasis
Anopheles (more than 60 known
Malaria, lymphatic filariasis (in Africa)
species can transmit diseases)
Haemagogus Yellow fever
Sandflies Leishmaniasis
Triatomine bugs Chagas disease
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, tick-borne encephalitis, typhus, Lyme
Ticks
disease
Fleas Plague, Murine typhus
Flies
Human African trypanosomiasis, onchocerciasis
(various species)
(Source: WHO 2014)
81

Climate change and vector-borne disease


 Changing climatic conditions, such as rainfall patterns, temperature and humidity, affect the number and survival
rate of mosquitoes and some other vectors.
 The evidence that climate change has contributed to the expanded range of certain vectors is considerable
(Schulte et al. 2016).
 Higher ambient temperatures (WHO 2006)
• Distribution of mosquitoes and other vectors may expand with increasing temperatures.
• Ambient temperature determines insects reproduction rate, biting behaviour and survival.
• The incubation period of pathogens inside vectors tends to be shorter at warmer temperatures.
 Precipitation
• Important for diseases transmitted by vectors that have aquatic developmental stages (such as mosquitoes)
(Campbell-Lendrum et al. 2015).
 Humidity
• Can influence diseases transmitted through vectors such as ticks and sandflies (Campbell-Lendrum et al.
2015).
82

Case study: Lyme disease in the United States


 Lyme disease is a bacterial illness that can cause fever, fatigue, joint pain, and skin rash, as well as
more serious joint and nervous system complications.
 Lyme disease is transmitted through the bite of certain species of infected ticks that live on deer,
rodents, birds, and other host animals.
 The incidence of Lyme disease in the United States has nearly doubled since 1991, from 3.74 reported
cases per 100,000 people to 7.21 reported cases per 100,000 people in 2018 (CDC 2019).
 Studies show that climate change has contributed to the expanded range of ticks, increasing the
potential risk of Lyme disease, even in areas where the ticks were previously unable to survive (Beard
et al. 2016).
 Warming temperatures associated with climate change are projected to increase the range of suitable
tick habitats.
 Shorter winters could also extend the period when ticks are active each year, increasing the time that
humans could be exposed to Lyme disease (EPA 2021).
83
84

Indirect impacts of climate change on vector-borne diseases


 These include wider effects on the natural environment and on human
systems e.g. drought may affect water-storage, land-use and irrigation
practices (Campbell-Lendrum et al. 2015).
 Population movement, in turn, can affect vector ecology, and human
exposure to infection
 Previously relatively stable geographical distributions are now changing
owing to a range of factors including: climate change, intensive farming, dams,
irrigation, deforestation, population movements, rapid unplanned urbanization,
and huge increases in international travel and trade (WHO 2016).
 These environmental and social factors may either reinforce climate effects or
counteract them.
85

Examples of how climate change has increased the risk of


vector-borne diseases for workers
 Climate change has contributed to a >320% in the north-eastern states of the USA.
 West Nile and Zika viruses, other known vector-borne hazards to outdoor workers, may increase
because of climate change (Schulte et al. 2016).
 The incidence of coccidioidomycosis, a fungal disease endemic in the Southwest USA, has been
associated with a number of outdoor occupations and has increased substantially from 1998–2011
(CDC 2015).
 Drought-ridden areas may lead to outdoor workers breathing more windborne dusts with various
toxicities and possibly containing harmful organisms (Schulte et al. 2016).
 A longer ragweed pollen season and expanded ranges for poisonous plants have significant
implications for outdoor workers (Smith et al. 2014).
 Waterborne diarrheal disease is sensitive to climate variability impacting workers in occupation
such as fishing (Schulte et al. 2016).
86

Vector-borne diseases and chemical use

 Outdoor workers are primarily at risk of vector-borne diseases as they have heightened
exposure to vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks and fleas that can transmit parasites,
viruses, or bacteria (Schulte et al. 2016).
 Sectors include construction, landscaping, forestry, brush clearing, land surveying,
farming, oil field and utility work, natural resources management, and wildland
firefighters.
 Vector control, through the use of insecticides, plays a key role in the prevention and
control of infectious diseases such as malaria, dengue and filariasis (WHO 2006).
 Workers may therefore be increasingly exposed to these hazardous chemicals.
 Additionally, workers may find themselves frequently working in the presence of
disinfectants, which have been linked to COPD, infertility and asthma (ILO 2021).
87

Case study: Climate change and malaria

 Climate change can increase opportunities for malaria transmission in traditionally


malarious areas, in areas where the disease is controlled and in new areas (Fernando
n.d.).
 An increase in temperature, rainfall, and humidity may cause a proliferation of the
malaria-carrying mosquitoes at higher altitudes, resulting in an increase in transmission
in non-malarious areas (Jetten et al. 1996).
 At lower altitudes where malaria is already a problem, warmer temperatures will alter the
growth cycle of the parasite in the mosquito enabling it to develop faster, thereby
increasing transmission (Sutherst 1998).
 Climate change greatly influences the El Niño cycle, that is known to be associated with
increased risks of some diseases transmitted by mosquitoes, such as malaria.
Major
industrial
accidents
89

Chemicals and major industrial accidents (MIA)

 Over the past decades, successive major accidents caused by chemicals, have caused
deaths, injuries, significant environmental pollution and massive economic losses.
 There are many examples of major accidents caused by disastrous chemical accidents:
• Leverkusen, German (2021)
• Beirut, Lebanon (2020)
• Rouen France(2019)
• Bentos Rodrigues, Brazil (2015)
• Tianjin, China (2015)
• West,Texas,USA (2013)
• Gumi, Korea(2013)
 Rising temperatures and other effects of climate change have the potential to increase
the occurrence and severity of MIA.
90

Rising temperatures and chemical volatility


 Rising temperatures due to climate change have the potential to increase volatility of
temperature-sensitive chemicals, which could lead to another serious accident
(Truchon et al. 2014).
 Non-insulated, single skin chemical storage containers do not provide any form of
manual temperature control. Temperatures inside these containers can reach as high as
50°C, when the ambient temperature is around 30°C.
 ‘Thermal runaway’, exponentially increased heat from a thermal reaction, can cause
over-pressurisation due to violent boiling or rapid gas generation. This over-pressure
may result in a plant failing catastrophically causing blast or missile damage (HSE
2014).
 A release of flammable materials from the process could result in a fire or an explosion.
91

Rising temperatures and munitions

 More intense heat waves can also destabilize the


components of munitions, particularly where
explosives are not properly stored.
 Most munitions are designed to withstand severe
heat, but only in the relatively short term. If exposed
to extreme temperatures and humidity for long
enough, a munition can become unstable.
 For every 5°C increase above its ideal storage
temperature, the chemical stabilizer used to
prevent self-ignition depletes by a factor of 1.7
(Scientific American 2019).
92

Natech
 Natural Hazards Triggering Technological Accidents or ‘Natech’ pose a serious risk for
major industrial accidents and chemical exposures in the world of work.
 A Natech event is a technological accident triggered by a natural hazard. These can
include floods, earthquakes, lightning, cyclones and extreme temperatures.
 A technological accident can include damage to, and release of chemicals from, fixed
chemical installations, oil and gas pipelines, storage sites, transportation links, waste sites
and mines.
 Many natural disasters have led to major damages to hazardous installations, triggering the
release of hazardous substances, fires and explosions.
 It is likely that the risk and impact of Natech events is increasing, due to a combination of
increasing industrialization and urbanization coupled with a predicted increase in
hydro-meteorological hazards caused by climate change (WHO 2018).
93

Examples of vulnerable sites for chemical release caused


by Natech (WHO 2018)
94

OECD report to raise awareness


of natech risk, 2022

 What is Natech?
 The causes and consequences of Natech
accidents.
 What makes the management of Natech risk so
special?
 How are Natech risks managed?
 Natech risk management:
examples of international support and
transboundary cooperation.
95

Case study: A natech caused by Hurricane Harvey in Texas, USA


(CSB 2018)
 On 24 August 2017, Hurricane Harvey, a Category 4 hurricane, hit southeast Texas.
 Over the next days, the storm produced unprecedented amounts of rainfall over southeast Texas and
southwest Louisiana, causing significant flooding.
 A facility at Crosby, which handled organic peroxides, was located within the 100-year and 500-year flood
plains.
 Rainfall exceeded the equipment design elevations and caused the plant to lose power, back-up power, and
critical organic peroxide refrigeration systems.
 On 31 August 2017, organic peroxide products stored inside the refrigerated trailer decomposed, causing
the peroxides and the trailer to burn.
 Twenty-one people sought medical attention from exposure to fumes generated by the decomposing
products when the vapor travelled across a public highway adjacent to the plant.
 Over the course of three fires, in excess of 350,000 pounds of organic peroxide combusted.
96

Other impacts of severe weather events


 Climate projections point towards an increase in the frequency and intensity of
extreme weather events, such as floods, drought, wildfires and hurricanes.
 These events put workers at risk of physical injury, mental health conditions
and death.
 First responders, such as firefighters and healthcare workers, may be exposed to
hazardous chemicals in the immediate aftermath of extreme weather events, for
example if chemical storage facilities are damaged.
 Construction workers may also be exposed to chemicals during clean-up
operations.
 Potential chemical exposures include numerous hazardous substances, such as
lead, solvents, asbestos and industrial waste chemicals.
97

Case study: Construction workers and asbestos

 Intense Tropical Cyclone Idai in 2019 was one of the worst tropical cyclones on record to
affect Africa and the Southern Hemisphere.
 The long-lived storm caused catastrophic damage, and a humanitarian crisis in
Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and Malawi, leaving more than 1,300 people dead and many
more missing.
 The Cyclone left a high exposure of hazardous waste, primarily asbestos from lusalite
sheets (ILO 2019).
 Construction workers were particularly exposed when clearing up older damaged buildings.
 Asbestos can cause asbestosis, a chronic lung disease, and is classified by the
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)
(IARC 2012).
98

Climate change and wildfires

 A wildfire is an unplanned fire that burns in a natural area such as a forest, grassland, or
prairie.
 In recent years, the widespread devastation of wildfires has dominated headlines around
the world, as millions of acres were destroyed and thousands of people left homeless.
 Fires in the western US and Australia have been among the most deadly.
 The risk of wildfires increases in extreme weather conditions (e.g. extremely dry conditions
and high winds), such as those caused by climate change.
 Wildfires and volcanic activities affected 6.2 million people between 1998-2017 with 2400
attributable deaths worldwide from suffocation, injuries, and burns
 The size and frequency of wildfires are growing due to climate change (WHO n.d).
99

Health risks for firefighters


 The increase in wildfires is a specific risk for firefighters as
they may be exposed to high levels of air pollution
(Adetona et al. 2011).
 They will be more exposed to smoke and have a reduced
firefighter recovery time between fire seasons (Schulte et al.
2016).
 The base camps in which these firefighters live may
contribute to their particulate matter exposures via vehicle
emissions, dust and generator use (McNamara et al.
2012).
 They may also be exposed to naturally occurring asbestos,
during trail and forest road maintenance, timber stand
grading, cutting fire lines, and while fighting fires (Schulte et
al. 2016).
100

Firefighters and PFAS

 Firefighters will also be increasingly exposed to


hazardous chemicals contained in firefighting foams,
for example, perflourinated chemicals (PFAS).
 PFAS have been linked to a variety of cancers, with
PFOA classified as possibly carcinogenic to humans
(Group 2B) by the IARC.
 They are also known to interfere with immune function,
endocrine function and breast development.
101

Case study: PFAS and female firefighters


 Several studies have shown that firefighters have higher blood levels of PFAS compared to the
general population.
 Exposure is from PFAS-containing firefighting foam, as well as PFAS-treated protective gear.
 Firefighting is generally a male-dominated occupation and most studies have been focused on
male worker cohorts.
 However, one study found women firefighters have higher incidence and mortality rates of breast
cancer compared to the general US population (Daniels et al. 2014).
 Another study of Florida firefighters found that women firefighters had an increase in overall
cancer risk compared to the general Florida population (Ma et al. 2006).
 A recent study of an all-female cohort of firefighters showed that all the 86 female firefighters had
at least four PFAS detected in their serum samples (PFHxS, PFOA, PFOS, and PFNA). Three
additional PFAS were detected in 70% of the firefighters.
Freshwater cycle
103

Climate change and the freshwater cycle


 The freshwater cycle is strongly affected by climate
change.
 The presence and availability of freshwater is
indispensable for sectors like agricultural and
industrial production processes (Bunsen et al.
2021).
 Over 2 billion people live in water-stressed
countries, of which 733 million live in high and
critically water-stressed countries. (UN Water
2021).
 According to independent assessments, the world
will face a global water deficit of 40% by 2030
(UN Water 2021).
104

The freshwater cycle and chemicals

 Lack of access to clean water can the severe consequence for the health of
workers.
 It can also exacerbate consequences of high temperatures, such as heat stress.
 For those using hazardous chemicals, access to water may be essential for
maintaining hygiene and cleaning equipment.
 A lack of access to cleaning facilities may increase risk of chemical exposures
for workers and their families.
 Additionally, limited access to clean water sources, may increase worker reliance
on chemicals, such as disinfectants.
Ocean acidification
106

Ocean acidification and climate change


 Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH value of the earth's oceans primarily
caused by uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
 It is a direct consequence of increased human-induced CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere.
 Ocean acidification can impact the health of workers in a number of ways.
 Food quantity and quality could be reduced, making workers less capable of carrying out
physically arduous work tasks.
 Decreasing fish and seafood stocks due to ocean acidification may cause a loss of livelihood
for some workers, which could impact mental health (Falkenberg et al. 2020).
 Ocean acidification can cause harmful algal blooms, which could in turn trigger respiratory
issues and skin irritations in some workers (Wells et al. 2020).
Climate
change and
vulnerable
workers
108

Widening inequalities in the world of work


 Workers all around the world will be impacted by climate change.
 However, workers in some regions, for example South Asia and Central Africa, will be impacted most (ILO
2019).
 Workers in industries like construction and agriculture will most affected, however also less likely to have
access to health insurance and other social protection benefits that would help them to cope with workplace
accidents and injuries resulting from heat stress.
 Climate change issues such as heat stress could entrench existing inequalities in the world of work, notably
by worsening the working conditions of the many women working in agriculture, and of male workers on
construction sites (ILO 2019).
 It could be a push factor for migration, for example by prompting people to move to cities in search of better
job prospects or when communities are forced to move due to rising sea levels.
 Different countries have different levels of public, financial, institutional and technological capabilities to
deal with climate change.
109

Women and pregnant workers


 Women differ from men in their physiologic compensation to elevated
temperatures, which may increase their risk of heat stress (Sorensen et al.
2018).
 Theyare at higher risk of cardiovascular complications (Chen et al. 2005) and
impaired cognitive function (Kim et al. 2019) due to air pollution.
 Pregnantworkers are more susceptible to heat exhaustion, heat stroke, or
dehydration, with heat stress linked to birth defects and other reproductive
problems (Lucas 1977).
 Reproductive cycles and life stage impact vulnerability of female workers to
chemical exposures e.g. pregnancy, lactation and menopause.
110

Migrant workers
 Migrants are more exposed to climate change-related events and are more sensitive
to such changes because of their poverty and mobility.
 Heat stress is concern, as migrant workers frequently work outside in physically
demanding jobs.
 They may have limited access to healthcare and lack social protections.
 May not speak the local language, therefore are unable to understand chemical
labels, safe handling procedures and training materials.
 Often work in informal workplaces where there is a lack of regulation and OSH.
 Workers have limited information and education on health hazards.
 Limited access to effective protective equipment.
111

Older adult workers

 Particularly vulnerable to heat stress, poor air quality, exposure to infectious


diseases, weather extremes and other climate-related hazards.
 Less able to tolerate stress and are more at risk of disease due to a lower
physiological reserve capacity, slower metabolism and weaker immune
system.
 Have a higher disease burden and existing chronic health conditions may
be exacerbated by climate-related risks at work (Carnes et al. 2014).
 Exposures to climate change induced vector-borne and waterborne
pathogenic hazards may pose a greater health risk among sensitive older
adults with compromised immune systems (Balbus and Malina 2009).
112

Disabled workers

 Disabled people have been shown to have generally poorer


health outcomes (WHO 2011).
 They are especially susceptible to heat-related illness and
death, for reasons such as physical vulnerabilities,
barriers to accessing healthcare services, poverty, lower
education and communication difficulties (EPA 2016).
 For example, a disabled workers with a respiratory
impairment may be more at risk of adverse health impacts
due to air pollution.
 They may be more susceptible to hazardous chemicals
and face unique risks from chemical exposures depending
on their particular disabilities.
113

Child labourers and youth workers

 Child labourers may be at higher risk of heat stress and vector-


bourne diseases (Arnold et al. 2020).
 Exposure to increasing concentrations of air pollutants form an
additional risk for children working outside.
 Youth workers are also more vulnerable to the impacts of climate
change, as they may be still developing, both physically and mentally.
 The adverse impact of chemical exposure on children’s health is unique
due to their developing physiology, anatomy, metabolism and
health behaviours.
 Exposures to even low doses of hazardous chemicals can cause
devastating and lifelong functional impairments.
A final word…
115

A rapidly changing world of work

▸Emerging trends in the world of work will impact


OSH priorities and produce new environmental
challenges.
▸Adaptations to issues such as climate change
will themselves have environmental
consequences which must be considered.
▸Rapid shifts to sustainable technologies will
create new industries with no infrastructure or
OSH protections, impacting the health of the
most vulnerable workers.
116

End of session activity

Quiz
117

Quiz

1. Name the top 5 polluting industries from the Pure Earth and Green Cross Report.
2. According to the ILO 2018, the relationship between climate change and the world of
work is influenced by 3 crucial aspects. What are they?
3. What are the top 3 causes of death from the environment?
4. Discuss which sectors are at risk of climate-related changes and suggest why.
5. Which unidentified disease is affecting large numbers of workers doing heavy manual
labour in hot temperatures?
6. What are the most common pollutants considered in air pollution estimates?

Advancing social justice, promoting decent work


118

Quiz

7. Why does climate change increase dependence on pesticides?


8. Give some examples of vectors and vector-borne diseases.
9. What are ‘Natech’?
10. Can you name some vulnerable sites for chemical releases caused by Natech?
11. Identify worker groups which will be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and
discuss why they may be more at risk.
12. Give 3 examples of how climate change could cause workers to be more exposed to
chemicals.

Advancing social justice, promoting decent work


119

How might the health of these workers be impacted by


climate change?

Agricultural
Construction
Firefighters workers
workers

Advancing social justice, promoting decent work


120

Can you fill in the blanks with the numbers below?


1. One worker dies every ………… seconds due to occupational chemical exposure.
2. Global chemical sales were valued at € ………… trillion in 2017.
3. Global average temperature are now ………… °C higher than at the beginning of last century
4. Between 2030 and 2050, climate change is expected to cause approximately ………… additional
deaths per year, from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea and heat stress.
5. The chemical industry's production capacity nearly doubled to around ………… billion tons between
2000 and 2017.
6. Today, ………… billion jobs or ………… per cent of the global labour force are at risk because of
environmental degradation.
7. Heat stress is projected to reduce global GDP by USD ………… billion in …………
8. It is estimated that ………… million cases of unintentional, acute pesticide poisoning occur annually
1.2 2,400 30 2.3 250,000
385 1.1 40 2030 3.47
Advancing social justice, promoting decent work
Key ILO resources

 Working on a warmer planet: The effect of heat stress on productivity and decent work (2019).
 Exposure to hazardous chemicals at work and resulting health impacts: A global review (2021).
 World Employment and Social Outlook: Greening with Jobs (2018).
 The employment impact of climate change adaptation: Input document for the G20 Climate Sustainability Working
Group (2018).
 The Sound Management of Chemicals and Waste in the World of Work (2019).
 All You Need to Know: Convention No. 170.
 Major hazard control: A practical manual (1993).
 Prevention of major industrial accidents: code of practice (1991).
 Diagnostic and exposure criteria for occupational diseases - Guidance notes for diagnosis and prevention of the
diseases in the ILO List of Occupational Diseases (revised 2010) (2022).

You might also like

pFad - Phonifier reborn

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.

Note: This service is not intended for secure transactions such as banking, social media, email, or purchasing. Use at your own risk. We assume no liability whatsoever for broken pages.


Alternative Proxies:

Alternative Proxy

pFad Proxy

pFad v3 Proxy

pFad v4 Proxy