Chemical Hazards - ILO1
Chemical Hazards - ILO1
Chemical Hazards - ILO1
Session objectives
Introduction to chemicals
Chemicals are integral to almost all areas of society and
are used in numerous industries globally.
They provide multiple benefits, including preventing
diseases and increasing agricultural productivity.
The chemical industry is the second largest
manufacturing industry in the world, with more and
more chemicals produced every year.
However, many have hazardous properties and can
adversely impact human health.
They can also cause devastating and irreversible
damage to the environment.
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Modes of entry
Occupational Environmental
Some workers at may face a double burden chemical exposures chemical exposures
of exposure, from environmental e.g. toxic vapour from e.g. contaminated
industrial processes food sources
exposures, as well as occupational
exposures.
This may occur when workers live near their
place of work. In this case food sources,
such as fish and seafood, may be
contaminated by waste chemicals.
For example, waste mercury from factories Double burden of
can bioaccumulate in fish as methylmercury. chemical exposure
The top ten polluting industries - Pure Earth and Green Cross Report 2016
How workers are exposed to hazardous Examples of potential chemical
Rank Industries
chemicals pollutants
Chemicals are released in manual recycling
Used lead acid
1 processes, such as breaking batteries and Lead
batteries
smelting metallic components.
Mining and ore Chemicals used in mining or processing Lead, arsenic, cadmium,
2
processing activities and those produced as by-products. mercury, hexavalent chromium
Chemicals are emitted during smelting
3 Lead smelting Lead, cadmium, mercury
processes.
Chemicals used in the tanning process are
4 Tanneries released in wastewater, leading to Hexavalent chromium
contaminated food and water.
Artisanal and Chemicals are released during the heating of
5 small-scale gold amalgam and other processes. Food sources Mercury
mining may also be contaminated.
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The top ten polluting industries - Pure Earth and Green Cross Report 2016
Chromium is widely used in under-regulated tannery sites to make leather goods more durable.
Hazaribagh is densely populated and heavily contaminated, housing up to 95% of all tanneries in
Bangladesh.
About 85,000 tons of rawhides are processed for leather production in Bangladesh annually.
Most tanneries in Hazaribagh do not have proper systems for treating high-volume chromium
waste. More than 60% of the chromium used can be found in the resulting waste.
Workers may be exposed when handling hazardous chemicals without PPE or other protections,
from waste-water or from contaminated food and water.
Over 8,000 workers in Hazaribagh tanneries suffer from gastrointestinal, dermatological and other
diseases.
(Source: Pure Earth and Green Cross Report 2016)
Chemicals and climate change
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Climate change
MajorHealth Risks
Associated with Climate
Change (Haines and Ebi
2019).
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Today, 1.2 billion jobs or 40% of the global labour force are
at risk because of environmental degradation (ILO 2018a). Between 2000 and
2015, 23 million
As global warming intensifies, it will damage infrastructure,
working-life years were
disrupt business activity and destroy jobs. lost annually as a
The harm resulting from unmitigated climate change is likely result of various
to cause significant economic and employment losses. environment-related
hazards caused or
It is a direct threat to the growth of real gross domestic exacerbated by human
product (GDP), as well as to labour productivity and activity (ILO 2018b).
working conditions (ILO 2019).
Environmental health
Sectors at risk
The rise in global temperatures will make ‘heat stress’ more common.
Heat stress refers to heat received in excess of that which the body can tolerate
without suffering physiological impairment.
Heat stress during work restricts a worker’s physical functions and capabilities,
work capacity and productivity.
Excessive heat can increase OSH risks and workers’ vulnerability, impacting
physical, as well as mental health.
It can lead to heat stroke, heat exhaustion, rhabdomyolysis, heat syncope, heat
cramps, heat rash and even death (NIOSH n.d.).
Advancing social justice, promoting decent work
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Air pollution
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Excretion
• Renal excretion of chemicals can decrease due
to dehydration and a reduction in renal blood
flow (Gordon 2005; Vanakoski and Seppäla,
1998).
Toxicity
• Can increase biological processes e.g. rate of
enzymatic reactions, binding to receptors, lipid
peroxidation, oxidative phosphorylation.
• May lead to an increase in the intensity of the
effects of chemicals (Leon 2008).
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Solar radiation, wind and humidity can affect the concentrations and distribution of
chemicals present in the work environment.
A high temperature promotes the dispersion of chemicals in the air.
In higher temperatures, more volatile substances will tend to be present in vapour form,
thus increasing the levels of exposure via the respiratory tract.
Humidity and wind velocity are the most important factors related to heat losses by
evaporation.
Low humidity coupled with wind promotes the evaporation of perspiration from the skin
surface, making this mechanism more effective. Wind can also promote heat losses by
convection.
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Increasing risk
Lower mean ratings were linked to
higher risks.
Ozone depletion
The complex interaction of greenhouse gases, climate change,
and stratospheric ozone depletion, results in increased
ultraviolet (UV) radiation that can affect all people, particularly
outdoor workers.
Outdoor construction workers, for example, can accumulate
sufficient solar UV exposure over 30-40 years of work to more
than double their risk of non-melanoma skin cancer (Cherrie
et al. 2021).
Other high-risk occupations include lifeguards, power utility
workers, gardeners, postal workers and dock workers (John
et al. 2020).
Other health conditions include sunburn, pterygium, cataracts
and melanoma (Wright and Norval 2021).
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A few studies have demonstrated that airline pilots are at risk of adverse health effects in their eyes
from exposure to UV radiation (Schulte et al. 2016).
Hammer et al. (2009) noted some evidence of increased melanoma occurrence in professional pilots.
Chorley et al. (2011) concluded that pilots flying in daylight hours are exposed to solar radiation that is
2 or 3 times greater at cruising altitudes compared to exposures at sea level.
Although pilots are protected by the aircraft windshield which blocks most UVB radiation, there is no
standard for the optical transmission properties of the aircraft windshields (Schulte et al. 2016).
It is known that UV radiation increases by 10–12% every 1,000 meters of altitude and thereby
subsequently affects pilots (Chorley et al. 2014).
Therefore, UV radiation at 10,000 m of altitude for commercial aircraft may be 2–3 times higher than
at sea level.
Air pollution
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Air pollution
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The 2021 ILO Global Review linked ambient air pollution to numerous health impacts (ILO 2021).
Air pollution has been classified by IARC as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1).
According to IARC there is sufficient evidence that air pollution can cause cancer of the lung (IARC
2013a).
Particulate matter, a major component of outdoor air pollution, has also been classified by IARC as
carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) (IARC 2013a).
For lung cancer alone, air pollution causes 223,000 deaths/year worldwide (IARC 2013b).
Air pollution has also been linked to stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, and both chronic and acute
respiratory diseases, including asthma.
Outdoor workers in hot environments have increased respiratory rates and thus may be more affected
by air pollution than other members of the general population (Schulte et al. 2016).
Pests and pesticides
63
Pesticide efficacy
Pesticide transport and degradation are the two main routes that affect pesticide
availability and efficacy (Delcour et al. 2015).
Climate change can reduce concentrations of pesticides due to a combination of
increased volatilization and accelerated degradation (Noyes et al. 2009; Zhang et al.
2006).
Increased volatilization and accelerated degradation are both strongly affected by a
high moisture content, elevated temperatures and direct exposure to sunlight
(Johnson et al. 1995; Otieno et al. 2013).
In general, a warmer climate may necessitate an increased pesticide usage (Noyes et
al. 2009; Rosenzweig et al. 2001).
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Crop characteristics
Pesticide adhesion and uptake into a plant is driven by plant growth and soil properties, both strongly liable
to climatic influences (Delcour et al. 2015).
Most food crops are sensitive to the direct effects of high temperature and precipitation extremes or
indirect effects of the climate on soil processes, nutrient dynamics and pest organisms (Rosenzweig et
al. 2001).
Increased temperatures will affect plant productivity (Rosenzweig et al. 2001), giving rise to a potential
increase in volume and array of pesticides used (Noyes et al. 2009).
Precipitation is the other major determining factor of crop productivity, influencing variations in crop yields,
yield quality and pests in both a positive and negative way. Intense rainfall can damage younger plants
and be detrimental to crop productivity (Rosenzweig et al. 2001).
Climatic changes can influence the location and availability of host plants for pest species and provide a
green bridge for pests during winter (Delcour et al. 2015).
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Pest occurrence
Pest infestations often coincide with modifications in climatic conditions (Rosenzweig et al. 2001).
Temperature increases and precipitation changes are the main pest infection determinants.
Insect pests: Climate change promotes distribution and abundance due to migration and range shifts, increases pest
outbreaks and alters the dissemination of vectors, all favouring insect pests compared to crops (Delcour et al. 2015).
Plant diseases: Plant diseases are mainly affected by temperature, rainfall, humidity, radiation and dew (Patterson et al.
1999). For example, wet conditions promote the germination of spores, the spread and activity of zoospores and the
proliferation of fungi and bacteria (Roos et al. 2011; Rosenzweig et al. 2001).
Weeds: A temperature increase appears to cause fundamentally altered weed communities and a geographic niche
expansion of many species (Jackson et al. 2011; Patterson et al. 1999). Also, an increased atmospheric CO2
concentration directly increases weeds' herbicide tolerance and severity (Gutierrez et al. 2008).
The challenge of pests will rise due to increased prevalence of pests, diseases and weeds.
Stronger pesticides and more frequent sprayings may be necessary.
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Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
Arsenic and arsenical compounds
Organophosphates (malathion, diazinon,
Pentachlorophenol (PCP)
glyphosate)
Lindane
Aldrin and dieldrin captafol
Ethylene oxide
Ethylene dibromide formaldehyde
Fertilizers
Fertilizers are plant nutrients and trace elements applied generally to the soil
to promote the growth of crops.
May be of natural or synthetic origin.
• Nitrogen: Nitrogen fertilizers are made from ammonia (NH3) produced by
the Haber-Bosch process. 80% of ammonia use worldwide is for the
manufacture of agricultural fertilizers (ammonium nitrate and ammonium
sulphate). Boom in use: 800% increase between 1961 and 2019.
• Phosphorus: Widely used, but are of little toxicological concern.
• Potassium: Potash is a mixture of potassium minerals used to make
potassium fertilizers. Potash fertilizers are usually potassium
chloride, potassium sulfate, potassium carbonate or potassium nitrate.
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Fertilizer use can impact climate change, however climate change can also
impact fertilizer use.
The use of nitrogen-based fertilizers is driving up global emissions of nitrous
oxide, a highly potent greenhouse gas which impacts global warming 300
times more than carbon dioxide (Tian et al. 2020).
Increased precipitation due to climate change can cause erosion and thus
decrease essential soil nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, which are
essential for plant growth.
Loss of fertile soil can pressure agricultural workers to increase use of chemical
fertilizers and other agrochemicals, impacting safety and health.
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Chemical fertilizer use has increased in Thailand over the past decades.
A cross-sectional descriptive study 76 chili farmers was carried out by Nganchamung and
Robson (2017).
All chili farmers used both chemical and organic fertilizers in chili farms.
80.3% used chemical fertilizers 1-3 times monthly.
Improper behaviours regarding chemical fertilizer use were found e.g. handling chemical
fertilizers with bare hands and no personal protective equipment.
About 26.3% of them reported having some symptoms within 48 hours while working with
chemical fertilizers.
Most common symptoms were coughing or sneezing (15.8%) and skin irritation or itching
(14.5%).
Vector distribution
and ecology
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Vector-borne diseases
Vector-borne diseases are human illnesses caused by parasites, viruses and bacteria that are
transmitted by vectors.
Vectors are living organisms that can transmit infectious pathogens between humans, or from
animals to humans.
Examples of vector-borne diseases include malaria, dengue, schistosomiasis, human African
trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis and
onchocerciasis.
Vector-borne diseases account for more than 17% of all infectious diseases, causing more than
700,000 deaths annually (WHO 2020).
The burden of these diseases is highest in tropical and subtropical areas, and they
disproportionately affect the poorest populations.
Changed in weather patterns due to climate change can impact vector-borne disease transmission
both directly and indirectly.
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Vectors and the diseases they can transmit
Vector Diseases
Mosquitoes:
Aedes aegypti Dengue, yellow fever, chikungunya, Zika virus
Aedes albopictus Chikungunya, dengue, West Nile virus
Culex quinquefasciatus Lymphatic filariasis
Anopheles (more than 60 known
Malaria, lymphatic filariasis (in Africa)
species can transmit diseases)
Haemagogus Yellow fever
Sandflies Leishmaniasis
Triatomine bugs Chagas disease
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, tick-borne encephalitis, typhus, Lyme
Ticks
disease
Fleas Plague, Murine typhus
Flies
Human African trypanosomiasis, onchocerciasis
(various species)
(Source: WHO 2014)
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Outdoor workers are primarily at risk of vector-borne diseases as they have heightened
exposure to vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks and fleas that can transmit parasites,
viruses, or bacteria (Schulte et al. 2016).
Sectors include construction, landscaping, forestry, brush clearing, land surveying,
farming, oil field and utility work, natural resources management, and wildland
firefighters.
Vector control, through the use of insecticides, plays a key role in the prevention and
control of infectious diseases such as malaria, dengue and filariasis (WHO 2006).
Workers may therefore be increasingly exposed to these hazardous chemicals.
Additionally, workers may find themselves frequently working in the presence of
disinfectants, which have been linked to COPD, infertility and asthma (ILO 2021).
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Over the past decades, successive major accidents caused by chemicals, have caused
deaths, injuries, significant environmental pollution and massive economic losses.
There are many examples of major accidents caused by disastrous chemical accidents:
• Leverkusen, German (2021)
• Beirut, Lebanon (2020)
• Rouen France(2019)
• Bentos Rodrigues, Brazil (2015)
• Tianjin, China (2015)
• West,Texas,USA (2013)
• Gumi, Korea(2013)
Rising temperatures and other effects of climate change have the potential to increase
the occurrence and severity of MIA.
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Natech
Natural Hazards Triggering Technological Accidents or ‘Natech’ pose a serious risk for
major industrial accidents and chemical exposures in the world of work.
A Natech event is a technological accident triggered by a natural hazard. These can
include floods, earthquakes, lightning, cyclones and extreme temperatures.
A technological accident can include damage to, and release of chemicals from, fixed
chemical installations, oil and gas pipelines, storage sites, transportation links, waste sites
and mines.
Many natural disasters have led to major damages to hazardous installations, triggering the
release of hazardous substances, fires and explosions.
It is likely that the risk and impact of Natech events is increasing, due to a combination of
increasing industrialization and urbanization coupled with a predicted increase in
hydro-meteorological hazards caused by climate change (WHO 2018).
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What is Natech?
The causes and consequences of Natech
accidents.
What makes the management of Natech risk so
special?
How are Natech risks managed?
Natech risk management:
examples of international support and
transboundary cooperation.
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Intense Tropical Cyclone Idai in 2019 was one of the worst tropical cyclones on record to
affect Africa and the Southern Hemisphere.
The long-lived storm caused catastrophic damage, and a humanitarian crisis in
Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and Malawi, leaving more than 1,300 people dead and many
more missing.
The Cyclone left a high exposure of hazardous waste, primarily asbestos from lusalite
sheets (ILO 2019).
Construction workers were particularly exposed when clearing up older damaged buildings.
Asbestos can cause asbestosis, a chronic lung disease, and is classified by the
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)
(IARC 2012).
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A wildfire is an unplanned fire that burns in a natural area such as a forest, grassland, or
prairie.
In recent years, the widespread devastation of wildfires has dominated headlines around
the world, as millions of acres were destroyed and thousands of people left homeless.
Fires in the western US and Australia have been among the most deadly.
The risk of wildfires increases in extreme weather conditions (e.g. extremely dry conditions
and high winds), such as those caused by climate change.
Wildfires and volcanic activities affected 6.2 million people between 1998-2017 with 2400
attributable deaths worldwide from suffocation, injuries, and burns
The size and frequency of wildfires are growing due to climate change (WHO n.d).
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Lack of access to clean water can the severe consequence for the health of
workers.
It can also exacerbate consequences of high temperatures, such as heat stress.
For those using hazardous chemicals, access to water may be essential for
maintaining hygiene and cleaning equipment.
A lack of access to cleaning facilities may increase risk of chemical exposures
for workers and their families.
Additionally, limited access to clean water sources, may increase worker reliance
on chemicals, such as disinfectants.
Ocean acidification
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Migrant workers
Migrants are more exposed to climate change-related events and are more sensitive
to such changes because of their poverty and mobility.
Heat stress is concern, as migrant workers frequently work outside in physically
demanding jobs.
They may have limited access to healthcare and lack social protections.
May not speak the local language, therefore are unable to understand chemical
labels, safe handling procedures and training materials.
Often work in informal workplaces where there is a lack of regulation and OSH.
Workers have limited information and education on health hazards.
Limited access to effective protective equipment.
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Disabled workers
Quiz
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Quiz
1. Name the top 5 polluting industries from the Pure Earth and Green Cross Report.
2. According to the ILO 2018, the relationship between climate change and the world of
work is influenced by 3 crucial aspects. What are they?
3. What are the top 3 causes of death from the environment?
4. Discuss which sectors are at risk of climate-related changes and suggest why.
5. Which unidentified disease is affecting large numbers of workers doing heavy manual
labour in hot temperatures?
6. What are the most common pollutants considered in air pollution estimates?
Quiz
Agricultural
Construction
Firefighters workers
workers
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Exposure to hazardous chemicals at work and resulting health impacts: A global review (2021).
World Employment and Social Outlook: Greening with Jobs (2018).
The employment impact of climate change adaptation: Input document for the G20 Climate Sustainability Working
Group (2018).
The Sound Management of Chemicals and Waste in the World of Work (2019).
All You Need to Know: Convention No. 170.
Major hazard control: A practical manual (1993).
Prevention of major industrial accidents: code of practice (1991).
Diagnostic and exposure criteria for occupational diseases - Guidance notes for diagnosis and prevention of the
diseases in the ILO List of Occupational Diseases (revised 2010) (2022).
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