Assignment Topic:

Structure and Function of DNA and RNA

Submitted By:

Aftab Ahmad (BAGF09E013) Hafiz Ali Makken (BAGF09E ) 5th Semester

Major Subject:

Horticulture
Submitted To:

Sir Fiyyaz-ul-Hassan

University College of Agriculture University of Sargodha

Structure and function of DNA and RNA:

DNA
Introduction:
A german chemist, Friedrick Miescher, discoverec DNA in 1869. DNA (rioxyribonucelic acid) is a polymer of different nucleotides. Each nucleotide contain four different parts 1. Nitrogenous base. 2. A five carbon sugar called deoxyribose. 3. A phosphate group ( phosphoric acid). These nucleotides differ because they have different bases, which could be any of these 1. 2. 3. 4. A_ adenine _ a double ring base purine. T_ thymine _ a single ring base pyrimidine. C _ cytosine _ a single ring base pyrimidine. G _ guanine _ a double ring base purine.

Adenine and guanine are purines . thymine and cytosine are pyrimidine. These bases are held together by weak bond ( hydrogen bond). There are two hydrogen bond between A= T Pairs, and three hydrogen bond between G=C Pairs.

Functions of DNA:
DNA is a heredity material. It control the properties and potentional activities of a cell. Amount of DNA is fixed for a particular species, as it depend upon the number of chromosomes, the amount of DNA in germs cells is one half to that of somatic cells.

Type of Cell
Red Blood Cells Liver Cells Kidney Cells Sperm Cells

Chicken
2.3 2.4 2.4 1.3

Carp
3.3 3.3 3.3 1.6

Double helical structure of DNA ( Watson and crick s model):

Double helix structure of DNA james Watson and francis crick, two young researcher in university of Cambridge quickly worked out likely structure of DNA molecule. That proposed molecule is a simple double helix, with basis of two strand pointed inward toward each other, forming base pairs. In their model base pairs always consist of purines, which are large pointed towards pyrimidines which are small. Keeping the diameter of molecule constant 2nm. Because hydrogen bond exist between base pair. In double helix A=T, G=C. A will not proper hydrogen bond with C. G will not proper hydrogen bond with T. A and T occur in same proportions.

DNA Replication
Meselson _ stahl experiment; The three hypothesis of DNA replication were evaluated by Mathew meselson and franklin stahl of California institute of technology in 1958. They grew bacteria in a medium containing heavy isotope of nitrogen, 15N which became incorporated into the base of the bacterial DNA. After several generations, the DNA of these bacteria was denser than that of bacteria grown in a medium containing the lighter isotopes of nitrogen. Meselson and stahl then transferred the bacteria from the N15 medium to N14 medium and colleted the DNA at various intervals.

Replication process Replication starts from some specific point is called replication origon.

In eukaryotes replication start from any or different points. 1. Pairing of bases are removed or base pairing melted. 2. Bases makes the replication fork. 3. These occur due to helicase enzyme (protein) remove the hydrogen bonding. 4. (SSB) single strand bonding donot allow to make the bonding again. 5. Then new strand are built up, due to DNA polymerase. DNA polymerase ( it built the new strand) discovered by scientist Arthur koren burg. There are three DNA polymerase namely I, II, III, DNA polymerase I IS a relatively small enzyme that play a supporting role in DNA replication. The true E.coli replicating enzymes is DNA polymerase III Which is 10 times larger and far more complex in structure. Another important feature of DNA polymerase III is that it can addnucleotide only to 3` end of a DNA strand. This means that replication always proceeds 5` 3` direction on a growing DNA strand. Because the two parent strands of a DNA molecules are antiparallel, the new strands are oriented in opposite directions. Therefore, the new strands must be elongated by different mechanism. Learning strand, which elongates toward the replication fork, is built up simply by adding nucleotides continuously to its growing 3` end.

RNA (Ribonucleic acid): Introduction:

RNA is polymer of ribonucleotides. RNA molecules occur as single strand. which may be folded back itself, to give double helical characteristic. The nitrogenous base from uracil complementary pairing cytocine (C) with guanine (G) and uracil (U) with adenine (A) . synthesize by RNA in a process know transcription.

Types of RNA:
The class of RNA found in ribosome is called ribosomal RNA(Rrna). During translation, rRNA provide the site where polypeptides are assembled. In addition to rRna there are two major classes of RNA in the cells. Transfer RNA (tRNA) and messenger(rRNA). i. Messenger RNA : As the name indicate it takes the genetic message from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm to form particular proteins. Messanger RNA carries the genetic information from DNA to ribosomes. where aminoacids are arranged according to their information in mRNA to form specific proteins molecules. ii. Transfer RNA ( tRNA): It comprises about 10 t0 20% of the cellular RNA. Transfer RNA molecules are small each with a certain length of 75 to 90 nucleotides. It transfer specific aminoacids molecules to the site where peptide chains are being synthesized. There is one specific aminoacids for each aminoacid.so the cell will have 20 different kind of tRNAmolecule. Transfer RNA picks up amino acids and transfer them to ribosomes, where they linked together to form proteins. iii. Ribosomal RNA ( Rrna): It is major portion of RNA in the cell.and may be up 80% of the total RNA. It is strongly associated with ribosomal protein where 40 to 50% of its present. It act as machinery for the synthesis of protein.

Transcription:
This is the process in which an RNA copy of the DNA sequence encoding the gene is produced with the help of enzyme Only one of the two strand of DNA are transcribed. This is called template strand.the opposite strand is called coding strand. There are three types of polymerase namely RNA polymeraseI, Which synthesize rRNA, RNA Polymerase II,

Which synthesize mRNA. And RNA polymerase III Which synthesize tRNA.the binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter is the first step in gene transcription. One of the subunit is RNA polymerase sigma factor.is responsible for correct innitation of transcription process.once the transcription has stated the sigma factor is released and remain part of the enzymes move over the template strand and complete transcription of gene. the DNA strands open up at the place where enzyme is attqched to tewmplate strand forming transcription bubbles. Genetic code: Genetic code is a combination of 3 nucleotide.which specify a particular aminoacids. There are three nucleotide in a codon. Because a two nucleotide codon would not yield enough combination to code for the 20 different aminoacids that commonly occur in proteins. With four DNA Molecule nucleotides(G,C,T and A) different pairs of nucleotide could be forms. Genetic code is universal. It is the same in almost all the organism. For example AGA Specifies arginine in bacteria, in humans and all other organism whose genetic code has been studied. Because of the universality of codon the genes can be transferred from one organism to another and be successfully transcribed and translated.