Republic of the Philippines

Cebu Technological University - Main Campus

M.J. Cuenco Avenue Corner R. Palma St.,
Cebu City
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Name: LUMALES, JAMES M. M.E Laboratory 1

Course/Yr. & Sec.: BSME 3-1 Instructor: Engr. Aivan Adams V. Saberon

Experiment Plate No. 2

THERMAL SCIENCE 2

DESCRIPTION:
The study of energy changes involving heat and mechanical
work is known as thermodynamics and their connection to the
characteristics of matter the issues we deal with on a daily
basis, like Thermodynamics is used to characterize solids,
liquids, and gases. Specifically, the investigation of gas
behaves. The study of gases is a crucial subject of
thermodynamics.
The atomic theory of matter was developed in large part as a
result of research on gases. Modern chemistry relies heavily on
understanding the behavior of gases. Students will first
investigate how, for a specific quantity of gas at a constant
temperature, pressure varies with volume.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Students will understand ideal gas model, which yields a
straightforward relationship between the pressure, volume,
and temperature.
2. Students will be able to analyze the behavior of a real gas,
the temperature and moles of the gas are acquired.
3. Students will research the gas's physical characteristics
both before and after it is compressed.
4. Students will then be using the ideal gas law to explain how
P, V, and T are connected to both prior to and following
compression.
 Plate No. 02.A
ACTIVITY 1
DEMONSTRATION OF THE IDEAL GAS LAW

OBJECTIVES:
1. To comprehend the Ideal Gas Law, which connects gas
pressure, volume and temperature.
2. To familiarize how to take precise measurements of variables
including temperature, volume and pressure.
3. To demonstrate the usefulness of the Ideal Gas Law, discuss
examples of its use in business, engineering, and daily life

THEORY/HYPOTHESIS:
The Ideal Gas Law, which is frequently stated as PV-Nrt,
describes how an ideal gas behaves. It establishes connection a
gas’ pressure (P), volume (V), moles (n), ideal gas constant
(R)and temperature (T).

PV = nRT
Where the universal gas constant, R ⁼ 8.314 J/K•mol. One
mole of gas contains molecules; this number is better known as
Avogadro’s number Na ⁼ 6.02x10ᶺ23
Several assumptions can be used to show the law:
1. The gas is made up of numerous microscopic particles (atoms
or molecules) that are constantly moving at random. These
atoms collide with one another and the container walls.
2. Negligible Volume: In relation to the volume occupied by the
gas molecules is extremely small. Inferred from this is that
gas molecules are thought of as point masses.
3. No intermolecular forces exist, with the exception of those
created by collisions between gas molecules. This
superstition implies that gas particle interactions are
minimal outside of collisions.
4. Gas molecules travel randomly in directions and at a variety
of speeds and kinetic energy.

LIST OF APPARATUS:
1. Fire Syringe Kit
2. Pipe Cleaner (9-inch length)
3. Light Oil (School Supplied)
4. Tissue Paper (School Supplied)
SET-UP OF APPARATUS: [actual set-up of apparatus during
experimentation]
 PROCEDURES:
1. Locate the following items for this demonstration.
2. Lay out kit components as shown in figure 1-2.
3. Install the three o-rings on the piston as shown in figure
1-
4. Make sure the combustion tube is clean and dry inside. this is
very important.
5. Install the end cap over the end of the piston as shown in figure
1-4.
6. Lightly oil the o-rings with light oil.
7. Place the piston assembly in the combustion tube and move in and
out a few times so that the inside of the combustion tube is
lubricated.
8. Remove the piston and install the combustion tube into the
housing with the open end up as shown in figure 1-5.
9. Place a very small scrap of tissue paper into the bottom of the
combustion tube. Figure 1-6 shows the size scrap you should use.
10. Insert the piston into the combustion chamber so that the three
o-rings are in the chamber.
11. Slide the end cap down around the housing. the fire syringe is
now ready to use.
12. Place the rubber base of the tube on a firm surface. Hold the
tube in vertical position with your hand around the middle as
shown in figure 1-7.
13. Using your other hand, come down firmly on the plunger with a
slapping motion so that it is driven all the way down the bottom
of the tube. Observe the bottom of the tube during this process.
Write down your observations.
14. Withdraw the piston and swab out the combustion tube using a
9inch length of pipe cleaner shown in figure 1-8. This is an
important step because water vapor is one of the natural products
of combustion. Also let the combustion tube air out so that fresh
air is present in the tube before firing.
15. When finished, store the fire tube and any other components.
Computations:

No computations were gathered due to inability of the performers

to obtain data (pressure in Pa, Temperature, and the volume )

DISCUSSION: {from obtained results}

The Ideal Gas Law, encapsulated in the equation PV = nRT, is

a fundamental concept in thermodynamics that explains the
relationship between pressure (P), volume (V), number of moles
(n), ideal gas constant (R), and absolute temperature (T) for an
ideal gas. It relies on several key assumptions about gas
behavior, including the negligible size of gas molecules compared
to the container volume, minimal intermolecular forces except
during collisions, and random motion of molecules with varying
speeds and kinetic energies. Through experiments manipulating the
variables—pressure, volume, moles, and temperature—while keeping
others constant, scientists aim to validate these assumptions and
understand the law's applicability in real-world scenarios. By
observing how gases behave under different conditions and
comparing it with the predictions of the Ideal Gas Law,
researchers can assess its validity and usefulness in describing
and predicting gas behavior, confirming its practical utility in
scientific and engineering applications.

CONCLUSION:
In our experiment, we encountered equipment limitations
preventing us from directly recording the volume and pressure
inside the cylinder. However, during the experiment, we made an
interesting observation: a small piece of paper placed within the
chamber ignited. This ignition occurred due to various factors at
play, including an increase in pressure within the chamber. This
rise in pressure prompted gas particles to move more rapidly,
thereby increasing their kinetic energy. Additionally, the
presence of a fuel-air mixture within the chamber likely
contributed to the ignition event. While we couldn't measure
volume and pressure directly, this observation provided valuable
insights into the dynamic behavior of gases under the conditions
of our experiment.
RECOMMENDATION:

Accuracy of Measurements: To ensure the accuracy of the ideal gas

law, ensure that all pressure, volume and
temperature measurements are made with high accuracy. This can be
achieved by using calibrated instruments and following standard
laboratory procedures.
Controlled Variables: Maintain a controlled environment by
ensuring that other factors that could affect the experiment,
such as humidity and air currents, are minimized or eliminated.

SKILL SETS
SKILL 1: CONVERT BETWEEN HORSEPOWER AND WATT POWER UNITS
1. A certain sports-car engine is rated at 168 hp. What would be
the equivalent power in kilowatts (kW)?
0.7457 𝑘𝑊
168 ℎ𝑝 ( ) = 𝟏𝟐𝟓. 𝟐𝟕𝟕𝟔 𝒌𝑾
1 ℎ𝑝

168 hp = 125.2(kW)
You should have calculated 125.2 kW.
2. A compressor is rated at 1/5 hp. What is this power rating in
kW?
1 0.7457 𝑘𝑊
ℎ𝑝 ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟗𝟏𝟒 𝑲𝑾
5 1 ℎ𝑝

1/5 hp = 0.149(kW)
You should have calculated 0.149 kW.
3. A coal-fired power plant is said to produce 250,000 kW. What
is
the power in horsepower (hp)?
1 ℎ𝑝
250 000 𝑘𝑊 (0.7457 𝑘𝑊) = 𝟑𝟑𝟓𝟐𝟓𝟓. 𝟒𝟔𝟒𝟕 𝒉𝒑

250,000 kW = 335255(hp)
You should have calculated 335,250 hp.
4. A typical hair dryer consumes about 1.875 kW of power. What is
the equivalent horsepower rating?
1 ℎ𝑝
1.875 𝑘𝑊 (0.7457 𝑘𝑊) = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟏𝟓𝟗𝟖𝟓 𝒉𝒑

1.875 kW = 2.51(hp)
You should have calculated 2.51 hp (hair dryers use enormous
amounts of electrical power).
5. A typical window-type air conditioning unit can remove 5,300
 Btu/h of heat from a room. How many kilowatts is this?

𝐵𝑡𝑢 1 𝑘𝑊
5300 ( 𝐵𝑡𝑢 ) = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟐𝟖𝟖𝟔𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝑾
ℎ 3413
ℎ

5,300 Btu/h = 1.6(kW)

You should have calculated 1.6 kW.
6. A large, commercial air conditioning unit provides a heat
removal rate of 137.737 kW. What is this heat rate in Btu/h?
3413 𝐵𝑡𝑢/ℎ
137.737 ( ) = 𝟒𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟔. 𝟑𝟖 𝑩𝒕𝒖/𝒉
1 𝑘𝑊

137.737 kW = 470096.38(Btu/h)
You should have calculated 470,000 Btu/h.

SKILL 2: CALCULATE GAS PROPERTIES USING THE IDEAL GAS LAW

1. Perform the following sub steps to find the mass of air inside
a typical tire.
A. Read the following scenario:
Scenario: The sports car tire in figure 2-1 has an inside
volume of 1 ft3 and is under an absolute pressure of 50
psia.
The tire temperature is 73.3 °F.
B. Rearrange the ideal gas formula to solve for the mass of
the air. Your formula should appear as follows:

𝒎 = 𝒑𝑽/𝑹𝑻
C. Calculate the mass of the air by substituting the known
data into your formula (do not forget to use absolute
temperature units. Use a value of R equal to 0.37 psia-
ft3/lb- °R. Your formula should appear as shown:

(𝟓𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒊𝒂)(𝟏𝒇𝒕𝟑 )
𝒎=
𝒇𝒕𝟑
(𝟎. 𝟑𝟕 𝒑𝒔𝒊𝒂 ) (𝟓𝟑𝟑°R)
𝒍𝒃 − °R
𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟑𝟓𝟑𝟔𝟖𝟑𝟖𝟗 𝒍𝒃
D. Calculate the mass of air in the tire:
m = 0.2534(lb)
You should have determined m = 0.25 lb of air in the tire.
This is why an inflated tire is just a little bit heavier
than a deflated one.
2. Calculate the temperature in the fire syringe given the
 following scenario:
Scenario: After the adiabatic compression, the pressure of
the air in the fire syringe just before the paper burns is
3,803 psia. With the piston down, the volume in the tube is
0.00958 in3. The mass of the air in the tube is 0.00002414
lb. Use a value of R equal to 639.5 psia-in3/lb- °R.
𝑖𝑛3
𝑅 = 639.5 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑙𝑏−°𝑅

𝑉 = 0.00958 𝑖𝑛3
𝑝 = 3803 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑚 = 0.00002421
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
(3803)(0.00978) = (0.00002414)(638.5)(𝑇)

𝑇 = 2360.01 °𝑅.
Temperature: 2360(°R)
You should have calculated the temperature to be 2360 °R
(Which is about 1900 °F). This high temperature is enough to
ignite the paper without any spark.
3. Calculate the volume of a refrigeration system given the
following scenario:
Scenario: Nitrogen gas is commonly used to pressure test
refrigeration systems for leaks before they are filled with
refrigerant. A certain system is filled with 3 lb of
nitrogen
gas. The final pressure reads 185 psig and the temperature
is
75 °F. Use a value of R equal to 0.383 psia-ft3/lb- °R.
𝑅 = 0.383 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 − 𝑓𝑡3/𝑙𝑏 − °𝑅.
𝑇 = 75 °𝐹 𝑃 = 185 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
(185)(𝑉) = (3)(0.383)(75 + 460)

𝑉 = 3.322783784 𝑓𝑡 3
Volume: 3(ft3)
You should have calculated 3 ft3.
4. Calculate the absolute pressure of air added to container
given
the following scenario:
 Scenario: Six pounds of air is added to a 2 ft3 container at
a temperature of 400 °R. Use a value of R equal to 0.37
psia-
ft3/lb- °R.
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇

𝑃(2 𝑓𝑡 3 ) = (6 𝑙𝑏)(0.37 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 − 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑙𝑏 − °R)(400 °R)

𝑃 = 444 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
Pressure: 44 psia(ft3)
You should have calculated 444 psia.

REFERENCE/S:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-physics/chapter/13-3-the-
ideal-gas-law/
Thermal Science 1 – Introduction to Thermal Science by Amatrol
 Plate No. 02.B

ACTIVITY 2
DEMONSTRATION OF VAPOR PRESSURE

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand how to use a manometer to determine a liquid's
vapor pressure
2. To learn what vapor pressure is and how temperature affects
it.
3. To understand the relationship amongst temperature and vapor
pressure.

THEORY/HYPOTHESIS:
The equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid (or
solid), or the pressure of the vapor produced by the evaporation
of a liquid (or solid) above a sample of the liquid (or solid) in
a closed container, is the vapor pressure of a liquid.
The vaporization curves of most liquids have similar shapes
with the vapor pressure steadily increasing as the temperature
increases. (See graph below)

The Clausius-Clapeyron equation, which is derived in

traditional texts, describes how a liquid's vapor pressure
changes with temperature.

Where:
P – vapor pressure
T – temperature
ΔHvap – Enthalpy (heat) of vaporization
R – gas constant (8.3145 J mol-1 K-1)
LIST OF APPARATUS:
1. U-tube manometer
2. Vacuum bottle with lid
3. ¼” ID plastic tubing
4. Red tube seal
5. Conical adapter (hole through center)
6. Manometer tube adapter
7. Small plastic funnel
8. Gauge fluid
9. Isopropyl (rubbing alcohol at room temperature)
10. 250mL beaker

SET-UP OF APPARATUS: [actual set-up of apparatus during

experimentation]

PROCEDURES:
1. Locate the given apparatus on the T7081 Applied Thermal
Science trainer.
2. Fill the 250 mL beaker to the 100 mL mark with fresh tap
water.

3. Place seven drops of fluorescein green gauge fluid into

water and stir. This dye allows the water level in the
manometer to be read more easily.

4. Insert the small plastic funnel into the manometer tube

5. Place the manometer in a suitable sink in order to catch

any water spillage.

6. Completely fill the manometer with water until no large

bubbles are present throughout the entire tube.

7. Begin pouring water out of the manometer (a little at a

time) until the water level is exactly at the zero mark
on both legs when read against the scale. This is read
when the manometer is held in the vertical position.

8. Clean up any spills and wash hands if contacted with

manometer fluid.

9. While keeping the manometer vertical, mount it in its

original storage area on the T7081 panel. This will keep
the instrument secure throughout the experiment.

10. Place the red tube seal on the end of the vacuum bottle
lid

11. Insert the manometer tube adapter into the manometer

tube

12. Insert the conical adapter into the manometer tube

adapter with a twisting motion

13. Attach the 1/4” ID plastic tubing to the conical

adapter.

14. Attach the other end of the tubing to the vacuum bottle
lid.

15. For the vacuum bottle, Locate the isopropyl (rubbing)

alcohol. The alcohol must be at room temperature.

16. Fill the vacuum bottle to the 40 mL mark with alcohol.

17. Place the lid on the vacuum bottle and then give a
slight clockwise twist in order to lock it in place.

18. Carefully clip the vacuum bottle into its storage place
on the T7081 panel. This will prevent the bottle from
being knocked over during the rest of the experiment.
 19. You should see the manometer recording the vapor
pressure almost immediately after the lid is secured.

20. After five minutes or so, observe the water levels in

the manometer. The manometer leg connected to the
vacuum bottle should be lower than the one exposed to
the air. This is due to the vapor pressure produced by
the alcohol. If the manometer was set up at zero, you
can simply multiply the scale reading by two to get
the total height of water column.

21. Record the manometer height (vapor pressure)

Carefully disassembly the apparatus. Pour the manometer

water and vacuum bottle alcohol down a suitable drain. Store all
components in their original location.

DATA & RESULT/S:

RUBBING ALCOHOL
TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3

P (torr) 30 31 27

T (⁰C) 26 29 26

Initial Temperature for all trials = 25⁰C or 298.15 K

Computations:
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
𝑷 −∆𝑯𝒗𝒂𝒑 𝟏 𝟏
𝒍𝒏 (𝑷𝟐 ) = (𝑻 − 𝑻 )
𝟏 𝑹 𝟐 𝟏

Where:
P = vapor pressure
T = temperature
ΔHvap = Enthalpy (heat) of vaporization
R = gas constant (8.3145 J mol-1 K-1)

Let’s calculate the 𝑃2 of the 1st trial (e.g. 26⁰C or 299.15 K)

𝑷 𝟐 −∆𝑯𝒗𝒂𝒑 𝟏 𝟏
𝒍𝒏 (𝟑𝟎 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒓)= 𝑱 (𝟐𝟗𝟗.𝟏𝟓 − 𝟐𝟗𝟖.𝟏𝟓)
𝟖.𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟓
𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝑲

−∆𝑯𝒗𝒂𝒑 𝟏 𝟏
𝑷𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎 × 𝒄𝒙𝒑 ( 𝑱 (𝟐𝟗𝟗.𝟏𝟓 − 𝟐𝟗𝟖.𝟏𝟓))
𝟖.𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟓
𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝑲

DISCUSSION: {from obtained results}

Three trials were conducted to study vapor pressure,
starting at 298.15 K and reaching 299.15 K. The results showed
pressures of 30, 31, and 27 torr, with corresponding temperatures
of 26, 29, and 26 degrees Celsius. These data illustrate the
concept of vapor pressure and its relationship to temperature.
Additionally, applying the Clausius-Clapeyron equation
facilitated the calculation of vapor pressure at different
temperatures, providing a deeper understanding of how temperature
influences vapor pressure in rubbing alcohol.
CONCLUSION:
The Vapor Pressure Experiment offers valuable insights into
the correlation between temperature and vapor pressure through
systematic data collection and logging. It unveiled that with
increasing temperature, the height of the manometer fluid column
decreases, signaling a concurrent increase in vapor pressure. To
quantify this relationship, the experiment employs the Clausius-
Clapeyron and open manometer equations, providing a precise means
to analyze and understand the dynamics between temperature and
vapor pressure.
RECOMMENDATION:
For accurate and repeatable results, it is essential to
maintain a controlled environment when conducting an experiment
to demonstrate the concept of vapor pressure. For an accurate
measurement of vapor pressure, use a precise manometer. Assure
sufficient ventilation in the experimental area to prevent the
build-up of potentially hazardous gases. Wearing personal
protective equipment (PPE) is highly recommended since safety is
still of the utmost importance in a controlled environment.
REFERENCE/S:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_
Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theore
tical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/P
hase_Transitions/Clausius-Clapeyron_Equation
https://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/vpress.html
Thermal Science 1 – Introduction to Thermal Science by Amatrol
 Plate No. 02.C

ACTIVITY 3
DEMONSTRATION OF THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON
BOILING POINT

OBJECTIVES:
1. To illustrate how changes in pressure affect the boiling
point of water.
2. To assess the accuracy of the theory and the experimental
technique employed.
3. To generate experimental data that can be used to plot a
pressure-boiling point curve, which will illustrate the
effect of pressure on boiling point.

THEORY/HYPOTHESIS:
The effect of pressure on the boiling point of a substance
is described by the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. This equation
relates the boiling point of a substance at one pressure to its
boiling point at another pressure. The general form of the
Clausius-Clapeyron equation is:

Where:

• ln(P2/P1) is the natural logarithm of the ratio of the

two pressures (P2 and P1).
• ΔHvap is the enthalpy of vaporization,
• R is the ideal gas constant (8.314 J/(mol·K) or 0.0821
L·atm/(mol·K), depending on the units you use.
• T1 and T2 are the absolute temperatures (in Kelvin).

In the demonstration, when pressure is increased within the

sealed container, it effectively raises the vapor pressure
required for boiling. As a result, the water inside the container
requires a higher temperature to reach the necessary vapor
pressure for boiling. This leads to a higher boiling point under
increased pressure.
 By conducting this experiment, participants can directly
observe the relationship between pressure and boiling point,
providing a tangible illustration of these thermodynamic
principles.
Given the theoretical understanding of the relationship
between pressure and boiling point, we can formulate a hypothesis
for this demonstration:
"Hypothesis: Increasing pressure will result in a higher boiling
point of water, while decreasing pressure will lead to a lower
boiling point."

LIST OF APPARATUS:
1. Hotplate
2. Heat-resistant gloves
3. 250 mL beaker
4. Thermometer
5. Vacuum pump
6. Vacuum tubing (short length and long length)
7. Dual vacuum/pressure gauge
8. 120 mL vacuum chamber with lid
9. Food coloring

SET-UP OF APPARATUS: [actual set-up of apparatus during

experimentation]

PROCEDURES:
1. Locate the T7081 Applied Thermal Science trainer and make
sure it is plugged into a standard wall outlet.
2. Locate the hotplate and place it on a stable laboratory
bench or similar surface.
3. Locate the 250 mL beaker and fill it to the 200 mL mark with
tap water.
4. Place the beaker on the hotplate as shown in figure 3-2. Do
not plug in the hotplate at this time.
5. Locate the bimetallic thermometer, remove it from its
sheath, and place it in the beaker.
6. Perform the following substeps to assemble and test the
vacuum apparatus.

A. Locate the vacuum pump and identify the different

components shown in figure 3-3.
B. Locate the short length of vacuum tubing and slip it on
the suction port as shown in figure 3-4.
C. Locate the vacuum chamber and install the lid by
turning it clockwise until it is tight, as shown in
figure 3-5.
D. Install the other end of the vacuum tube coming from
the gauge onto the barbed hose fitting on the chamber
lid, as shown in figure 3-6.
E. The complete vacuum apparatus should appear as shown in
figure 3-7.
F. Test the system by operating the vacuum pump. As you
pump the handle, watch the gauge. The vacuum should
increase while pumping the handle to a maximum value of
25 in Hg. Watch the gauge for about half a minute to
make sure there are no leaks.
G. Re-pressurize the chamber by squeezing the vacuum
release trigger on the pump as shown in figure 3-8.

7. Plug in and turn on the hotplate and heat the water to 170
°F (77 °C).
8. Unscrew the lid from the vacuum chamber.
9. Add a few drops of food coloring to the vacuum chamber.
10. When the water has been heated, turn off and unplug the
hotplate and remove the thermometer.
11. Using the heat-resistant gloves, fill the vacuum chamber
approximately 1/4 full with the hot water.
12. Install the lid as before. Keep the chamber upright.
13. Begin lowering the pressure in the vacuum chamber by
operating the pump. Operate the pump until a rolling boil is
established. At this point, the vapor of the hot water is
equal to the pressure remaining in the chamber and the water
boils.
14. Quickly re-pressurize the chamber by squeezing the vacuum
release on the pump. Notice how the boiling stops
immediately. You may repeat this as long as the water is hot
enough to boil. When the water cools to a certain
temperature, it will not boil. This is because the vacuum
pump used in this activity is not able to produce a strong
enough vacuum to boil at cooler temperatures.
15. Empty the water from the beaker and the vacuum chamber into
a suitable drain.
16. Allow the hotplate to cool. Disassemble the vacuum apparatus
and store all components.
17. Rinse out the vacuum chamber to avoid staining from the food
coloring.
DATA & RESULT/S:
Pressure (kPa) Boiling Point (°C)

100 100

200 110

300 120

400 135

500 155

Computations:
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
𝑷 −∆𝑯𝒗𝒂𝒑 𝟏 𝟏
𝒍𝒏 (𝑷𝟐 ) = (𝑻 − 𝑻 )
𝟏 𝑹 𝟏 𝟐

Where:

• ln(P2/P1) is the natural logarithm of the ratio of the

two pressures (P2 and P1).
• ΔHvap is the enthalpy of vaporization,
• R is the ideal gas constant (8.314 J/(mol·K) or 0.0821
L·atm/(mol·K), depending on the units you use.
• T1 and T2 are the absolute temperatures (in Kelvin)

Let’s try to calculate the Temperature under 200 kPa

𝑷 −∆𝑯𝒗𝒂𝒑 𝟏 𝟏
𝒍𝒏 (𝑷𝟐 ) = (𝑻 − 𝑻 )
𝟏 𝑹 𝟏 𝟐

where: −∆𝑯𝒗𝒂𝒑 = 𝟒𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍

𝑹 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍 − 𝑲
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟎𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝟏 𝟏
𝒍𝒏 (𝟏𝟎𝟎) = 𝟖.𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝑲 (𝟏𝟎𝟎+𝟐𝟕𝟑 − 𝑻 )
𝟐

𝑻𝟐 = 𝟑𝟗𝟑. 𝟕𝟗𝟗𝟒𝟏𝟑𝟒 𝑲 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 °𝐂

For Temperature under 300 kPa

𝑷 −∆𝑯𝒗𝒂𝒑 𝟏 𝟏
𝒍𝒏 (𝑷𝟐 ) = (𝑻 − 𝑻 )
𝟏 𝑹 𝟏 𝟐

where: −∆𝑯𝒗𝒂𝒑 = 𝟒𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍

𝑹 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍 − 𝑲
𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟎𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝟏 𝟏
𝒍𝒏 (𝟐𝟎𝟎) = 𝟖.𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝑲 (𝟏𝟏𝟎+𝟐𝟕𝟑 − 𝑻 )
𝟐

𝑻𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎𝟒. 𝟗𝟔𝟐𝟒𝟒𝟔𝟒 𝑲 = 𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟖𝟏 °𝐂

DISCUSSION: {from obtained results}
The experiment highlights the critical role pressure plays
in determining a liquid's boiling point. At a standard pressure
of 100 kPa, the boiling point is 100°C, with the boiling point
increasing as pressure rises. For instance, at 300 kPa, the
boiling point elevates to 120°C, further increasing to 135°C at
400 kPa, and reaching 155°C at 500 kPa. This demonstrates that
higher pressures necessitate higher temperatures for liquids to
transition into gases. As pressure increases, a liquid must
attain a correspondingly higher temperature to undergo the phase
change into a gas.

CONCLUSION:
In conclusion, the experiment effectively highlights the
crucial relationship between pressure and a liquid's boiling
point. The observed trend, where increasing pressure leads to a
higher boiling point, underscores the significant influence of
pressure on phase transitions. This finding emphasizes the
importance of considering pressure when studying the behavior of
substances undergoing phase changes.

RECOMMENDATION:
When conducting tests to find out how pressure affects
boiling points, it is imperative to work in a controlled
environment. This calls for taking safety measures and
maintaining steady temperature control in addition to exact
pressure regulation. Calibration of the equipment and its
isolation from outside influences further improve data accuracy.

REFERENCE/S:

https://www.vedantu.com/physics/clausius-clapeyron-equation
Thermal Science 1 – Introduction to Thermal Science by Amatrol
 Plate No. 02.D

ACTIVITY 4 DEMONSTRATION OF CONDUCTIVE HEAT

TRANSFER

OBJECTIVES:
To familiarize the concepts of conductive heat transfer through
actual experiment.
To determine how heat conducts a solid of uniform dimension and
materials how you can calculate the experiment thermal
conductivity of the materials in a solid of uniform dimensions.
3. Explain the decrease in temperature of the hot water and the
increase of temperature of the cold water.

THEORY/HYPOTHESIS:
We know that temperature is proportional to the average kinetic
energy of atoms and molecules in a substance, and that the
average internal kinetic energy of a substance is higher when the
substance’s temperature is higher.
If two objects at different temperatures are brought in contact
with each other, energy is transferred from the hotter object
(that is, the object with the greater temperature) to the colder
(lower temperature) object, until both objects are at the same
temperature. There is no net heat transfer once the temperatures
are equal because the amount of heat transferred from one object
to the other is the same as the amount of heat returned. One of
the major effects of heat transfer is temperature change: Heating
increases the temperature while cooling decreases it. Experiments
show that the heat transferred to or from a substance depends on
three factors—the change in the substance’s temperature, the mass
of the substance, and certain physical properties related to the
phase of the substance. The equation for heat transfer Q is

Q = mcΔT
Where m is the mass of the substance and ΔT is the change in its
temperature, in units of Celsius or Kelvin. The symbol c stands
for specific heat and depends on the material and phase. The
specific heat is the amount of heat necessary to change the
temperature of 1.00 kg of mass by 1.00 ºC. The specific heat c is
a property of the substance; its SI unit is J/ (kg K) or J/ (kg
°C). The temperature change (ΔT) is the same in units of
Kelvins and degrees Celsius (but not degrees Fahrenheit).
 Specific heat is closely related to the concept of heat
capacity. Heat capacity is the amount of heat necessary to change
the temperature of a substance by 1.00 °C. In equation form, heat
capacity C is C=mc, where m is mass and c are specific heat. Note
that heat capacity is the same as specific heat, but without any
dependence on mass. Consequently, two objects made up of the same
material but with different masses will have different heat
capacities. This is because the heat capacity is a property of an
object, but specific heat is a property of any object made of the
same material.

LIST OF APPARATUS:
Hotplate
(2) Insulated Beakers
(2) Foam Lids
1000 mL Beaker
(2) Thermometers
Aluminum Bar (bent in a “U” shape)
Heat Resistant Gloves

SET-UP OF APPARATUS: [actual set-up of apparatus during

experimentation]

PROCEDURES:
1. Locate the T7081 Applied Thermal Science trainer and obtain
the following items:

• Hotplate
• (2) Insulated Beakers
• (2) Foam Lids
• 1000 mL Beaker
• (2) Thermometers
• Aluminum Bar (bent in a “U” shape)
• Heat Resistant Gloves
2. Fill the 1000 mL beaker to the 300 mL mark with cold water.
Pour this water into one of the insulated beakers.
3. Fill the 1000 mL beaker to the 500 mL mark with water and
place on a hotplate.
4. Plug in and turn on the hotplate and allow the water to begin
heating to a boil.
The temperature setting should be above the halfway point.
5. While the water is heating, perform the following sub steps to
assemble the conduction apparatus: A. Locate the two foam lids.
B. Insert the aluminum bar into the slots provided in the lids as
shown in figure 4-3.
C. Set this assembly aside for now.
6. Place one of the thermometers into the insulated beaker filled
with cold water and record the initial temperature after about
one minute.
Initial temperature: _______________________(°F)
7. When the water in the beaker begins to boil, turn off and
unplug the hotplate and put on the heat-resistant gloves.
8. Take the beaker and fill the empty insulated beaker to
approximately the same level as the other beaker. Take care to
not get burned. After filling the beaker, place the beaker back
on the hotplate.
9. Perform the following sub steps to assemble the conduction
apparatus:
A. Place the beakers next to each other as shown in figure 4-1

B. Remove the thermometer from the cold insulated beaker.

C. Place the aluminum bar assembly into both beakers.
Gently press the foam lids into the beakers so that they are
even with the top of the beakers

D. Gently press the foam lids into the beakers so that they are
even with the top of the beakers.
E. Insert the thermometers into both beakers through the small
slots in the foam lid. Using a twisting motion is helpful.
10. After about one minute, record the initial temperatures on
both thermometers:
Initial temperature in cold insulated beaker: 90.4(°F)
Initial temperature in hot insulated beaker: 186.2(°F)
11. Allow the assembly to stand for about 30 minutes.
12. During this time, you may touch the aluminum bar close to
where it enters the cold insulated beaker. It should be warm to
the touch. This is because heat is being conducted from the hot
water to the cold water.
13. After 30 minutes, record the temperatures on the
thermometers.
Temperature in cold insulated beaker: 99.1(°F)
Temperature in hot insulated beaker: 147.9(°F)
Compare these temperatures with the initial ones you recorded
earlier. You should see that temperature of the cold
water has been increased due to conduction heat transfer
through the aluminum bar.
14. Disassemble the conduction apparatus and pour the water from
the two insulated beakers and the beaker down a suitable drain.
Store all components.

DATA & RESULT/S:

Cold water Hot water
Initial Temperature
°F 88.4 189.2
Temperature after
placing Aluminum bar
97.1 144.9
to each other for 30
minutes.

Computations:
Q = mcΔT
Solving Q at initial temperature:
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇 = 0.3𝑘𝑔 𝑥 4.182 × (309.32 − 305.59) = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟎𝟕𝟐 𝒌𝑱
𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾

Solving Q after 30 minutes:

 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇 = 0.3𝑘𝑔 𝑥 4.182 × (337.87 − 310.48)𝐾 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟒 𝒌𝑱
𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾

DISCUSSION: {from obtained results}

Through an experiment involving a metal rod, we uncovered
the process of heat transfer through conduction. Remarkably, the
metal conducted heat far more effectively than insulating
materials. This discrepancy can be elucidated by considering
thermal conductivity, which denotes a material's capacity to
transfer heat. Metals such as copper and aluminum exhibit high
thermal conductivity, facilitating swift heat transmission.
Conversely, insulators characterized by low thermal conductivity
tend to transfer heat at a much slower rate. Moreover, our
experiment unveiled a direct correlation between the rate of heat
transfer and the temperature disparity across the ends of the
rod. This proportional relationship underscores the fundamental
principles governing heat conduction and offers valuable insights
into material properties and heat transfer mechanisms.
CONCLUSION:
The experiment provides a hands-on learning experience that
delves into the core principles of heat transfer. By showcasing
conductive heat transfer, wherein heat moves from a hotter region
to a cooler one within a material, it offers a tangible
illustration of this fundamental process. Moreover, the
significance of thermal conductivity is underscored, elucidating
why materials exhibit varying rates of heat conduction. Such
insights hold broad relevance across scientific and engineering
disciplines, fostering a deeper understanding of heat transfer
mechanisms and informing the design and optimization of various
systems and materials.

RECOMMENDATION:
The experiment demonstrated conductive heat transfer in a metal
rod. The metal conducted heat significantly faster than
insulators due to its higher thermal conductivity. Thermal
conductivity reflects a material's ability to transfer heat.
Metals like copper and aluminum, with good thermal conductivity,
facilitate rapid heat flow. Conversely, insulators with low
thermal conductivity impede heat transfer. The experiment further
confirmed a direct relationship between the heat transfer rate
and the temperature difference across the rod's ends.

REFERENCE/S:
https://layers-of-learning.com/heat-conduction-experiment/
https://acikders.ankara.edu.tr/pluginfile.php/59058/mod_resource
/content/2/Experiment%206_Linear%20Conduction.pdf
Thermal Science 1 – Introduction to Thermal Science by Amatrol