Branches of physics

Physics is a scientific discipline that seeks to construct and

experimentally test theories of the physical universe. These
theories vary in their scope and can be organized into several
distinct branches, which are outlined in this article.

Domains of major fields of physics

Classical mechanics
Classical mechanics is a model of the physics of forces acting upon bodies; includes sub-fields to
describe the behaviors of solids, gases, and fluids. It is often referred to as "Newtonian mechanics" after
Isaac Newton and his laws of motion. It also includes the classical approach as given by Hamiltonian and
Lagrange methods. It deals with the motion of particles and the general system of particles.

There are many branches of classical mechanics, such as: statics, dynamics, kinematics, continuum
mechanics (which includes fluid mechanics), statistical mechanics, etc.

Mechanics: A branch of physics in which we study the object and properties of an object in
form of a motion under the action of the force.

Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics

The first chapter of The Feynman Lectures on Physics is about the existence of atoms, which Feynman
considered to be the most compact statement of physics, from which science could easily result even if all
other knowledge was lost.[1] By modeling matter as collections of hard spheres, it is possible to describe
the kinetic theory of gases, upon which classical thermodynamics is based.

Thermodynamics studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on physical systems
on the macroscopic scale, and the transfer of energy as heat.[2][3] Historically, thermodynamics developed
out of the desire to increase the efficiency of early steam engines.[4]

The starting point for most thermodynamic considerations is the laws of thermodynamics, which
postulate that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat or work.[5] They also postulate
the existence of a quantity named entropy, which can be defined for any system.[6] In thermodynamics,
interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the
concepts of system and surroundings. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define
its properties, which in turn are related to one another through equations of state. Properties can be
combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials, which are useful for determining
conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes.

Electromagnetism and photonics

The study of the behaviours of electrons, electric media,
magnets, magnetic fields, and general interactions of light.

Relativistic mechanics
The special theory of relativity enjoys a relationship with
electromagnetism and mechanics; that is, the principle of Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism
relativity and the principle of stationary action in mechanics can
be used to derive Maxwell's equations,[7][8] and vice versa.

The theory of special relativity was proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein in his article "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". The title of the article refers to the fact that special relativity
resolves an inconsistency between Maxwell's equations and classical mechanics. The theory is based on
two postulates: (1) that the mathematical forms of the laws of physics are invariant in all inertial systems;
and (2) that the speed of light in vacuum is constant and independent of the source or observer.
Reconciling the two postulates requires a unification of space and time into the frame-dependent concept
of spacetime.

General relativity is the geometrical theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915/16.[9][10]
It unifies special relativity, Newton's law of universal gravitation, and the insight that gravitation can be
described by the curvature of space and time. In general relativity, the curvature of spacetime is produced
by the energy of matter and radiation.

Quantum mechanics, atomic physics, and molecular physics

Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics treating atomic and
subatomic systems and their interaction based on the observation
that all forms of energy are released in discrete units or bundles
called "quanta". Remarkably, quantum theory typically permits
only probable or statistical calculation of the observed features of
subatomic particles, understood in terms of wave functions. The
Schrödinger equation plays the role in quantum mechanics that
Newton's laws and conservation of energy serve in classical
mechanics—i.e., it predicts the future behavior of a dynamic
system—and is a wave equation that is used to solve for
wavefunctions.
The first few hydrogen atom electron
For example, the light, or electromagnetic radiation emitted or orbitals shown as cross-sections with
absorbed by an atom has only certain frequencies (or colour-coded probability density
wavelengths), as can be seen from the line spectrum associated
with the chemical element represented by that atom. The quantum
theory shows that those frequencies correspond to definite energies of the light quanta, or photons, and
result from the fact that the electrons of the atom can have only certain allowed energy values, or levels;
when an electron changes from one allowed level to another, a
quantum of energy is emitted or absorbed whose frequency is
directly proportional to the energy difference between the two
levels. The photoelectric effect further confirmed the quantization Schrödinger equation of quantum
of light. mechanics

In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that not only do light waves

sometimes exhibit particle-like properties, but particles may also exhibit wave-like properties. Two
different formulations of quantum mechanics were presented following de Broglie's suggestion. The wave
mechanics of Erwin Schrödinger (1926) involves the use of a mathematical entity, the wave function,
which is related to the probability of finding a particle at a given point in space. The matrix mechanics of
Werner Heisenberg (1925) makes no mention of wave functions or similar concepts but was shown to be
mathematically equivalent to Schrödinger's theory. A particularly important discovery of the quantum
theory is the uncertainty principle, enunciated by Heisenberg in 1927, which places an absolute
theoretical limit on the accuracy of certain measurements; as a result, the assumption by earlier scientists
that the physical state of a system could be measured exactly and used to predict future states had to be
abandoned. Quantum mechanics was combined with the theory of relativity in the formulation of Paul
Dirac. Other developments include quantum statistics, quantum electrodynamics, concerned with
interactions between charged particles and electromagnetic fields; and its generalization, quantum field
theory.

String Theory

A possible candidate for the theory of everything, this theory combines the theory of general relativity
and quantum mechanics to make a single theory. This theory can predict about properties of both small
and big objects. This theory is currently under the developmental stage.

Optics and acoustics

Optics is the study of light motions including reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference.

Acoustics is the branch of physics involving the study of mechanical waves in different mediums.

Condensed matter physics

The study of the physical properties of matter in a condensed phase.

High-energy particle physics and nuclear physics

Particle physics studies the nature of particles, while nuclear physics studies the atomic nuclei.

Cosmology
Cosmology studies how the universe came to be, and its eventual fate. It is studied by physicists and
astrophysicists. It also studies about fictional universes people made, how the universes came to be, and
their eventual fate and destruction.

Interdisciplinary fields
To the interdisciplinary fields, which define partially sciences of their own, belong e.g. the

agrophysics is a branch of science bordering on agronomy and physics

astrophysics, the physics in the universe, including the properties and interactions of
celestial bodies in astronomy
atmospheric physics is the application of physics to the study of the atmosphere
space physics is the study of plasmas as they occur naturally in the Earth's upper
atmosphere (aeronomy) and within the Solar System
biophysics, studying the physical interactions of biological processes
chemical physics, the science of physical relations in chemistry
computational physics, the application of computers and numerical methods to physical
systems
econophysics, dealing with physical processes and their relations in the science of economy
environmental physics, the branch of physics concerned with the measurement and analysis
of interactions between organisms and their environment
engineering physics, the combined discipline of physics and engineering
geophysics, the sciences of physical relations on our planet
mathematical physics, mathematics pertaining to physical problems
medical physics, the application of physics in medicine to prevention, diagnosis, and
treatment
physical chemistry, dealing with physical processes and their relations in the science of
physical chemistry
physical oceanography, is the study of physical conditions and physical processes within the
ocean, especially the motions and physical properties of ocean waters
psychophysics, the science of physical relations in psychology
quantum computing, the study of quantum-mechanical computation systems
sociophysics or social physics, is a field of science which uses mathematical tools inspired
by physics to understand the behaviour of human crowds

Summary
The table below lists the core theories along with many of the concepts they employ.
 Theory Major subtopics Concepts

Newton's laws of motion, density, dimension, gravity, space, time, motion, length,
Lagrangian mechanics, position, velocity, acceleration, Galilean invariance, mass,
Hamiltonian mechanics, momentum, impulse, force, energy, angular velocity,
Classical
kinematics, statics, angular momentum, moment of inertia, torque, conservation
mechanics
dynamics, chaos theory, law, harmonic oscillator, wave, work, power, Lagrangian,
acoustics, fluid dynamics, Hamiltonian, Tait–Bryan angles, Euler angles, pneumatic,
continuum mechanics hydraulic

electrostatics, capacitance, electric charge, current, electrical conductivity,

electrodynamics, electric field, electric permittivity, electric potential, electrical
Electromagnetism electricity, magnetism, resistance, electromagnetic field, electromagnetic induction,
magnetostatics, Maxwell's electromagnetic radiation, Gaussian surface, magnetic field,
equations, optics magnetic flux, magnetic monopole, magnetic permeability
Boltzmann constant, conjugate variables, enthalpy, entropy,
equation of state, equipartition theorem, thermodynamic
free energy, heat, ideal gas law, internal energy, laws of
thermodynamics, Maxwell relations, irreversible process,
Thermodynamics
Ising model, mechanical action, partition function, pressure,
and statistical heat engine, kinetic theory
reversible process, spontaneous process, state function,
mechanics
statistical ensemble, temperature, thermodynamic
equilibrium, thermodynamic potential, thermodynamic
processes, thermodynamic state, thermodynamic system,
viscosity, volume, work, granular material

adiabatic approximation, black-body radiation,

correspondence principle, free particle, Hamiltonian, Hilbert
path integral formulation,
space, identical particles, matrix mechanics, Planck
scattering theory,
constant, observer effect, operators, quanta, quantization,
Quantum Schrödinger equation,
quantum entanglement, quantum harmonic oscillator,
mechanics quantum field theory,
quantum number, quantum tunneling, Schrödinger's cat,
quantum statistical
Dirac equation, spin, wave function, wave mechanics,
mechanics
wave–particle duality, zero-point energy, Pauli exclusion
principle, Heisenberg uncertainty principle

covariance, Einstein manifold, equivalence principle, four-

momentum, four-vector, general principle of relativity,
geodesic motion, gravity, gravitoelectromagnetism, inertial
frame of reference, invariance, length contraction,
special relativity, general Lorentzian manifold, Lorentz transformation, mass–energy
Relativity relativity, Einstein field equivalence, metric tensor, Minkowski diagram, Minkowski
equations space, principle of relativity, proper length, proper time,
reference frame, rest energy, rest mass, relativity of
simultaneity, spacetime, special principle of relativity, speed
of light, stress–energy tensor, time dilation, twin paradox,
world line

References
1. Feynman, Richard Phillips; Leighton, Robert Benjamin; Sands, Matthew Linzee (1963). The
Feynman Lectures on Physics. p. 1 (https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_01.html#Ch1-S
2). ISBN 978-0-201-02116-5.. Feynman begins with the atomic hypothesis, as his most
compact statement of all scientific knowledge: "If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific
knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations
..., what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is ...
that all things are made up of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion,
attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being
squeezed into one another. ..." vol. I p. I–2
 2. Perot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
856552-9.
3. Clark, John O.E. (2004). The Essential Dictionary of Science. Barnes & Noble Books.
ISBN 978-0-7607-4616-5.
4. Clausius, Rudolf (1850). "LXXIX". On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can
be deduced from it for the Theory of Heat. Dover Reprint. ISBN 978-0-486-59065-3.
5. Van Ness, H.C. (1969). Understanding Thermodynamics (https://archive.org/details/underst
andingthe00vann). Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-0-486-63277-3.
6. Dugdale, J. S. (1998). Entropy and its Physical Meaning. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 978-0-
7484-0569-5.
7. Landau and Lifshitz (1951, 1962), The Classical Theory of Fields, Library of Congress Card
Number 62-9181, Chapters 1–4 (3rd edition is ISBN 0-08-016019-0)
8. Corson and Lorrain, Electromagnetic Fields and Waves ISBN 0-7167-1823-5
9. Einstein, Albert (November 25, 1915). "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20161027044950/http://nausikaa2.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/toc/toc.x.cgi?di
r=6E3MAXK4). Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin:
844–847. Archived from the original (http://nausikaa2.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/toc/toc.x.
cgi?dir=6E3MAXK4&step=thumb) on 2016-10-27. Retrieved 2006-09-12.
10. Einstein, Albert (1916). "The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20060829045130/http://www.alberteinstein.info/gallery/gtext3.html). Annalen
der Physik. 354 (7): 769–822. Bibcode:1916AnP...354..769E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/
abs/1916AnP...354..769E). doi:10.1002/andp.19163540702 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fand
p.19163540702). Archived from the original (http://www.alberteinstein.info/gallery/gtext3.htm
l) (PDF) on 2006-08-29. Retrieved 2006-09-03.

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