Research Notes. Final

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The word research derives from the French word recherhe’ meaning to search closely where
“Chercher” means “to search” its literal meaning is to ‘to investigate thoroughly”
Definition of research
Research is an inquiry into certain phenomena. It is the search for facts/data about a situation that
should be solved or just search for knowledge.
Research is an active, diligent and systematic process of inquiry in order to discover (observing
of finding something unknown to one’s culture).interpret or revise facts, events, behaviors, or
theories, or to make practical applications with the help of such facts, laws or theories.
Research can also be defined as an organized systematic data based on critical objectives,
scientific inquiry or investigation in to a specific problem undertaken with the purpose of finding
answers or solution to it. The term ‘Research’ is also used to describe the collection of information
about a particular subject.
Generally, research refers to the organized and systematic process of collecting and analyzing data
for solving a clearly defined problem.
Researchers have to identify a problem in organizations or society at large and design a study to
collect data and solve that problem. A research problem exists when the researcher observes that
something wrong is going on in an organization/society.
In organizations, research problems arise from various functions of management.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
1. Research is directed towards solving a problem that is clearly defined.

2. Research emphasizes generalization of findings.
3. Research is done to aid the formulation of theories that needs in monitoring the future.
4. Research is based on empirical evidence i.e. findings can be cross-checked for evidence.
Another researcher should find similar findings.
5. Research demands the use of accurate instruments of data collection e.g. interviewing, use of
questionnaire, observation and review of records.
6. Research involves gathering data from both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources
are the selected respondent who provides responses to the researcher. Secondary sources are
the existing documents that the researcher can use to collect data.
7. Research aims at objectivity; there is no personal bias in the research process.
8. Research requires parsimony i.e. it is a rigorous process that requires the use of few words for
detailed meaning.
RESEARCH METHODS NOTES PREPARED BY MUGUMYA DICKENS 0782 866958 Page 1
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
An objective is defined as any kind of desired end or condition. In research study objectives refer
to specific aspect or phenomena that the researcher desires to bring out at the end of the research
study. For example, a researcher may want to carry out a research on factors that contribute to
malnutrition in Uganda. Research gives us the means of discovering the unknown around us. The
validity and accuracy of the findings is a very crucial and depends heavily on the research process
and the quality of any decision will depend on the quality of information.
Whatever the kind of research undertaken, then it will have either all or part of the following
objectives:
❖ To gain familiarity with the phenomena or to achieve new insight into it, explanatory or
formulative research study will be needed.
❖ To portray accurately the characteristics of individuals, situations or particular groups i.e.
why students strike just around exam period, will be a descriptive research design type.
❖ To determine the frequency within which something occurs or with which it is associated
with will be a diagnostic type of research.
❖ To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables i.e. how poverty leads to
crime, immaturity vs. H.I.V
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
1. Research avails relevant information that act as a basis for policy formulation, designing
and manufacturing of new products. New ways of doing things emerge due to the constant
inventions and enthusiasm and curiosity of researchers.
2. It is an agent of change that makes life better; it is a spring hold for development activities
and a basis of great discoveries. It is due to the tireless effort of researchers that the world
today has changed and will continue to change.
3. Is a guideline to strategic approach to issues in a competitive society where quality
information is required always?
4. Is a source of knowledge? It is through research that we get answers to complex problems
of nature. Think of anything you want to know of and then the first thing to come into your
mind will be to carry out research about it.
5. Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and promotes the development of
logical habit of thinking in an organization.
6. The role of research in several fields of applied Economics, whether related to business or
the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly complex
nature of business and government has focused attention on the use of research in solving
operational problems.

7. Research provides a basis for nearly all government policies in an economic system. For
instance, government budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the
people and on availability of revenues to meet these needs.
8. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems
of business and industries. Operation research and market research, along with
motivational research, are considered crucial and the results assist, in more than one way,
in taking business decisions.
9. Research is equally important for social scientist in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a
few things just for the sake of knowledge and also practical utility for social scientists to
know for the sake of being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner.
10. Diversity of problems, which can be social, economic, political, etc therefore, in order to
deal with this problem, there is need to get sufficient information, hence proper eradication
of the problem.
11. This is as old as man is because resources have never been enough and it is therefore
important that the different stakeholders carry out research in order to optimize the use of
those scarce resources.
12. Environmental changes, these changes can be technological, social economics, political
legal hence, coming up with new challenges as far as management of organization is
concerned.
Research therefore will help the researchers to monitor and follow the trend of these
factors.
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
- Desire to get a research degree long with its consequential benefits

- Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems ie concern over practical
problems initiates research.
- Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work,
- Desire to be of service to society
- Desire to get responsibility
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new
things, desire to understand casual relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may
as well motivate people to perform research preparation.
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

In the research process, the 1st step is to select and properly define the problem i.e describe what’s
wrong outside there that needs to be investigated and find solutions. Research demands the
identification of a problem to be investigated. The researcher must have something that keeps
puzzling his/her mind. Research problem refers to some difficulty, which a researcher experiences
and wishes to find solutions. The problem for research should be described to highlight what is
going out there in the organization or society.
The description must indicate the symptoms of the problem. Like a medical doctor, a researcher
must state the symptoms of the problem that he/she has observed. It’s important to realize that a
problem, well stated is a problem half solved.
SOURCES OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM
The researcher can identify the research problem from certain sources, which may include;
1. Existing Research Report

The researcher can identify weaknesses in the existing research reports. The
weaknesses can become a problem to be investigated. The weaknesses may be gaps the
findings that are contained in that researcher report.
The researcher can change the sampling techniques, data analysis and data collection
instruments. You can also change the objectives of the study and formulate your own
objective out that report.
2. Area of Specialization
The researcher can identify a research problem from his/her area of study e.g get any
aspect in your area study and investigate it as long as there is something wrong about
that aspect.
3. Personal experience
The researcher can have a puzzling experience as observed in society or organizations.
This puzzling experience becomes a research problem e.g factors causing poor
performance in a school with all good facilities required for good performance.
4. Public debate.
This can also be an important source of the research problem
5. Existing theory.
A theory is an explanation or statement for which certain proof is still needed for it to
be considered a fact but it must be reasonable.
CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING A RESEARCH PROBLEM OR TOPIC
There are a number of factors that should be considered by researchers while selecting a research
problem / topic.

1. Preliminary study:
The selection of the topic involves some early reading of relevant materials. These
materials include textbooks, journals and newspapers. This helps you to decide which topic
to choose from your reading.
2. Originality
The researcher must find something new to be investigated. A researcher should not just
duplicate somebody’s research report. The researcher should try to find some areas which
have not been investigated e.g. the researcher can change the objectives of the existing
research report. However, the researcher can also change the methodology of the existing
research report.
3. Significance of the study
This refers to the practical application of the findings of the study i.e the researcher must
show how useful are the findings of the study to the managers of the organization or
government.
4. Availability of respondents
The researcher should ensure that the respondents to provide responses (data) for the
research problem are available and accessible. The researchers should avoid research topics
for which they cannot easily collect data for analysis to solve the problem.
5. Research obstacles.
The researcher must also identify possible obstacles that are likely to affect the research
process. These obstacles could be social, professional or organizational restrictions about
the relevant data for your research problem. Therefore the researcher must be aware of
such restrictions. There is need to determine whether administrators of the area for data
collection will cooperate during data collection. In most cases the researcher has to seek
for permission from the leaders of the place for data collection.
6. Personal interest
This is a very important factor in selecting a topic or research problem for investigation. A
researcher must have real interest in what he/she intends to investigate i.e the researcher
chooses what has aroused he/her interest. The topic should be chosen by the researcher but
not the research supervisor.
7. Research Costs;
Research is expensive to be carried out; therefore it is important that the researcher makes
a budget for carrying out the study. The researcher should choose a research problem that
can take minimum resources to study i.e. make sure that you will easily collect and analyze
data without incurring much costs.
8. Time factor
It is necessary that the researcher estimates the likely time period in which he/she can carry
out the research. You should choose the topic that you can easily handle within an
approximate time. The time required to complete a research work depends on the
following:-

a) Knowledge about the research topic
b) The researcher’s commitment to work i.e not being lazy
c) The supervisor’s commitment i.e the supervisor may be too busy for the researcher.
d) The sponsor, you have to inform your sponsor in advance about financial requirements
to conduct research.
RULES FOR SELECTING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
i. Over done should not be normally chosen

ii. Controversial subjects should be avoided
iii. Narrow and vague problems should be avoided
iv. The selected subjects should be familiar and feasible so that the related materials and
sources are within ones reach.
v. The researcher should consider the practicability of the study concerned i.e.
a. Is he well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?
b. Does the study fall within the budget he can afford?
c. Are the subjects willing to co-operate or participate in the research?
vi. The selection of the problem must be preceded by a preliminary study especially when the
field of inquiry is new.
DOES RESEARCH HAVE ANY PURPOSE
Yes of course. All progress is born of inquiry. Doubts are often better than over confidence, for
they lead to inquiry and inquiry leads to invention, hence the need to research. The major purpose
of research in any given setting is discussed below:-
1. To collect data: research is purposely carried to collect data that can be a basis for easy and
quick decision – making policy formulation and management.
2. To refine established theories, laws or principles; the present body knowledge e.g. on
computer is a result of research, where each researcher begins from where his/her
predecessor stopped to enrich on the given knowledge with fresh findings. The main aim
behind refining is to improve on standards.
3. To add on the present body of knowledge in a given phenomenon, or to establish
relationship between variables.
4. To examine existing theories and know how they can be best applied.
5. To verify findings of other researchers this aims at providing or disapproving the given
findings
6. For self gratification: this is common with freelance researchers who work out of curiosity.
This sometimes may lead them to discover important issues in life.
7. To gather information or facts to be applied in decision making. This forms the major
purpose of most researched work. Information is vital in this present business world to all

managerial activities since nothing meaningful can be carried without it. A lot of funds and
time has to be invested into the acquisition, processing and storage of information.
8. To acquire complete, accurate and up to date information. To acquire information that is
cost effective verifiable, timely and relevant, there is the need for one to carry out intensive
research on a given center of interest.
9. To reduce on the dependence on intuition and experience in decision making. This helps
the concerned parties to systematically and scientifically determine facts which intuition
or experience alone cannot discover. It therefore looks at avoiding trial and error technique,
investigate real relationship between variables, and find answers to complex issues. It is
true that facts discovered through research, coupled with intuition and experience always
lead to making decisions that are optimal, hence solving complex issues.
10. To gin broad view on events, things, process and people. Research enlightens and opens to
new horizons. It makes and forces people to develop new attitudes, frames of reference and
view points to issues.
PROBLEMS FACED BY RESEARCHERS
1. Lack of recognition, many of the known researchers are given credit not only until people
have realized the importance of their researched work, something that might happen long
after their death viewed as idlers, mad or spies: this is because of the nature of their work
that makes them live an extra ordinary life, thinking and seeing things that an ordinary
mind cannot think of.
2. Lack of appropriate infrastructure, this mostly faces researchers in the third world
countries. Most libraries are poorly equipped and some places inaccessible due to poor
roads and communication systems as well as lack of securities.
3. Illiteracy about research, majority of the population is illiterate about research and do not
understand or appreciate the intention of researchers and may not be willing to co-operate
with their activities.
4. Inadequate funding, most governments and companies consist of illiterate politicians and
managers who do not value research. They view research as wastage of company or state
funds hence giving little or no priority required during the budgeting process.
5. Lack of trust, many people fear researchers and looks at them as spies or governments.
Thus they become unwilling give any information required by researcher.
6. Fear of change, most people associate with changes, something that they most wrong doers
view it as something that is going to expose their dirty linen and or reveal their weakness
leading to bad results.
7. Research demands a lot of time and effort forcing one to forego pleasure and socialism for
a noble cause. An ordinary minded person views this as madness, how can one substitute
the society with laboratory, spending all his time chasing mere insects?

QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER
❖ Have unbiased mind or intentions, he/she searches only for facts even if it might be hurting
to the society.
❖ He is goal oriented and conducts his research with a purpose within established ethical
standards
❖ He is dedicated and full of perseverance, he must be able to endure the problems associated
with research such as financial, social, political etc
❖ He endeavors to procure complete facts and with relevant attributes of acceptability and
accuracy.
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
This is the systematic investigation into a problem by clearly defining a problem, collecting and
analyzing data so as to generate knowledge or solutions to the problem.
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
This refers to the stages the researcher passes through if he is to make sound and conclusive
research. The different steps guide the researcher right from the problem identification or
definition to the communication of results. A research without direction is like a river without a
source.
Any research carried out follows a systematic process of eleven steps;

a) Identifying a problem and defining it
b) Stating the objective of the study
c) Developing the hypothesis
d) Reviewing the related literature
e) Choosing and designing Research methods
f) Designing questionnaires
g) Carrying out a pilot study and sampling
h) Organizing of resources
i) Conducting the research
j) Processing the results
k) Reporting the findings

Every step in research process is as important as the other, and must be handled with great effort
and necessary care whatsoever. Students who are in their final year should note with keen interest
that the moment one messes with any process, will end up producing fake report and probably
failing to graduate.
As I discuss through each process you shall be able to appreciate the importance of each step within
the process.
STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
There are certain steps that the researcher should follow while using the scientific method.
1. Identification and definition of the problem.

The scientific study starts by identifying and defining a problem that is supposed to be
investigated. A problem should be defined in such a way that one can observe and measure.
A problem is a felt difficulty that keeps on puzzling the researcher or is affecting a company
performance.
2. Stating the objective of the study

Research objectives are the required or expected outcome of an investigation/study. They
are the specific information the researcher intends to find out or obtain.
The research objectives must be SMART I.E Specific, measurable, achievable, and realistic
and time bound.
The importances of the objectives are;
i. They direct and guide the research study
ii. They act as a control device in case the researcher is digressing or , deviating
iii. objectives are a yardstick for assessing the success of the research study
3. Formulation of Hypothesis.
Once the problem is defined, the next step is to formulate the hypothesis. The hypothesis
provides a possible likelihood of what can happen in solving the problem after collecting the
data. A hypothesis is a tentative statement predicting what is likely to be found out after data
is collected and analyzed. For one to formulate hypothesis, he/she must do much reading about
the information related to the problem.
4. Reviewing the related literature
Literature review is a summary of previous research on a topic. Literature review can be either
a part of the bibliographic essay that is published separately in a scholarly journal. Either way,

the purpose is the same, to review the scholarly literature relevant to the topic you are studying.
This review will help you design your methodology and help others to interpret your research.
5. Research design
Research design is the framework or plan for a study that is used as a guide in collecting
and analyzing the data. It is the blueprint that is followed in completing a study. It specifies
the methods and procedures for acquiring he information needed.
6. Designing questionnaires
Is a printed form with questions given to a group of people to fill in order to collect data
and the question relate to the problem being studied.
7. carrying out a pilot study and sampling

The researcher visits the area where the study will take place and chooses representative
number of respondents from the entire study population.
8. Organizing of resources
Resources to use in the study can be got such as equipment eg recorders, tools and
stationery.
9. Conducting the research

It involves collecting data. It is important to collect relevant data which can be used to find out
whether the hypotheses are correct. The data can be collected using certain research
instruments.
These instruments include:-
- Interview guide
- Self administered questionnaires
- Observation checklist
- Review of documents
10. Processing the results and Data analysis

The data collected must be analyzed in relation to the stated hypotheses. At this stage, the
researcher can accept or reject the hypotheses after analyzing the data. If the data you collected
and analyzed support the hypothesis then you can accept the stated hypotheses. However, if
the data does not support the hypothesis then the researcher rejects the hypothesis. There is
need to test the hypothesis through statistical analysis.
11. Reporting the findings
The study finding are organized and written into a research report.

RESEARCH VARIABLES
A variable is anything that can change/differ/vary in value. This difference in value can be for an
individual, object, group, organization or event. This value can differ at various times for the same
individual, object, group, organization, event, or it can differ at the same time for different
individuals, objects, groups, organizations, events. For example, one person can have different
marks in different examinations (examination one, 52; examination two, 88; and examination
three, 90). Alternatively, different people can have different marks in the same examination
(examination one). The different scores are different values, therefore scores are a variable. In
research, variables are the characteristics/ conditions that the researcher manipulates/
controls/observes, for example, absenteeism, motivation, income.
Categories of Variables:
1. Dependant Variables:
These are the variables that change/appear/disappear as the researcher
changes/introduces/removes other variables. They are in other wards the effects produced. They
are the variables of primary interest to the researcher, the main variables that the researcher
investigates. The researcher’s goal is to understand and describe them or to explain why they
vary, or to predict them. Though analyzing the dependent variables (i.e finding out what variables
influence them), it is possible for the researcher to find a solution to the problem under study. For
example, a manager is concerned that the sales of a product that are not as high as he had expected.
Because sales can vary (low, medium, high), sales is a variable and because sales are the main
factor of interest to the manager, sales is the dependent variable.
There can be more than one dependent variable is a study. For example, both quality and volume
of output of a product vary and are of primary interest (i.e. are dependent variables) A study can
set out to investigate what factors influence quality and volume, and whether those factors
influence these variables in the same way.
2. Independent Variables:
These are the variables that influence the dependent variable in either a positive or negative way.
They are the variables the researcher manipulates, handles, controls to a certain relationship to
the dependent variable. Independent variables are the cause. Theyare the variables that produce
the effect. With each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or decrease
in the dependent variable. The variance in the dependent variable is therefore accounted for by
the independent variable.
For example, in a study on how professional training affects the production levels of employees,
production levels is the subject of interest and is therefore the dependent variable. Professional
training which explains the variance in production levels is the independent variable.

3. Extraneous Variables:
An extraneous variable is a factor in the study that might influence the dependent variable besides
the independent variable. It is any other variable other than the independent variable that might
have an effect on the dependent variable. It is variable that obscures the effect of the independent
variable on the dependent variable. It confounds/confuses the true effect of the independent
variable. Alternative names for extraneous variables are exogenous / confounding / confusing/
contaminating / nuisance variables. For example, in a study on the effect of intelligence on
performance, intelligence is the independent variable and performance is the dependent variable.
However, there are some other factors other than intelligence that may affect performance and that
may obscure the effect that intelligence may have on performance. Examples of these factors are
hunger, distance from school, family problems, financial problems and lack of textbooks. These
are extraneous variables.
If these extraneous variables are not controlled, it is difficult to evaluate the actual effect of the
independent variable on the dependent variable and it is difficult to generalize the findings. This
is because the effect of the independent variable is confused with the effect of the extraneous
variables.
SOURCES OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
Because extraneous variables can obscure the effect of the independent variable on the dependent
variable, the researcher must find a way of controlling them. Before he can control them however,
he needs to establish their source.
1. Physical Environment Factors:

The physical environment in which the research is conducted can obscure the effect of the
independent variable on the dependent variable, and consequently the results of the study.
Examples are variations in temperature, different times of day, background noise, and amount of
lighting available. For instance, people interviewed during the morning will respond differently
from those interviewed in the afternoon because people tend to be fresher and more responsive in
the morning than they are in the afternoon.
2. Attributes of the Participants:
The characteristics of the people taking part in the study can also be extraneous. For example,
people who are not the same age, sex, weight or intelligence will respond differently in a study.
4. Variations in procedure:

When aspects of procedure are not held constant for each participating group, extraneous
variables are introduced in the study. Examples: The researcher may vary the instructions slightly
from person to person. He may give some participants more time to perform a task. The
participants may tell the researcher what they think he wants to hear instead of what is actually
the truth. The researcher may behave differently towards each participant. The researcher may be
biased. For example, he may record information according to the way he expects it to be even
when the actual truth is the opposite.
TECHNIQUES OF CONTROLLING EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
Procedures of controlling extraneous variables;
1. Eliminating
Whenever possible, extraneous variables can be entirely removed from the study if they
are known to influence the dependent variable. For example, if noise is interfering with a
study, it can be eliminated if the study is moved to a noiseless place. If light is interfering
with an experiment, the experiment can be move d to a dark place.
2. Holding Constant
If the extraneous variable is difficult to eliminate, hold it constant so that it is the same for
all the subjects participating in the study. Examples are, giving them the same instructions,
interviewing them at the same time every day, and selecting those of the same intelligence
(through an intelligence test).
3. Balancing
If eliminating the extraneous variables is impossible, you may balance or equalize the
extraneous variable by use of a control group. So there is an experimental group and a
control group. The subjects in each group are initially equivalent. They are only treated
differently with regard to the independent variable of interest. For example, if there are
three known extraneous variables, and they cannot be eliminated, their effect can be
balanced out by allowing them to operate on both the experimental group and the control
group. In this way, only the independent variable, which is administered to only the
experimental group, can differently affect the two groups. For example, if sex is the
extraneous variable, the study can be designed in a way that ensures that the numbers of
males and females participating in the study are the same (balanced).
4. Counter balancing:
If the researcher has different tasks to expose to alimited number of subjects, he can use
the counter balancing technique to control the extraneous variables. For example, where
there are two tasks, A, and B, and the subjects must perform each one of them once, counter

balancing the tasks must be used. The number of subjects is randomly divided into two
groups (Group 1 and Group 2). The groups are then given the tasks in the following order:
group1: Task A then Task B: Group 2: Task B then Task A. The order extraneous effects
of performing the tasks are consequently neutralized.
5. Making the Extraneous Variable an Independent Variable:
If the extraneous variable cannot be eliminated completely, or cannot be controlled in a
way, but the researcher has identified it, he must incorporate it as one of his extra
independent variables.
For example in a study of the effect of alcohol on typing speed of secretaries, the type
oftypewriter used (manual or electric) can be extraneous variable. The researcher can
design the study to incorporate type of typewriter used as an extra independent variable
in addition to consumption of alcohol. He will then have two groups: Group A and Group
B. Group A (the control group), who will not be given alcohol, will type using manual
typewriter, after which they will type using electronic typewriters. Group B (the
experimental group), who will begiven alcohol, will also type using typewriter after which
they will type using electronic typewriters. In this way, the effect of type of machine used
will be distinct from the effect of consuming alcohol.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Qualitative research
Qualitative research applies to non-quantitative methods and techniques in collecting and

analyzing data. It is non-numerical. It uses words. The purpose is to get the picture, the meaning
and the feeling. It tries to get and describe the situation which is experienced by the respondents.
It uses theories and methods of school such as phenomenology or intellectualism. It involves the
use of in-depth interviews, projective techniques, sentence completion, word association test,
panels and focus group discussions etc.
2. Quantitative research
Quantitative research is based on positivism. It uses positivistic methodology and principles. It is

set by the researcher at the beginning of the research work. It is a numerical method. It uses
numbers. It applies statistics. It uses figures
3. Basic research
Basic (or pure or fundamental) research is conducted to generate findings that can improve the
understanding of general issues, without emphasis on the immediate application of these findings.
It is also conducted where the problem is not specific. The primary aim of basic research is to
make a contribution to knowledge (for the general good), not to solve a specific problem in one

organization. It simply tries to understand issues that generally occur in organizations. It is the
most academic type of research.
An example is what factors contribute to absenteeism? (Later an organization which encounters

this problem of absenteeism can use the findings of this study to determine the factors that are
relevant to its particular situation). Another example is Do personal characteristics influence
peoples career choices?
In any one particular study, a number of these categories and types overlap. For example, the aim
of a study may be to describe particular business activity (purpose), by collecting data (process),
which will be used to solve a problem (outcome).
4. Applied Research or Action Research
Applied research is conducted to solve current problems. Its findings are used (applied) to solve
existing problems. Examples are Reduction of wastage of raw materials; improved safety in the
workplace; increase in sales of a product.
Applied research is done on social and policy matters for the purpose of solving specific problems
or to establish policy program. This study includes impact study, cost benefit analysis. Action
research is application of fact finding to practical solving for the purpose of improving the quality
of action in the social world.
5. Explanatory research:
The aim of this research is to explain events and relation in the social structure. To do this the
researcher links factors and the element in order to explain how the things and how things work.
6. Theory testing and theory building:
Theory testing means you have a theory and you want to test it. Building theory means you research
to end up with theory. Theory tries to formulate, establish theory. It provides data and evidence to
support theory. Theory testing tries to test validity of a theory. For example a black man marries a
black woman. When the woman conceives she will give birth to a black baby. This is to build a
theory.
7. Exploratory research:
It focuses on gaining insights and familiarity with an area of study. It is done where no previous
study or where few studies have been carried out on an issue. It is therefore useful where little
previous information exists on an issue. It aims at looking for new patterns about the issue, not
confirming existing ones. It does not provide conclusive answers to issues but gives guidance on
what future research should be conducted on them.

An example is exploring “What might motivate employees to increase productivity” with the aim
of seeing if a research problem can be formulated from the findings.
8. Comparative research
Comparative research is aimed at drawing some similarities and differences between units. You
can compare different events; different faces, different units, different people, and different
situation to see or note the behaviour are the same
9. Descriptive Research:
This describes an issue as it exists. It is done to identify and obtain information on the
characteristics of a particular issue. It therefore goes further in examining an issue than exploratory
research.
Examples:
What is the absentee rule in particular?
What are the feelings of workers faced with retrenchment?
What are the qualifications of different groups of employees?
10. Analytical research:

It analyzes and explains why and how an issue is happening. It looks for and measures the casual
relations among the aspects investigated. It controls these aspects to allow better explanation of
the casual links between them. It therefore goes beyond merely describing. It is a continuation of
the descriptive.
Examples:
How can the number of complaints made by customers be reduced?
How can the company’s range of services be expanded?
11. Predictive Research

It predicts/forecasts the likelihood of issues similar to the current one occurring elsewhere. It seeks
to get a solution to the issue in the current study, which can be used to solve similar issues
elsewhere. It aims to provide answers to the current problem and also to similar problems in future.
Examples:
What type of packaging will improve the sales of our product?
How would an increase in interest rates affect our profit?
Will the introduction of an employee bonus scheme lead to higher levels of productivity?
Illustration of the types under purpose using the same setting;-
Exploratory: What might motivate employees? (To see if a problem can be formulated).
Descriptive: How are these employees rewarded and what measures are used to record
their productivity levels?

Analytical: What is the relationship between the rewards given to these Employees and
their productivity levels?
Predictive: Which variable should be changed in order to bring about a change In the
productivity levels of the employees/
12. Deductive Research:
In this type, a conceptual and theoretical structure model/framework is developed and then tested
by empirical observation (i.e. particular instances are deducted from general inferences). It
therefore moves from the general to the specific. For example, you read about theories of
motivation (general), and you test them in your work place (particular).
13. Inductive Research:
Theory is developed from observation of empirical reality. General inferences are induced from
particular instances. It moves from individual observation to a statement of general patterns. It
therefore moves from the specific to the general. For example, you may observe that production
levels go down after two hours of night shift (specific), and conclude that production levels vary
with the length of time worked (general).
DEFINING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
This precedes all other activities in the research process. Nothing meaningful can take place not
unless there is an issue to investigate. One needs to know first what to research about. It is through
this process that one answers the questions of what? ‘why?’ and ‘how’ the problem should be
clearly stated and a hypothesis developed. When selecting a research problem a researcher should
keep in mind the availability of time, money, subject of study and equipment needed. Defining a
problem is all about clarifying issues and aiding the research to focus attention on what is relevant
to the problem. It paves the way to proper course of action, uncovers the nature and boundary of
the problem and gives guidance to the researcher to design appropriate methodology and sampling
method. It is from the defined problem that research questions are developed. Recall that a research
problem is a statement that they convey the purpose of the research study. The statement focuses
on the phenomenon that the researcher desires to describe, predict, control or explain. Some
researchers express the problem statement in question form. The research problem is regarded as
the root cause of the unwanted situation in the organization. Several research situations however,
in defining the problem, there is need to explain the environment in which the problem exists. This
will give a wide (fat) foundation to the research problem. A badly defined problem will mislead
the researcher and there by wasting time and effort.
THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Research objectives are the required or expected outcome of an investigation/study. They are the
specific information the researcher intends to find out or obtain.

The research objectives must be SMART I.E Specific, measurable, achievable,realistic and time
bound.
The importance of the objectives of the study is;
i.They direct and guide the research study

ii.They act as a control device in case the researcher is digressing or , deviating
iii.objectives are a yardstick for assessing the success of the research study
Once researcher had introduced the general area, narrowed it down to specific areas, and then
comes the task of stating the purpose of the study, which is the central pint of any research. It
should therefore be accurately expressed so that the research process is carried out with ease. The
researcher should avoid bias and subjective words in the sentences. He should pay attention on
verb phrases that should never be used when stating a purpose such as
❖ Strikes in public university

❖ Nutrition in Uganda
❖ Lack of creativity in college students etc
Examples of good purpose statement include:
❖ The purpose of this study is to investigate the resource management skills of women in
small business in Kenya.
❖ The purpose of this is to compare the effect of three types of cattle feeds in the productivity
of milk in cows.
THE HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a researcher’s prediction regarding the outcome of the study. It is a tentative

statement or assumption made in order to draw out and test its consequences. It is prediction in
advance of the effect the independent variable will have on the dependent variable. Hypotheses
are derived from existing theories; personal observation or experience and each hypothesis explain
the predicable relationship between two concepts. A hypothesis provide a tentative answer to a
problem, paves way for further investigation issues, it is a basis for setting specific objectives,
developing good methodology and facilities the delimitation of the study. The discussions of the
findings and the drawing if interferences (conclusions) depend on the hypothesis. This could be
simple or complex in nature. A simple hypothesis contains of only two variables where as a
complex one consists of more than two. A simple hypothesis could be associative or casual in
nature. The associate hypothesis tests the relationship between two variables that have a casual
effect on another where as the casual hypothesis presupposes a casual relationship between two
variables.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS
❖ Should be clearly and concisely stated

❖ Should be simple to understand
❖ Should portray a relationship with the problem being investigated
❖ Should show the stand of the researcher
❖ Should be easy to test, verifiable, limited in scope and consistent with the problem being
studied.
Common Formats of Hypotheses:
The format of a hypothesis can be a proposition or if statement
Examples:
Proposition: Employees who are healthy will take sick leave less frequently.
If statement: If employees are healthy, they will take sick leave less frequently.
Categorization of Hypotheses:
1. Simple/ Complex hypothesis
A simple hypothesis states a relationship between two variables only, one independent variable
and one dependent variable. Example: There is a relationship between age and job satisfaction.
A complex hypothesis states a relationship between two or more independent variables and two or
more dependent variables. It, in other words, contains more than two variables. Example: There is
a relationship between age, gender and job satisfaction.
2. Null (Hp)/ alternative (Ha) hypothesis
3. Directional/non directional hypothesis
RESEARCH ETHICS
Ethics is the standard of behavior that distinguishes what is right and wrong. A researcher should
describe how he will ensure that ethical requirements are upheld n the study. The major ethical
issues of concern are;
1. Informed consent
This means that the research respondents have been adequately informed about the procedures of
the study in which they have been asked to participate.

Respondents should be free at any time to discontinue their participation in research.
2. Right to privacy
Participants have a right to keep from the public certain information about themselves
3. Anonymity
Names or other forms of identification should be excluded if accurate information is to be

maintained.
4. Confidentiality
This refers to the agreement between individuals that limits others access to private information
especially information that may harm the individual on whom the research is being carried on.
5. Researchers responsibility/Respect/Dignity
A researcher must be sensitive to human dignity and well meaning to his intentions
6. Presentation of facts
The researcher should not falsify facts in a given study.
DATA COLLECTION
Data is defined as raw facts, numbers and figures. The data you collect from field is what you will
analyze and interpret to get solutions to your problems of research.
Information is defined as processed data.
The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design/
plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the
researcher should keep in mind two types of data i.e. primary and secondary.
The primary dataare those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to
be original in character.
The secondary data,on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone
else and which have already been passed through the statistical process. The researcher would have
to decide which sort of data he would be using (thus collecting) for his study and accordingly he
will have to select one or the other method of data collection. The methods of collecting primary
and secondary data differ since primary data are to be originally collected, while in case of
secondary data the nature of data collection work is merely that of compilation. We describe the
different methods of data collection, with the pros and cons of each method.

COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research but
in case we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether sample surveys or
census surveys, then we can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct
communication with respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews.* This, in
other words, means that there are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in
surveys and descriptive researches. Important ones are: (i) observation method, (ii) interview
method, (iii) through questionnaires, (iv) through schedules, and (v) other methods which include
(a) warranty cards; (b) distributor audits; (c) pantry audits; (d) consumer panels; (e) using
mechanical devices; (f) through projective techniques; (g) depth interviews, and (h) content
analysis. We briefly take up each method separately.
COMMON TOOLS/METHODS USED TO COLLECTPRIMARY DATA
A tool is a technique or method used to gather data.
The different trends are quantified using measurable instruments and provide different types of
data. One needs to understand the trend, the tools and the type of data.
The major data gathering tools are classified broadly into the following:
1. Questionnaire
2. Interview
3. Observation
1. QUESTIONNAIRE
Is a printed form with questions given to a group of people to fill in order to collect data
and the question relate to the problem being studied.
Summary of Important Considerations in a Questionnaire Design
1. Determine the information objectives and the number of information required to meet
those objectives.
2. Determine the specific data requirements (i.e., the size) for each information flowerpot,
and stack the pots from largest to smallest.
3. Introduction section should include a general description of what the study is pertaining
to; this may well be in a disguised format.

4. All types of instructions, if necessary, should be given clear expression.
5. Perhaps most important, the question/scale measurements have to follow some logical
order—that is, an order that appears logical to the respondent rather than to the researcher
or practitioner.
6. Begin an interview or questionnaire with simple questions that are easy to respond to,
and then gradually lead up to the more difficult questions. Create a general-to-specific data
flow.
7. Postpone highly personal questions (state-of-being data) until late in the interview or
survey (i.e., place in the base after the last information flowerpot).
8. Place questions that involve psychological tests (i.e., lifestyle beliefs) toward the end of
the interview or survey, but before the identification base.
9. Do not ask too many questions of the same measurement format (i.e., nominal, ordinal,
interval, ratio scale formats) in sequence.
10. Taper off an interview or survey with a few relatively simple questions that do not
require extensive thoughts or expressions of feelings (i.e., the demographic data questions
are very appropriate here).
11. Always end the interview or survey with the appropriate thank-you statement.
12. They should be factual, knowledgeable and opinion questions.
13. When designing a questionnaire one should use the simple words possible and the
questions should be conversational and of a friendly nature rather than intimidating.
14. There is need to consider the least educated and as such efforts have to be made to
translate the questionnaire into the language of the respondent.
13. Care should be taken in designing the questionnaire on the following words. I.e.
confusing words or questions, vague questions, hypothetical (imaginary) or memory
questions.
Advantages of a questionnaire
- They are cheap to administer

- Respondents feel free to express views they fear might be disapproved.
- Respondents answer questions at their own pace, so can consider each point carefully rather
than reply with the first thought that comes in mind.
- A questionnaire is a hardcopy that can be filed for references purposes.

- It gives standard questions and almost uniform answers that can be quantified or processed
easily.
- Any person other than the researcher herself can distribute a questionnaire.
- It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
- Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
- Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and
reliable.
Disadvantages of a questionnaire
- Some respondents may not return the questionnaire

- Time consuming and expensive
- The questionnaire may not be filled completely.
- It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating. It Can’t be used with
children or illiterates
- The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
- There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been dispatched.
- There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain
questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
- It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
- This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
Nature of questions to avoid when designing a questionnaire
1."Double-barreled” questions should be avoided?Are you satisfied with the price and the
service of Taco Bell?
2. Sensitive Questions. These are questions that hurt the feelings and emotions of the
respondents eg;
Do you know of any adult who eats frosted flakes?”

“How about yourself?”
3. Avoid ambiguous words vague meaning
Don’t you think, because it’s so greasy, fast-food is one of the worst types of food?
4. Avoid leading questions. They suggest answers to the question eg don’t you go to church
every Sunday?
2. OBSERVATION

This is a method in which a person observes what is occurring in a real life situation, recording
what is happening. In this method the researcher observes the activities of thesubjects
following the observation guide.
TYPES OF OBSERVATION
a) Direct Observation (Non- Participant)

Is wherethe researcher performs observation without interfering with life of respondents in a
natural setting; it’s sometimes called naturalistic observation.
Advantages
- Behaviors and other observable events can be described in great detail, maintaining the
natural sequence of events.
- It is less time consuming and so a researcher can observe a larger sampling of people and
events.
- Information is less likely to be influenced by the observer’s bias little memory and emotion
is involved in recording of events.
- Data are more amenable (agreeable) to statistical analysis. This means that communities
can be compared and statistical relations between events are concluded.
- Inter-observer reliability and reliability of time can be examined to enhance credibility of
data.
Disadvantages
- People might not be used to having strangers record their actions and may feel
uncomfortable at first.
- The data collected may just be clues because a non-participant observer does not question
people about their action.
b) Participant Observation
The researcher is a participant in the daily life or on-going activities, of the people being
studied over a period of time. A close relationship develops between the researcher and the
participants as they go about their normal activities.
Advantages
- Hidden behavior can be revealed, for example, circumcision among the Sabiiny
- Actions are described in the natural setting
- The meanings and words people attach to events can be described. This helps to design a
sensitive intervention that will be meaningful to the community.
Disadvantages

- Time consuming and its credibility depend on the expertise of the observer.
- Some variables cannot be observed, for example, mental work.
- Sequences of events are not reliable, that is low reliability and consistency of behavior may
be different.
Note: Sequences of events do not address the reliability of connection between two
events. Many events may precede a health problem, but only some of these will be
reliably connected with the problem.
Qn: Discuss the merits and demerits of observation method
Merits
1. The method gives more reliable and accurate information. It gives first hand impression
that remove doubts.
2. It elicits a high response rate. The physical presence of the enumerators or research
assistants prompts respondents to cooperate
3. It enables the researcher to view or evaluate the situation and circumstances of the
respondents
4. Information is collected there and then with least inconveniences
5. It enables the researcher to clarify some questions on the spot
6. The method allows interpersonal warmth and reduces reluctance to respond
Demerits
1. The same event may be perceived and interpreted differently by different people.
Observation is therefore subjective and biased
2. It is a time consuming method and costly especially if research is conducted over a wider
geographical area
3. Observers tend to get destructed and they fail to note down important facts and they forget
most facts that are not written down
3. INTERVIEWING
This is a one-to-one method of collecting data by asking participants questions. In other words, an
interview is a face – to-face conversation between the interviewer and respondent in order to obtain
information from the respondent.
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
Structured/Formal: This provides limited response i.e.Yes/ No, True/False, Agree/disagree.

Semi-structured: This is open and leaves the individuals to respond in his/her own way.
Unstructured: it is a spontaneous interview with no particular order to follow or present questions

to respond to. The respondent determines the shape interview takes. The interviewer asks any
question that comes into mind according to the context of the exercise.
TECHNIQUES OF INTERVIEWING
a. Preparation: plan for interview carefully in order to obtain effective information. For example
(i) What kind of information (data) do you need?
(ii) Do you need structured or unstructured interview questionnaire?
(iii) Prepare the questions in advance.
b. Conducting the interview
• Make an appointment
• Keep time
• Establish a rapport with interviewee to make him feel at ease.
• Start with pleasant conversation
• The following rules are followed
• Ask one question ata time
• Repeat the question if necessary
• Try to make the respondent understand the question
• Listen to the response carefully
• Observe the respondent’s facial expression, gestures and tone of voice.
• Allow sufficient time for response, don’t hurry the interview.
• Avoid suggesting answers to question or opinions
• Do not show sign of surprise, shock, anger or other emotions if the respondents give
unexpected answers
• Take note of vague, obvious or excessive answers and ask for more clarification
• If interview is not structured ask additional questions.
• End interview in the set time.
c. Recording the interview
Recording is as important as preparation or conducting an interview. You can make use of
schedule, a structured rating scale or tape recorder to record responses.
Advantages of interviewing
- Interview permits greater depth of response than in self-administered questionnaire

- The interviewer can ask the interviewee to thoroughly explain a given response.
- The interviewer can get information on feelings and emotions in relation to certain question
because he can be with the respondent physically.
- More information and in greater depth can be obtained.

- There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is
always there, especially in case of unstructured interviews.
- Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing
returns; non-response generally remains very low.
- The language of the interview can be adapted to the ability or educational level of the
person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.
- The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s personal
characteristics and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.
Disadvantages of interviewing
- Not all researchers have the skill of interviewing yet the effectiveness of the interview
depends on it.
- Even in the presence of a skilled interviewer some interviewees will not respond frankly
and accurately.
- It is a very expensive method, especially when large and widely spread geographical
sample is taken.
- There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent;
there also remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.
- Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high
income groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the
data may prove inadequate.
- This method is relatively more-time-consuming, especially when the sample is large and
recalls upon the respondents are necessary.
- The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes
even to the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview
interesting.
- Under the interview method the organization required for selecting, training and
supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable problems.
- Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
- Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would facilitate free
and frank responses. This is often a very difficult requirement.
TELEPHONE INTERVIEW/SURVEY
This is a method whereby data is collected through telephone conversation with respondents. The
researchers randomly select telephone numbers from of a population of interest and contact the
respondents for the relevant data at convenient times.
Advantages
- It respondents over a wider geographical area. There are avenues for probes and
clarification of issues on the spot.

- The respondents can be interviewed from anywhere anytime and on the spot. The
respondents can be interviewed from anywhere at their convenience and flexibility.
- It takes less time
- Even people who are shy could feel comfortable with this method.
- It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
- It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
- It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively
low.
- Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
- There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-response
is generally very low.
- Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
- Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
- At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one
reason or the other.
- No field staff is required.
- Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible
Disadvantages
- Like all tools involving people, even this method is prone to human errors, bias, prejudices
or
- Weakness, some respondents may turn out cooperative. It may be very difficult to across
telephones numbers of sampled respondents.
- Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is not likely to
exceed five minutes in most cases.
- Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.
- Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations.
- It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required to various
questions.
- Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.

- Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle.
MAIL SURVEY
When research is to be conducted over a wider geographical or extensively, where the sample is
identifiable, a cheaper or method to apply would be a mail survey. The mail should always be
accompanied by a covering letter to explain in detail the purpose of the study and requesting
respondents to co-operate in the mater.
In this method, questionnaires are posted to respondent. The respondents are supposed to mail
them back after filling them. A postage stamp should always be included on the return envelope.
Advantages
- It is a cheaper means of data collection over a wider area.

- It can reach a population in distant areas
- It can reduce the costs associated with enumerators, or research assistants.
- Filled questionnaires can be preserved for reference purpose.
- There is no superior – subordinate effects, and interviewer bias that tends to breed fear and
anxiety in some respondents.
- Even shy respondents can feel comfortable with the tool. It is filled at the ease of the
respondents – she can even consult other sources for more information before filling the
questionnaire.
Disadvantages
- Some people fear to give incriminating data in their own handwriting.

- The researcher has no chance of probing some of the answers given.
- The method is flexible in terms of responses required to questions.
- The answers are given according to the meaning attached o the question by a respondent.
- The method takes long to implement. The preparation of questionnaires, mailing them to
the respondents and back, is a slow exercise.
- Low response rate as some respondents refuse to cooperate
- It does not generate nonverbal cues that are important in the proper comprehension of the
message.
- Researcher has no control over exercise of answering, and the order of answering.
Cues for successful mail Survey
- The spacing of questions should be adequate

- Mind the number of copies, and length of the questionnaire.
- Mind the order of the questions

- Different types of questions should be included
- Questionnaire should be attractive.
- It should be accompanied by a good covering letter
- Make it easier to fill and convenient to mail back
- Mind the type of people to whom questions are mailed.
Survey through enumerators / research assistants
A common medium for collecting data is through enumerators/ research assistants. They use
questionnaires, interview guides, observation guides, or any other tools to collect data from
respondents. Normally the researcher begins by the introduction of the exercise with official letters
goes on to solicit the respondent to cooperate.
Enumerators / Assistants are employed to physically carry the questionnaires around, asking and
filling the form by themselves. This approach increases the response rate and quality of the
answers. The researcher / enumerators are present to clarify ideas where it is necessary. They can
explain in detail the aims and objectives of the study and solicit co-operation of respondents. This
method can also be applied on illiterate people. In fact, it takes the form of a structured interview.
The researcher / assistants can ensure the accuracy of the answers by rephrasing some ambiguous
statements.
However, this method is expensive and time consuming. It applies best in limited geographical
areas. The enumerators allowances and logistic make method expensive. The success of the
exercise depends on the skill and efficiency of enumerators.
ELECTRONIC MAIL SURVEYS
The modern way of collecting quality data is through computer net works like the internet,
intranets, and extranets (desk research). The internet offers information almost on all fields of
study at a low cost. Respondents can be reached faster through their e-mails. The method can even
allow interactive techniques of chatting with relevant respondents.
Advantages
1. Cheap it is a cheap and convenient method of accessing and collecting data from a rich
source.
2. It is one of the faster data collection methods – questionnaires can be posted through
individual users’ emails boxes.
3. Responses can be instant.
4. Through the internet relevant contacts can be made with respondents of interest worldwide.
5. Like the mail survey, the tool may not reveal the identity of the respondent.
6. Wide coverage of respondents all over the world.

Disadvantages
1. It is may be difficult to secure relevant e-mail addresses.

2. The tool requires effective desk research skills which most researchers lack.
3. There is a possibility of bias in the selection of sample – the number of people with
computers is limited in third world countries.
4. The tool has the weaknesses of lack of non verbal cues as the mail survey. The verbal cues
bolster the meaning.
5. The researcher has no control over the exercise as it is in an interview. Most would be
respondents may not have access to computers.
COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analysed by someone else. When the researcher utilises
secondary data, then he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In
this case he is certainly not confronted with the problems that are usually associated with
the collection of original data. Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished
data. Usually published data are available in: (a) various publications of the central, state
are local governments; (b) various publications of foreign governments or of international
bodies and their subsidiary organisations; (c) technical and trade journals; (d) books,
magazines and newspapers; (e) reports and publications of various associations connected
with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.; (f) reports prepared by research
scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and (g) public records and
statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information. The sources of
unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies
and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research workers, trade
associations, labour bureaus and other public/ private individuals and organizations.
Sources of secondary data

Benefits and Limitations of Secondary Data
Benefits
• Low cost
• Less effort
• Less time
• Sometimes more accurate
• Sometimes only way to obtain data
Limitations
• Collected for some other purpose
• No control over data collection
• May not be accurate
• May not be in correct form
• May be outdated
• May not meet data requirements

• Assumptions have to be made
LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature review is a summary of previous research on a topic. Literature review can be either a
part of the bibliographic essay that is published separately in a scholarly journal. Either way, the
purpose is the same, to review the scholarly literature relevant to the topic you are studying. This
review will help you design your methodology and help others to interpret your research.
The researcher must explain all the related literature available and get himself acquainted with the
selected problem. Library research / survey involve collecting secondary data from the work of
other researcher, academicians or records of existing organizations. Library research is cheaper if
well equipped library is near the researcher; it saves time and energy and may give data that is
impossible to get using other methods. However, some materials more so in public libraries of
third world countries are out dated and might not serve the purpose of the researcher.
Some questions you may think about as you develop your literature review
- What is known about the subject?

- Are there gaps in knowledge of the subject?
- Have areas of further study been identified by other researchers that you may want to
consider?
- Who are the significant research personalities in this area?
- Is there consensus about the topic/
- What aspects have generated significant debate on the topic?
- What methods or problems were identified by others studying in the field and how might
they impact your research?
- What is the most productive methodology for your research based on the literature you
have reviewed?
SOURCES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
They are categorized into
a) Primary sources. The researcher communicates the researched information directly to the
reader. For example eye witness
b) Secondary sources for example journals, text books etc
c) General sources. For example abstract, indices that list author, title of articles
More sources of literature review
1. Journal articles:
These are good especially for your update information. Bear in mind that, though it can take
to two years to publish articles. Theyare frequently used in literature reviews because they
offer relatively concise, up-to-date, format for research, and because all reputable journals are
referred (i.e. editors publish only the most relevant and reliableresearch)
Note: Quote in every paragraph
Ref: Initialize the second names
2. Books:
Books tend to be less up-to-date as it take longer for a book to be published than a journal.
Text books are unlikely to be useful to be included in your literature review as they are intended
for teaching not for research, but they can offer a good starting point from which to find more
information.
3. Conference proceedings:
These can be useful in providing the latest research or research that has not been published.
They are also useful in providing information on which people are currently involved in which
areas, and so can be so helpful in tracking down other work by the same researcher.
4. Government / corporate reports:
Many government departments and corporations, commissions carry out research or surveys.
Their published findings can provide a useful source of information depending on your field
of study.
5. Newspapers
Since news papers are generally intended for a general (not specialized) audience, the
information they provide will be of very limited use for your literature review. Often they are
more helpfulas providers of information about recent trends, discoveries or changes e.g
announcing changes in the government policy, but its important to search formore detailed
information about the discover, from other sources.
6. Theses and dissertation:
These can be useful source of information. However, they are disadvantageous
i) They can be difficult to obtain since they are not published, but they are generally
always in the library shelf or through inter library loan.
ii) The students who carried out research may not be experienced researchers andtherefore
you might have to treat their findings with caution than published research.
7. Internet
The fastest growing source of information is on the internet its impossible to characterize
informationavailable but there are some hints about using electronic sources
i) Bear in mind that anyonecan post information on the internet so the quality may not be
reliable
ii) The information you find may be intended for general audience hence not suitable for
inclusion in your literature review (the information for general audience may be less
detailed)
iii) More and more refered electronic journals are appearing on the internet.

8. CD- ROMS
At the moment, few CD Roms provide specialized, detailed information about
academicresearch that you need for your own research since most are intended for general
audience. However, more and more bibliographies are being put on the CD-ROMS for use in
the academic libraries, so they can be a very valuable tool for the information you need.
9. Magazines
Magazine s intended for a general audience (eg time) is unlikely useful in providing the sort of
information you need. Specialized magazines may be useful (for example business magazines
for management structures)but magazines are not useful for your research except as a starting
point by providing new discoveries, policies etc that you can further research in more
specialized sources.
COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH REVIEW
Similar to primary research, development of literature review requires four stages’
- Problem formulation; which topic or field is being examined and what is its components
literature review.
- Literature search: finding materials relevant to the subject being explored.
- Literature evaluation: determining which literature makes significant contribution to the
understanding of the topic.
- Analysis and interpretation: Discussing the findings and conclusion of pertinent literature.
Literature review should compose the following element
i) An overview of the subject issue or theory under consideration, along with the
objectives of the literature review.
ii) Division of works under review into categories (eg those in support of a particular
position, those against and those providing alternative theses entirely.
iii) Explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from others.
iv) Conclusions as to which pieces are the best considered in their argument, are most
convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding
and development of their area of research.
In assessing each piece, considerations should be given to:
- Provenance:
What are the author’s credentials?
Are theAuthors argument imported by evidence (e.g primary historical material, case
studies, narratives, statistics, recent scientific findings)?
- Objectivity:

Is the Authors perspective even handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data considered or is
certain pertinent information ignored to prove author’s point.
- Persuasiveness:
Which of the author’s theses are most / least convincing?
- Value:
Are the author’s arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work ultimately
contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?
HOW TO WRITE A GOOD LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Remember the purpose

It should answer the questions we looked at. Look at how published writers review the
literature you should see that you use the literatureto explain your research after all, you
are not writing a literature review just to tell the reader what other researchers have done.
Your aim should be to showwhy your research needs to be carried out, how you came to
choose certain methodologies or theories to work with, or how your research adds to the
research carried out etc.
2. Read with apurpose:
You need to summarize the work you read but you must also decide which ideas or
information are important to your research.
3. Write with a purpose:
When writing literature review, your aim should be to evaluate and show the relationship
between the already done work and yours. i.e. Is researcher as work more convincing
thatresearchers B’s work? Did researcher B used A’s work to build his? Etc. In order to do
this effectively, you should carefully plan how you are going to organize your work.
PURPOSE/IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW
1. To clarify the statement of the problem

2. To determine the objectives of the study
3. To determine and design hypotheses
4. It is used in discussion of findings
5. Helps in making recommendations on the study
6. Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration
7. Identify other ways to interpret and shed gaps on any gaps in previous research.
8. Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
Sets ground for further studies
9. Assist the researcher to know the current knowledge about the topic to avoid duplication
of other people’s work.

10. Helps know the best research methodology to follow
11. Controversies could be easily identified and reconciled
12. Acts as a spring board for action and development of an appropriate design
13. Sets the ball rolling and facilities the discoveries of methodologies applied by other
researchers.
RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is the framework or plan for a study that is used as a guide in collecting and
analyzing the data. It is the blueprint that is followed in completing a study. It specifies the methods
and procedures for acquiring he information needed.
It is the overall operational pattern of the project that stipulates what information is to be collected
and by what procedures.
If it is a good research design, it can collect the data economically and by objectives.
Research can be conducted without a research design but it may not solve the problems.
The basic objective of research cannot be attained without proper research design. The costs and
energy involved may also be high in such case.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Designs are broadly categorized as Quantitative and qualitative.
1. Quantitative Research Design

This uses quantitative measurement and statistical methods of analysis. It adheres to strict
standards developed before the research begins. Its main objective is to test hypothesis and
explain causes of problems.
2. Qualitative Research Design

This uses methods of data collection and analysis that re not quantitative. It aims at
exploration of social relations and describes reality as experienced by the respondents.
3. Experimental Design
This applies scientific methods in controlled environments when dealing with things that
can be manipulated easily.

It is effective in measuring the cause and effect relationships unlike the descriptive design
where cross-classification is made to identify the effect of the casual factors.
Experimental Design involves putting variables into categories of experimental and control
groups randomly to avoid associated biases. In the experimental group (test group), the
variables are allowed to change according to the result of the cause. The consequences of
the cause are noted which are then compared with the control groups where the variables
are not changed and no-experimental cause is incurred.
4. Non- experimental Research Design

All non-experimental research is descriptive because the researcher doesn’t actively
manipulate or control the independent variables i.e. the report or researcher has no control
over the cause. He can only describe something that has already occurred or already exists.
5. Longitudinal Design
The design investigates one group or element for example the same group of employees is
studied and followed over a long period of time to see the pattern of growth with regard to
issues the researcher is interested in.
This type of research is helpful to the problems in which interrelationships of a number of
factors are involved and in which it is difficult to understand the individual factors with out
considering their relationship with each other.
6. Cross – sectional Design

This investigates or studies different groups or elements at the same time. i.e it seeks a
comparison between various groups, and in differing characteristic of these groups. For
example, you can get groups of employees’ one group with three years working experience
and another group five years, another seven etc.
The size of the sample covered is much greater than in longitudinal study to have ample
opportunities of study of valid features of research.
The objective of cross-sectional study is to establish categories in such a way that
classification in one category implies classification in one or more other categories.
7. Ex-post facto study

This investigates whether one or more pre-existing conditions have possibly caused
subsequent differences in the groups of subjects under study i.e. the researcher observes
that these groups are different from some variables and then attempts to identify the major
factor that has led to this difference.
The distinguishing factor is that the effect and the alleged cause have already occurred and
are studied by the researcher in a retrospect i.e. looking at the past.
8. Exploratory Research Design

This seeks to discover new relationships between several facts. It discovers ideas and
insights. It involves investigating an area in which no sufficient knowledge is available and
no clear hypotheses have been developed about the problem.
• The purpose of the exploratory research design is the identification of problems segregating
from irrelevant variables and alternatives.
• The broad and vague problems are broken in smaller and more precise statements which
may take from of hypotheses.
• It generates information about practical possibilities of research.
• It is used to increase the analyst’s familiarity with the problem.
• It is also useful to test the applicability of a new policy for formulating problems
developing hypotheses, establishing priority of further research.
NB: Ingenuity, judgment and flexibility play a part in designing the exploratory research.
Exploratory Designs include case study, Literature Search and Experience Survey.
Case Study
Here, selected organizations or individuals are studied for gaining information in new ideas.
It includes examination of existing records by observing the occurrence of the phenomenon. The
unique features of each case selected are sufficiently inquired into.
The findings are always suggestive rather than conclusive since the examination is being
conducted after the fact basis and it is not possible to manipulate the variables. The interpretation
of the results should be made taking into consideration the relevancy and relationship of variables
because they are subject to error.
The purpose of a case study is to determine the factors and relationships among them that have
resulted in the current behavior or status of the subjects or case of interest.
It also determines the why and how of the status quo that is; what exists and not just the what. For
example, you carry out a case study to determine the background, environment and characteristics
of a group of employees with stress related problems.
However, caution should be taken to avoid the likely pitfall in case i.e the possibility of observer
bias.
9. Experience Survey
This indicates the use of reserviour of knowledge and experience possessed by those familiar with
the specific subject to be investigated. All persons who have information of study variables are
potential sources of information-focus group who supply information to the researcher. These may
include top executives of a company.

It may be structured in form of formal questionnaire to be acquired from the focus group.
The main use of experience survey is that it provides a quick summary of the main issues.
It tends to bring about relaxed and natural discussions
However, interaction among members of a group brings out variations at many points.
10. Analytical Research Design

This type of research explains why and how something is happening. It must have data on how
and why the problem is happening. It looks for and measures the casual relations among the aspects
investigated it controls the aspects to allow better explanation of the casual links between them. It
goes beyond merely describing. It is a contribution of the descriptive research.
11. Descriptive Research

This design seeks to describe the behaviour of the phenomenon or problem. It seeks to answer the
question WHAT IS HAPPENING/ For instance describing the nature of strikes in secondary
school strikes that is say; destructive. It describes the issue as it exists and is done to identify the
information on the characteristics of a particular issue.
FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Expectation about the potentiality of the research to aid problem solving, decision and
policy making.
2. Hypotheses, particularly experimental and non- experimental hypotheses.
3. Variables, especially dependent, independent and extraneous.
4. Availability of data, particularly primary data.
5. Confounded relationship
6. Possibility of exposure to the actual sources of data.
7. Experimental and control groups
8. Availability of time, money and manpower.
9. Ability, skill, knowledge and technical background of the researcher
10. Experimentation and its facility
11. Urgency and importance of the problem to be tackled in research project
12. Treatments
13. Control
SAMPLING

This is a process of selecting a certain number of respondents from the study population upon
which a study is conducted to represent the entire population.
According to Jankowicz (1995), he describes sampling as the deliberate choice of a number of

people, who are to provide the researcher with data from which he/she makes conclusions about
some large group. A representative sample is carefully selected and tested. The results of the
sample are assumed to represent the whole population. In normal circumstances, the bigger the
sample size the higher the level of accuracy.
A population is the total of items or people in a set of study. It is the total number of potential
subjects/respondents for a study. Population can be categorized as heterogeneous or homogeneous,
target or accessible, define or indefinite, etc.
Heterogeneous population: consists of subjects/respondents differentiated on specific identifiable

features e.g status in society, age, sex, educational background etc
Homogeneous population: Have specific characteristics in common. It is similar in the features

that the researcher requires in a sample to be studied.
A target or ideal population: is the one that is rarely available for a study. It is the ideal choice one
would wish to have but not accessible. These could be people scattered over a wide geographical
area of which the researcher cannot access. It is an indefinite population.
Definite population: is a accessible population and with specific sample frame. It enables random
sampling all the members of that population are known and thus a researcher can easily manage it
for example all employees in the company.
Indefinite population: is not easily determined or accessible. Its members are not definite for
example night dancers in Kyambogo University.
The respondents selected from the study population can be described as sample, thus a sample
refers to a subset of the study population selected for investigation.
A sample design is the means by which units of interests are selected for research. A random
sample design gives every unit a fixed probability of selection to achieve this a sample frame is
needed. A sample frame is the needed. A sample frame is the needed list of all persons of items of
the population.
According to Clegg (1990), there are three main considerations to bear in mind when choosing a
sample.
- The kind of statistical analysis is planned

- The expected variability within the samples and the results based on experience (the greater
the expected variations, the larger the sample)

- The traditions in the researcher’s particular research area of study regarding appropriate
sample size.
The findings obtained after studying the sample are generalized to the entire study population. This
is true only in the situation where the researcher used/uses probability sampling.
Basic Concepts in Sampling
• Population: the entire group under study as defined by research objectives
– Researchers define populations in specific terms such as “heads of households

located in areas served by the company who are responsible for making the pest
control decision.”
• Sample: a subset of the population that should represent the entire group
• Sample unit: the basic level of investigation
• Census: an accounting of the complete population
• Sampling error: any error in a survey that occurs because of sample is used.. Sampling
error: Sample surveys do imply the study of a small portion of the population and as such
there would naturally be a certain amount of inaccuracy in the information collected. This
inaccuracy may be termed as sampling error or error variance. In other words, sampling
errors are those errors which arise on account of sampling and they generally happen to be
random variations
• A sample frame: a master list of the entire population
• Sample frame error: the degree to which the sample frame fails to account for all of the
population…a telephone book listing does not contain unlisted numbers
Principles of sampling
- The sampling frame must be easily accessible or identified and well defined i.e it should
be easy to get a sampling frame.
- The study population must be selected in a systematic manner i.e. the selection process
should not be biased. The researcher should be objective while selecting the respondents.
- The sample selected should be used throughout the study.
THE SAMPLING PROCESS
There are about four stages within the sampling process

1. Define the universe or study population. This refers to a target population from which the
researcher intends to select the respondents.
2. Establish a sampling frame. This refers to a list of names of all those people in the
population where a sample should be drawn. The researcher can obtain registers of the
people in order to establish the names.
3. Determine the sample size. This is the number of respondents to be included in the study
i.e the number of people in the study area can influence or determine the sample techniques.
4. Sample Technique: this refers to the method or technique used to choose the respondents
from the study population i.e the technique a researcher from the study population i.e the
technique a researcher is going to use in selecting respondents from the universe. The
researcher can use either probability sampling or non-probability sampling technique or
both.
RAESONS FOR SAMPLING
1. Time saving. It takes a shorter time to deal with smaller group than the entire study
population i.e. the researcher selects certain number of respondents who can provide
responses similar to those of the entire population.
2. Resource saving: executing the research study is a very expensive exercise in terms of
human and materials resources i.e. the researcher is able to minimize research costs.
3. Easy management of data; it is easier for the researcher to process, analyze and present
data from a sample rather than from the entire study population.
4. Objectivity: this refers to the avoidance of personal bias in the selecting the respondents.
Personal bias can be eliminated in a particular study if respondents are randomly selected.
Once bias is allowed to interfere in the process of conducting the study, the data obtained
will not be representative of the study population.
Therefore sampling through probability rules (probability sampling) promotes objectivity
of the study.
5. Less destruction
6. Increased accuracy
7. It solves inaccessibility in case the population is scattered.
8. Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many members.
9. Sampling usually enables to estimate the sampling errors and, thus, assists in obtaining
information concerning some characteristic of the population.
LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING
1. The sampling process is tedious and complicated i.e. it is not easy to randomly sample
respondents from the universe.
2. Failure to get a sample size, the researcher may fail to get the required number of the
respondents from a particular study population.

3. The researcher is likely to fail to get a sampling frame.
4. The sampling process is likely to be biased. The researcher may involve personal interests
in selecting respondents hence; it reduces the objectivity to research.
5. The data collected may not represent the entire study population.
NATURE OF THE SAMPLING DESIGN
Sampling is done through certain established process procedures. There are two main categories
of sampling design i.e. probability sampling design (random – probability sampling design) and
non probability sampling design.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING DESIGN
This design uses strict probability rules i.e. every respondents in the study population must have
an equal chance of being selected and the findings obtained through this sampling can be
generalized to the entire study population.
The researcher can use any of the following technique in the Probability Sampling Design.
- Simple random sampling

- Stratified random sampling
- Systematic random sampling
- Cluster random sampling
- Territorial sampling
- Multi-stage sampling
1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

This is a sampling technique that gives equal chance to all members of a finite population to
be included in a sample. It is done by drawing members from the population one at a time
without replacement so that at each stage every remaining member of the population has the
same probability of being chosen.
In simple random sampling the researcher can use the lottery method to choose respondents
from the study population. The lottery method begins with the construction of the sampling
frame. Numbers or letters may substitute the names of the people in the study population. The
researcher has to write the names on small pieces of paper mix them in the container and then
randomly pick one by one until he/she gets the sample size.
Advantages
1. It is the most basic form of probability sampling, it is widely used in it is own right

2. It is easy to operate from a statistical view point and it also serves as the basis for other,
more complicated sampling schemes.
2. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

With this technique, the researcher divides the heterogeneous population with identifiable sub
groups into sub groups called’ stratum’ according to a particular criteria e.g tribal level.
Ie.Stratification means that before a selection takes place, the population is divided into a
number of strata or sub groups then a random sample is selected within each stratum. The sub
groups are divided according to their common characteristics.
A sample design can be selected from each of the sub group to make up a sample size.
The common characteristics in stratification may include the following:-
Age, sex marital status, religion occupation level educational level employment level e.g
managers, workers.
The above common characteristics are determined by the nature of the study i.e the researcher
should identify only the relevant characteristics of stratification.
The researcher must obtain a sample frame for each of the strata or sub group. For each of the
sub group simple random sampling technique can be used to select the required sample. The
sample size can be proportionate or disproportionate to the number of people in the study
population.
The individual samples from each sub group should be combined from the sample size.
Types of stratified random sampling include; proportionate stratified sampling and
disproportionate sampling.
Proportionate stratified sampling is a process where the number of units selected from each
strata is proportional to the number in the strata, while disproportionate sampling is a procedure
where the number of units selected from each strata are not proportional to the number in the
strata.
In proportionate stratification, the sampling fraction is the same for each stratum i.e
K = Size of sample from a stratum
Total size of stratum where K represents (each) strata.
Illustration
Suppose a researcher is to select a proportionate sample of 20 respondents from study
population of 100 people. There are 10manager and 90 workers. The workers are both
established and non- established. The established workers are 50 and non established workers
are 40
QN; Show how you can get a sample 20 from the study population.
Solution
1. Determine the sample fraction, f, based mainly on position and level of establishment.

f=n/N ,
Where n=represents the sample
N= number of people in the population
20/100
= 1/5
Thus from each strata, a sample size of (1/5 * strata size) is required
2. Determine the sample size from each stratum.
Strata 1: Managers
1/5 * 10 = 2
Strata 2: Established workers
1/5 * 50 =10
Strata 3: Non – established workers
1/5 * 40 = 8
3. Obtain the sample size
2 + 10 + 8 = 20
4. The researcher uses simple sampling technique to select respondents from each sub group
i.e from simple sampling random technique researcher gets 2 managers, 10 established and
8 non established workers.
When can Stratified random sampling be used?
1. When some respondents are more important than others

2. When one wants to increase the level of accuracy without the sample size.
Advantages
1. It ensures that the sample size adequately represents all sections of the population
2. It reduces the weakness of simple random sampling
Disadvantages
It is only limited to heterogeneous type of population with identifiable divisions.
3. SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING

While using this technique the researcher establishes the size of the study population
labeled ‘N’ as well as the size of the sample ‘n’ The researcher then proceeds to determine
the
Sampling interval using the formulary K= N/n where K is the sampling interval
N is the study population
N is the sample size
Illustration
The study population of 100 people and you have to determine the sample size of 20.

Solution
Therefore the sampling interval, K= 100/20
= 5
In this study, the sampling interval is 5, this therefore means that the researcher obtains the
first element. Assuming that the first element selected is number 3 on the sampling frame,
the researcher should count five the 3rd position to get second respondent.
Advantages
1. It provides a simple method for sample selection and is widely used in practice hence easy
to administer
2. It can be used where no sample frame exists (but items do exist) for example every 3rd
customer to enter a shop might be chosen.
3. It is the best method for a big homogeneous population
However, this method of sampling care must be their since its not purely random, thus a
possibility of bias in the sampling process.
4. CLUSTER SAMPLING
A cluster is simply a group of units of some description i.e. a group of human beings in a
particular location. The researcher may have to deal with the large geographical area which
often it is difficult to cover the whole study population. To simplify this, the study
population is grouped or divided into clusters basing on specific criteria when the clusters
are geographical; the sampling is referred to as territorial.
Supposing the researcher wants to study the perception of the slum dwellers in Kampala
the best sampling techniques to consider using is cluster sampling. The researcher then
takes the following steps to get to the respondents
1. Name the slums in Kampala e.g Katwe, Katanga, Banda etc each of the slums named
is considered to be a sample.
2. Determine the representative number of slums.
3. Use the random sampling technique to select a certain number of slums (cluster) out of
the list of slums.
4. Supposing there is no sampling frame, the researcher should make an effort to make a
sampling frame i.e. a researcher should get register of Residents of the selected slums.
5. To obtain the sample size, the researcher can use simple random sampling or stratified
sampling.
Advantages
1. It can be used as a selection method where items in each cluster are dissimilar

2. It requires relatively little administrative effort
3. It is less costly than any other sampling method
4. It is both time and cost saving ie many interviews can take place with in a short space of
time with minimum traveling.
5. TERRETORIAL SAMPLING
As the word territorial implies, this is a sampling technique that puts the geographical
differences in a population interests into consideration. It involves determining a sample
size and criteria for creating territories, selecting geographical locations randomly,
deciding on sample size from each territory, and thenproceeding to sample each
geographical region the selected clusters
Advantages
1. The method is best a population spread out over a large territory
2. The sampling reduces the cost of time of handling a population spread over a wide territory.
This method could however, be biased by a small sample that does not represent the
population.
6. MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING
This kind of sampling is usually carried out especially where it requires drawing
conclusions about the whole country especially while conducting a market research.
However, it would be more costly and tedious, hence to avoid all this a sample study can
be restricted to certain smaller areas of the country. An extension of the cluster sampling
is applied which is as follows:-
• Randomlyselect a sample division e.gNakawa, Makindye, Kawempe, etc
• Subdivide each of the selected divisions into smaller regions from which further
samples are selected randomly.
• Again these regions may be split into smaller units (e.g zones) and a further random
selection is made.
On each stage ¾ elements are chosen randomly so that the several samples e.g households are not
left too isolated from each other.
Disadvantages
There is no way one can obtain estimates of accuracy from the results obtained (no estimate of
accuracy of the results).
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING DESIGN

This is the type of sampling which doesn’t guarantee each respondent chances of being selected.
It is also called the non scientific approach because the researcher cannot generalize the findings.
Therefore a non probability sampling doesn’t apply the rules of probability sampling theory. The
selection of the sample is at the discretion of the researcher ie the researcher decides by him or
herself the type of respondents to collect data from and may be subject to error in sample selection.
The following are some of the methods of non –probability sampling
- Quota sampling
- Purpose/ judgmental
- Snowball
- Incidental
- Convenience
QUOTA SAMPLING
It is closely related to stratified random sampling and is widely used in both surveys and market
research. However, it differs from stratified random sampling in that samples are not chosen
randomly from strata
Illustration
The following table shows the break downof Bale S.S.S population into the categories of Sex, Age
and Subject combination.
Age
Combination Under 16 16 and above
PEM/A
Male 75 90
Female 60 63
HEG/D
Male 124 32
Female 86 29
PCB/M
Male 73 44
Female 59 30

HEL/A
Male 77 59
Female 90 59
a. It is required to contract quota sample of 70 individuals which fully reflects the distribution
of those characteristics in the population. Calculate the numbers ineach category of the
quota sample.
b. Suppose that it was decided that both age and sex are onlooker of importance in the survey.
How would your quota sample of 70 be affected?
c. What is the major criticism of quota sample?
Solution
a. The population = 1050

Sample fraction = 70
1050
=1
15
A divide each number in the table given by 15 and round off to the nearest whole number to obtain
sample sizes.
Age
Combination Under 16 16 and above
PEM/A
Male 5 6
Female 4 4
HEG/D
Male 8 2
Female 6 2
PCB/M
Male 5 3
Female 4 2
HEL/A

Male 5 4
Female 6 4
The necessary information is now collected by instructing interviews to fill quotas for the different
cells. Instead of collecting the sample at random, the interviewer tends to select those that are the
easiest to find until he/ she has the number of respondents required for each category.
b. Just combine the classes in the quota table

PEM/A 19
HEG/D 18
PCB/M 14
HEL/A 19
PURPOSIVE / JUDGEMENTAL
This is where the researcher selects the sample which she/he thinks is representative enough. It is
arbitrary selection of respondents based on experience and opinion of the researcher i.e. the
researcher uses his / her judgment to choose respondents whom he/she believes to have the
information required for instance a researcher who is interested in finding out the problems of
selling Matooke in and around Kampala cannot interview anybody except the local farmers who
grow matooke and traders who buy and sell it. These people will provide more valid useful
information than anybody else.
INCIDENTAL TECHNIQUE
This is the technique used by the researcher where by the samples are not pre determined but data
is collected from those people who are conveniently available and are willing to provide the data
e.g if the researcher wants to study the reasons why people shop at St. Balikuddembe than Winna
classic, the best techniques should be incidental or accidental. In this case, the researcher can stand
at any of the entrance of St. Balikuddembe market and interview any body entering in a defined
period of time (e.g 8:00 to 12:00am)
SNOWBALL
This is another sampling method that depends on the discretion and judgment of the researcher.
The respondents to be included in the study are recommended by colleagues who know can afford
to give good data. Each person interviewed suggests the next respondent to interview.
CONVENIENT (ACCIDENTAL) SAMPLING
This is a non random sampling technique that depends on the researcher to include a subject into
a sample. The sample is selected on the basis of how accessible and cooperative a subject or
respondent may be. The circumstances under which the research is being conducted could force a
researcher to apply this method. The population could be complex to handle using other methods.
The time and cash available for the exercise could be the factors to dictate this type of sampling.
Only closest respondents are chosen on the basis of convenience. This technique is in most cases
used to avoid factors beyond the researcher’s control. This therefore means that the researcher by
convenience chooses the respondents within is/her reach.
Weakness
This method is prone to bias and prejudices of the researcher. The quality of sample selected
depends on integrity and seriousness of the researcher.
A RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND A RESEARCH REPORT
A research proposal is a written presentation of an intended research specifying the problem, scope,
methodology and the budget of the study
A research report is a detailed account which has been concluded or simply a presentation of the
results of a research study.
Purpose of the research proposal
1. Plan of action
A proposal is the guide, a plan that anticipates the research activities and sets relevant procedures,
methods, schedules and budget to address them.
2. Basis to solicit funding
The bodies that fund research use the proposal quality to decide whether to finance the proposal
or not. The proposal should be convincing to the funding bodies that the project is viable, worth
undertaking and will add value to the existing body of knowledge
3. A basis for convincing the n research approval committee
Academic researchers present their proposals to research committees for approval. The proposal
must be acceptable quality /format and the problem identified must be relevant and adding to the
existing body of knowledge
4. A guide to the researcher
The proposal serves as a guide to be followed in the course of research effort. It gives a direction
and it establishes anorder to ones research effort. It gives continuity to the various steps and stages
of the work to be done
5. Generating ideas

When a proposal is in the process of getting prepared, it is obvious that a topic has been selected
and its refinement is well underway however many researchers especially students may be looking
for ideasthat will eventually lead to the preparation of a good proposal. More often than not the
writer has an idea but it lacks substance, clarity, conceptualization and everything else that makes
it more than an idea.
6. Establishing the feasibility of the project
It helps the researcher to organize his effort in terms of time to be spent and resources to commit
to the project. A project may sound and seem reasonable enough to do and when it is worked out
in detail, one discovers that the time or expensesare beyond ones resources.
General structure of the research proposal
Definition of Proposal
This is a written presentation of an intended research specifying the problem, the purpose,
scope/objectives, methodology, references and the financial plan/budget. A synopsis is an outline
of the research proposal of 3-5 pages length (including references) which is currently required for
provisional admission to Ph.D and other doctoral degree studies
Components of a Research Proposal
The Preliminaries (pages numbered in Roman numerals) to consist of:-
(i) Title page (Not numbered)
(ii) Declaration (compulsory for certificate & Degree research)
(iii) Approval
(iv) Dedication
(v) Acknowledgement
(vi) Table of Contents
(vii) List of Tables (where applicable)
(viii) List of illustrations (Figures) (where applicable)
(ix) Abbreviations (Acronyms) (where applicable)
(x) Abstract

Note; Title / Topic
The title should accurately reflect the scope and content of the study. In addition, it should be
concise, simple and catchy in not more than 20 words. The title should be
informative/descriptive yet discrete and contain the key words of the proposal. Do not use terms
like "Research into...", "A Study of...” etc
1.0 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
This section provides evidence and conditions of the existing situations highlighting the
gap(s) to make the reader feel the urgency of the problem, the need to study it in order to solve the
problem or contribute to its solution. (About 600 words, Font type: Times New Roman, Font size
12; 1.5 line spacing)
1.2 Research Problem / Statement of the Problem
i. Presents the reason behind the proposal i.e. what will change when this research is
done or what would happen if the research is not done
ii. Problem is an existing negative state not absence of a solution
iii. Refers to what has been detected and needs a solution in the practical or
theoretical world.
iv. Should clearly state the nature of the problem and its known or estimated magnitude / extent.
v. Link the problem to the national development priorities/framework (NDP), the
regional (e.g. AU) and the Global Development Agenda (MDGs)
vi. Should be concise and brief (not more than 1 pag
1.3 General Objective / Purpose of the study
Refers to the general intention of the research. Should spell put what the research is
supposed to accomplish.
1.4 Specific Objectives

These are specific aims / objectives arising directly from the general objective / purpose / aim of
the study. For each specific objective you must have a method to attempt to achieve it.
1.5 Research questions or hypothesis
1.6 Scope of the study
The scope provides for the boundary of the research in terms of depth of investigation, content,
and sample size, geographical, Time frame and theoretical coverage.
1.7 Significance of the study/Justification of the study
This refers to the relevance of study in terms of academic contributions and practical use that might
be made of the findings. It should reflect on knowledge creation, technological or socio-economic
value to the community.
2.0 CHAPTER TWO; LITERATURE REVIEW
i) This section deals with the analysis of existing literature on the subject with the
objective of revealing contributions, weaknesses and gaps.
ii. The Literature Review should be according to the themes of the study and should
reflect the objectives, Hypotheses, methods and research questions.
iii. Citation should be in accordance with approved format. (See
Guidelines for writing manuscripts - Appendix I)
3.0 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This is a detailed description of selected methodology and should be presented in
Unambiguous terms.
The section comprises:

(i) Research design - which describes the nature and pattern the research intends to follow e.g.
whether it is historical, descriptive survey, experimental or quasi
Experimental and location (optional), etc.
(ii) Study population
(iii) Sample design
(iv) Sample size
(v) Sources of data
(vi) Data collection methods; including instruments and procedures to be used in the
Research described.
(vii) Data quality control, which refers to reliability and validity of instruments.
(viii) Measurements, which refer to the formulae or scales in the study.
(ix) Data analysis, which involves organisation and interpretation of the data generated.
x) Ethical Consideration
Ethics of the research here refers to the morals of the investigation or intervention as
Regards the minimal abuse, disregard, safety, social and psychological well being of the
Person, community and /or animals i.e. how the principles of consent, beneficence and
Justiceis handled in the study. Include a statement of where ethical clearance has been or will be
obtained
xi) Research procedure
xii) Limitations of the study
This refers to anticipated constraints imposed by methods/location/situation of research.
Potential sources of bias in the proposed study are presented here. Show how the limitations/bias
will be addressed. However, these must not be seen to prevent the study from being carried out,
otherwise it will not start. The limitations are major considerations before embarking on a study
to ascertain the feasibility of accomplishment.

2.17 REFERENCES
This is a list of all works cited in the proposal and should be written according to the
approved format. The approved format is APA Sixth Edition (Appendix I).
Appendices Comprises of the budget, work plan/time framework, explanatory notes and
instruments.
(i) Budget
This is the financial plan for implementation of the research. It should be clear,
Realistic and reasonable (affordable)
It should be itemized according to the following:
- Equipment
- Stationery
- Materials e.g. nails, wood, chemicals etc.
- Travel
- Subsistence
- Research Assistance
- Services (Secretarial, Photocopying, Printing, Binding)
- Dissemination (Publishing, Conferences etc)
- Others (Specify)
(ii) Time Framework/Work Plan

This is the schedule / time-table of activities covering the period over which
the research is to be implemented with due regard to budgetary consideration


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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In organizations, research problems arise from various functions of management.

1. Research is directed towards solving a problem that is clearly defined.

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- Desire to get a research degree long with its consequential benefits

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

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SOURCES OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. Existing Research Report

CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING A RESEARCH PROBLEM OR TOPIC

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RULES FOR SELECTING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

i. Over done should not be normally chosen

DOES RESEARCH HAVE ANY PURPOSE

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PROBLEMS FACED BY RESEARCHERS

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THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Any research carried out follows a systematic process of eleven steps;

b) Stating the objective of the study

c) Developing the hypothesis

d) Reviewing the related literature

e) Choosing and designing Research methods

g) Carrying out a pilot study and sampling

i) Conducting the research

j) Processing the results

k) Reporting the findings

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STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

1. Identification and definition of the problem.

2. Stating the objective of the study

4. Reviewing the related literature

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7. carrying out a pilot study and sampling

9. Conducting the research

10. Processing the results and Data analysis

11. Reporting the findings

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SOURCES OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

1. Physical Environment Factors:

2. Attributes of the Participants:

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TECHNIQUES OF CONTROLLING EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

Procedures of controlling extraneous variables;

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Qualitative research applies to non-quantitative methods and techniques in collecting and

Quantitative research is based on positivism. It uses positivistic methodology and principles. It is

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An example is what factors contribute to absenteeism? (Later an organization which encounters

4. Applied Research or Action Research

6. Theory testing and theory building:

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10. Analytical research:

11. Predictive Research

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12. Deductive Research:

13. Inductive Research:

DEFINING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM