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In: Handbook on Psychology of Decision-Making ISBN 978-1-62100-500-1
Editors: K. O. Moore and N. P. Gonzalez, pp. 1-16 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 11

THE IMPACT OF EMOTIONS ON TRUST DECISIONS

Wing-Shing Lee and Marcus Selart

Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration

Abstract

Researchers have recognized that interpersonal trust consists of different dimensions.

These dimensions suggest that trust can be rational, cognitive, or affective. Affect, which
includes moods and emotions, is likely to have a direct impact on the affective
dimension. On the other hand, there are also studies showing that affect indirectly
influence cognitive judgments. Nonetheless, in this chapter we argue that the impact of
affect on judgment will not be the same on all individuals. In effect, the impact varies,
depending on the individual‟s attention to affect, motivation to use or guard against
affect, or regulation of affect. All this may suggest that an individual‟s abilities or
tendencies to manage affect will have implication on his or her trust relationships with
others.

1. INTRODUCTION
Trust is a topic that covers a wide range of phenomena. For example, it can be related to
organizations, to a profession, and to various other social, political, and economic institutions
(Cook, 2001). This means that the target of trust can either be personal (i.e. another person)
or impersonal (e.g. a government). Even within an organization, trust can be depersonalized
in the sense that it can be based on a category of a group of people, or a particular role in a
company, or a system of formal and informal rules (Kramer, 1999). However, the focus of
this chapters is on how individual difference in emotional attributes can have an impact on
interpersonal trust. Recently, a number of studies have investigated the relationship between
affect and trust (Dunn & Schweitzer, 2005; Forgas & East, 2008; Lount, 2010) but few have
focused on emotional attributes.
Dirks and Ferrin (2002) have pointed out that most definitions of interpersonal trust seem
to be derived from a common conceptual core (Rousseau, Sitkin, Burt, & Camerer, 1998).
2 Wing-Shing Lee and Marcus Selart

According to Rousseau et al. (1998), trust is defined as “a psychological state comprising the
intention to accept vulnerability based upon positive expectations of the intentions or
behavior of another” (p. 395). Nonetheless, some scholars have recognized that different
operational definitions have been used by different researchers and this may suggest that trust
comprises multiple dimensions (e.g. McAllister, 1995; Clark & Payne, 1997). The following
section will first discuss different dimensions of trust, which include rational, relational,
cognitive, and affective dimensions. Second, the linkage betweeen affect and some of these
dimensions will be expounded. Third, the individual difference in response to affect will be
examined.

2. DIMENSIONS OF TRUST
One of the dimensions of trust is tied to its relationship with rational choice. Williamson
(1993) claimed that individuals make trust choices based on rationally derived costs and
benefits. His claim is often referred to as calculative-based trust (McKnight, Cummings, &
Chervany, 1998). Similarly, Hardin‟s (2001) definition of trust stated that an individual trusts
a target person because the former party believes the latter has some reason to act in the
interests of the former. Despite its persuasiveness, it has been found that many of the
assumptions of rational choice models are empirically untenable (Kramer, 1999). For
instance, McEvily, Weber, Bicchieri, & Ho (2006) reported that in experiments that have
used trust games, people seldom make pure rational choices. In line with this, Bohnet and
Zeckhauser (2004) found that individuals were more willing to take part in a game when the
outcome was purely based on chance than when the outcome depended on the trustworthiness
of another party, even though the probabilities of both were set to be the same. Another
similar experiment found that individuals collectively underestimated the percentage of
others‟ trustworthiness by 30 to 35% (Fetchenhauer & Dunning, 2008).
One of the reasons for the limitation of the rational trust model may be that it overstates
decision-makers‟ cognitive capacities and the degree to which decision-makers engage in
conscious calculations (March, 1994). Therefore, other researchers have argued that the
rational trust model should be complemented by a relational trust model, which includes a
social orientation toward other people (Mayer, Davis, & Schoorman, 1995; McAllister, 1995;
Kramer, 1999). On the other hand, some researchers have categorized interpersonal trust into
two dimensions, of which one is cognitve and the other is affective (McAllister, 1995; Dirks
& Ferrin, 2002). Cognitive trust concerns the competence, integrity, and benevolence of a
target person (Mayer et al., 1995), whereas affective trust reflects that a person has a personal
interest of the welfare of another person (McAllister, 1995). Rational trust and cognitive trust
are related, even though sometimes rational trust is more focused on the costs and benefits of
a trust decision whereas cognitive trust is more related to the evaluation of another party‟s
trustworthiness. Affective trust is very similar to relational trust, except that the latter
sometimes encompasses the orientation not only towards another individual but also towards
the society as a whole (Kramer, 1999).
A number of studies have demonstrated that affective trust exists and can be
distinguished from cognitive trust (e.g. Erdem & Ozen, 2003; Johnson & Grayson, 2005;
Webber, 2008). Researchers believe that affective trust is predicated on moods, feelings, and
 The Impact of Emotions on Trust Decisions 3

emotions (Hansen, Morrow, & Batista, 2002; Johnson & Grayson, 2005). In a relationship
characterized by affective trust, strong emotional bonds are developed between parties
through the constant expression of care and concern during their repeated interactions
(McAllister, 1995; Erdem & Ozen, 2003; Johnson & Grayson, 2005; Webber, 2008). Once
such a trust is developed, it can persist in the long run (Webber, 2008). Nonetheless, the
following section will try to argue that affect plays a role not only in affective trust but also in
cognitive trust.

3 AFFECT AND TRUST

Forgas (1995) pointed out that there is little agreement about how best to define variables
1 2
such as affect, feeling , emotion, and mood . For the purpose of this chapter, affect is used as
an overarching category that includes both moods and emotions (Forgas, 1995; Gross &
Thompson, 2007; Andrade & Ariely, 2009). As we have seen, mood and emotion are already
an integral part of the affective trust (McAllister, 1995). On the other hand, affect can also
directly and indirectly influence cognitive trust. According to Forgas (1995), affect
influences cognitive judgment through two routes: affect-as-information and affect-priming.
Affect-as-information postulates that individuals use their affect as a heuristic cue for
informing themselves (Clore & Gasper, 2001). An example is that when people decide
whether they can initially trust someone, they may just decide by examining the feelings that
they have toward that person (Jones & George, 1998). Alternatively, affect-priming
indirectly influences a cognitive judgment by selective attention, encoding, retrieval, and
association of information in the processing of a cognitive judgment (Forgas, 1995). This can
explain why feelings and emotions may color one‟s experience of trust and influence one‟s
subsequent cognition (Larsen & Prizmic, 2004). Moreover, Williams (2007) identified that
the feelings concerning threats to one‟s interest or identity forestall trust building. In line
with this, Weber, Malhotra, & Murnighan (2005) claimed that intense fears of embarrassment
will negatively affect one‟s trusting acts. In short, affect can incidentally influence one‟s
judgment and decision making beyond conscious awareness (Andrade & Ariely, 2009).
Previous studies have found that both short-term and long-term effects of affect have an
influence on individuals‟ decision making processes (Forgas, 2001). In the short-run,
emotions signal the need for changing one‟s action tendency (Frijda, 1988). When a person is
overwhelmed by negative emotions, he or she tends to refrain from making decisions (Luce,
1989). Moreover, it seems that the short-term influence of emotion on decision is not
confined to the time when the emotion is present. In another experiment, Andrade and Ariely
(2009) discovered that a decision based on transient emotions can become the basis of a

1
Some have tried to distinguish the subtle difference among feeling, emotion, and mood. For example, Soloman
(2000) argued that feeling is not sufficient to yield emotion but an emotion is basically a feeling. Likewise,
Pettinetti (2009) asserted that feelings are not necessarily described in terms of emotions but emotions are strong
feelings. Some have defined emotion and mood both in terms of feeling where mood represents weaker feeling
(Andrade & Ariely, 2009).
2
There are similarities and differences between moods and emotions. Larsen (2000) argued that both moods and
emotions are felt or sensed by a person to some extent. Moreover, they are expressed through facial or non-facial
channels and stimulate physiological response. On the other hand, moods are different from emotions in that
they tend to be more diffuse, last longer, and typically do not have a distinct cause (Gross & Thompson, 2007).
4 Wing-Shing Lee and Marcus Selart

subsequent decision even though the decision-maker has undergone some emotion-
neutralization exercise. This study suggests that emotions may also have a long-term effect
on individuals‟ decisions. The reason is that emotions are integrated into the context of a
remembered event (Parrot & Spackman, 2000). Anecdotal evidence has shown that people
can vividly recall the emotional details of a betrayal experience even up to thirty years after
the incident occurred (Robinson et al., 2004; Piper & Monin, 2006). Painful experience has
also been linked to counterfactual thoughts (Miller & Taylor, 2002).
In addition, there have been a number of studies that specifically provide the link
between affect and trust behaviors, risk assessments, and trust-related judgments (e.g.
Carnevale & Isen, 1986; Forgas, 1995; Dunn & Schweitzer, 2005).

3.1. Affect and Cooperation, Risk Assessments, and Trust-related Judgments

Empirical evidence suggests that affect has a significant impact on cooperation in

negotiation. Carnevale and Isen (1986) found that a positive mood is normally associated
with a person‟s adoption of constructive and cooperating bargaining strategies in face-to-face
negotiation. Forgas (1998) also reported similar results. In an experiment, participants in a
happy mood tended to adopt a cooperative instead of a competitive strategy in negotiation,
whereas participants in a sad mood tended to do the opposite. These studies demonstrate that
differences in moods alter a person‟s psychological condition that causes the intention to
cooperate.
Risk is one of the essential psychological conditions in trust (Rousseau et al., 1998) since
trust involves the acceptance of vulnerability (Mayer et al., 1995). Empirical evidence has
discovered that the assessment of risks is influenced by affect. Isen and Geva (1987) found
that people in a postive affect-induced group and in a control group assign different
probabilities to winning a bet. Bohner and Weinerth (2001) have shown that negative affect
increases the extent to which people scrutinize information, whereas positive affect decrease
it. As a result, it is reasonable to postulate that risks associated with trust are also subject to
the influence of feeling and emotion.
A number of recent studies have investigated the impact of affect and trust-related
judgments. Forgas and East (2008) revealed that a person‟s suspicion of another party is
affected by the mood he or she experiences. When asked to judge whether a person had
committed a theft and denied the incident, sad participants were more likely than neutral and
happy participants to judge the target person as guilty. Perhaps the most salient evidence that
a person‟s affective state can influence his or her disposition to trust was reported by Dunn
and Schweitzer (2005). In their experiment, participants were recruited at a railway station
and were asked to undergo an affect induction exercise that induced anger, sadness and
happiness respectively by describing a past incident. They were then asked to rate the
trustworthiness of a previously identified unfamiliar co-worker. The results showed that
participants in the happy condition were more trusting than those in the sad and angry
conditions.
All these studies suggest that the underlying psychological condition that causes trust can
in turn be influenced by one‟s affective states. However, it is believed that not all individuals
are equally influenced by these states. Some have argued that the integrated functioning of
emotional and rational capacities within a person will make a difference in how the individual
 The Impact of Emotions on Trust Decisions 5

adapts across different situations (Salovey, Bedell, Detweiler, & Mayer, 2000). This
integrated functioning is sometimes referred to as a combination of a hot/cool system
(Mischel & Ayduk, 2004) or associate-processing/reasoning system (Smith & Kirby, 2001).
The hot or associate-processing system is a quick and automatic emotional processing system,
which is useful for survival from an evolutionary perspective (Mischel & Ayduk, 2004). This
system is referred to as System 1 in the judgment and decision making literature (Price &
Norman, 2008). The cool or reasoning system, on the other hand, involves a more controlled
and deliberate thinking process that is more flexible but relatively slow (Smith & Kirby,
2001). This system is labeled as System 2 (Price & Norman, 2008). According to Price and
Norman (2008), these two systems do not work independently. Rather, the signal generated
by System 1 may be heeded or ignored by System 2 and this provides the individual with
some flexibility in controlling the influence of affect. An individual‟s judgment and behavior
thus depend on the interaction between these two systems, which are comprised of the
following determinants: attention to affect, motivation to use affect or guard against affect,
and regulation of affect. Figure 1 gives a summary of the inter-relations among these factors.

Figure 1. The Integrated Effects of Affective and Cognitive Systems on Judgment and Behavior

4. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE WITH REGARD TO AFFECT

4. 1. Attention to Affect

It has been revealed that mood affects an individual‟s judgment mainly because it has
little cognitive content (Forgas, 1995). In other words, it is due to individuals‟ lack of
6 Wing-Shing Lee and Marcus Selart

attention to the existence of mood that results in its influence on judgment. Schwarz & Clore
(1983) have shown a classic example of how one‟s judgment can be shaped by one‟s mood
and how the judgment will be corrected once the attention to the mood is aroused. When
people were asked to judge their life satisfaction, they reported significantly higher
satisfaction under sunny days. However, such a difference in satisfaction became
insignificant when the interviewer directly or indirectly mentioned the possible influence of
weather. This study demonstrates that the arousal of attention incites people to make
adjustments in their judgments.
In effect, people are different in their attention to affect. Gasper and Clore (2000)
reported that individuals who were high or low in the attention to affect reacted differently to
the presence of a mood in forming their judgments of risk. Another study showed that in
facing the same incident where emotions were involved, people tackled the situation
differently in terms of affect (Perry & Ball, 2005). Some people immediately took their own
and other parties‟ affects into account when forming a solution. Other people, on the other
hand, tended to regard the affective context as irrelevant and just concentrated on how to
rectify the situation. Such a difference is likely to have different impact on the quality of
interaction between the parties in the incident.
In another study, Seo and Barrett (2007) discovered that stock investors who were better
able to identify and distinguish their current affect achieved higher decision-making
performance. Members from investment clubs were invited to participate in an investment
simulation. In each of twenty business days in a row, they were provided with stock and
market information. Subsequently, they were required to make investment decisions and rate
their affect. It was found that those who better understood their affects achieved better results
than those who chose to ignore theirs. Therefore, the attention to affect seems to have an
impact on the quality of judgments.

4.2. Motivation to Use Affect or Guard against Affect

Affects can be used because they serve a number of adaptive functions. First, they serve
as signals that one should give some unattended goal a higher priority than the current focal
goal (Simon, 1967). For example, anxiety about an examination may urge a student to stop
watching TV but to start studying. Second, affects shift our attention to the critical features of
our environment, for example, to threats that evoke strong emotions (Leary, 2004). Third,
Darwin argued that affects energize adaptive behaviors such as flight in the presence of fear
or procreation in the presence of love (as cited in Salovey et al., 2000). Overall, affects can
motivate people in forming their judgments, decisions, and actions.
Nonetheless, not all affects are adaptive (Leary, 2004). It is not uncommon to discover
that cooperation is sometimes sabotaged by an explosion of anger (Mischel & Ayduk, 2004),
even though it has never been the intention of the parties involved. Moreover, Forgas (1998)
has shown that affective states may lead to mistaken judgments and decisions. Under these
circumstances, it is advisable for people to guard against the deleterious effects of affect.
There are two common situations where individuals will try to use or guard against their
emotions. The first situation concerns the desire to attain a goal. Sometimes, there are
conflicts between the urge induced by affect and the desire of goal attainment. The most
common case is the delay of gratification that can be illustrated through the studies of
 The Impact of Emotions on Trust Decisions 7

children (Mischel & Ayduk, 2004). For example, each child is offered one cookie
immediately or two cookies if they are willing to wait for a period of time. The children are
then facing a dilemma: either enjoy one piece now (the urge) or two pieces later (better
outcome). Similar situations can also occur in adults‟ daily lives. For example, in a job
interview an interviewee may try to prohibit the explosion of anger in face of an interviewer‟s
provocation. Because of the strong desire to attain a goal, Law, Wong, Huang, and Li (2008)
claimed that some employees will cheer themselves and others up when they realize that a
positive mood will assist them to get the job done. Likewise, Forgas (1995) has argued that
when a person is influenced by a strong motivation to accomplish a purpose, there is limited
scope for one‟s affective state to affect one‟s judgment.
The second situation where an individual may use his or her affects or guard against them
is in social interaction. Vohs & Ciarocco (2004) argued that people restrain affective
responses in order to gain acceptance in social group relationships. An example is that people
tend to cheer themselves up when they are about to go to a party but inhibit their feeling of
happiness when they are about to go to a funeral (Erber & Erber, 2001). Erber, Wegner, &
Therriault (1996) reported that people are likely to regulate their moods in preparation for
their engagement in social interaction. On the other hand, one may lose the motivation to
regulate one‟s own affect if one is socially isolated. An example is that people who
experience rejection from a group will tend to reveal self-destructive behaviors such as giving
up early in solving problems (Vohs & Ciarocco, 2004).

4.3. Regulation of Affect

Eisenberg (2002) defined emotion-related regulation as “the process of initiating,

avoiding, inhibiting, maintaining, or modulating the occurrence, form, intensity, or duration
of internal feeling states, emotion-related physiological processes, emotion-related goals,
and/or behavioral concomitants of emotion, generally in the service of accomplishing one‟s
goals” (as cited in Eisenberg, Smith, Sadovsky, & Spinrad, 2004, p. 260). While an
individual may have the motivation to regulate his or her affects, he or she may not be able to
do so. James (1890) argued that people may have the motivation, but not the ability, or vice
versa, to regulate their own affects (as cited in Mischel & Ayduk, 2004). There is evidence
suggesting that some people who are motivated to regulate their affects in effect make things
worse. For example, when people suppress their negative emotions, their emotional reactions
will be prolonged or even intensified afterwards (Wenzlaff & Wegner, 2000). Similarly,
those who tend to ruminate following a stressful event are associated with longer and more
severe periods of depressed moods (Nolen-Hoeksema, McBride, & Larson, 1997). Others
who try to use venting to reduce anger are found to have more aggressive responding
(Bushman, 2002).
Nonetheless, some people are successful in regulating their affects, both during and after
the occurence of an emotion-eliciting event. Regulating affect during the occurence of an
event is important because the undesired affective influences on judgment can be minimized
(Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Ciarrochi & Blackledge, 2006; Law et al., 2008). For example,
distraction has been found to be one of the effective strategies in dealing with the dilemma
faced in the delay of gratification. A study has revealed that it would be much easier for
children to wait when they were distracted from the rewards (Mischel, Ebbesen, & Zeiss,
8 Wing-Shing Lee and Marcus Selart

1972). The second effective strategy to regulate affect during the occurence of an event is
cognitive reappraisal. Cognitive reappraisal involves a cognitive change in the interpretation
of a potentially emotion-eliciting situation so that its affective impact is alleviated (Lazarus &
Alfert, 1964; Gross, 1998; Gross & John, 2003; Gross & Thompson, 2007). It means that the
regulation of affect is evoked at the early stage of the emotion-generation process. This
regulation of affect changes the subsequent trajectory of affective responses (Gross, 1998;
Richards & Gross, 2000; Gross & John, 2003; Schutte, Manes, & Malouff, 2009).
After the occurrence of an emotion-eliciting event, people may use a number of effective
strategies targeting the alleviation of the affective impact. Erber and Erber (1994) have found
that when individuals were asked to recall a mood-incongruent event using effort, they
experienced a great change in mood. Actually, tasks that are cognitively taxing will have
similar alleviating effects. Individuals solving difficult math problems or difficult anagrams
can neutralize the negative affect (as cited in Erber & Erber, 2001). This is possibly because
such tasks serve as a distraction from the negative affect (Larsen & Prizmic, 2004). Other
strategies that provide similar effects include physical exercise, socializing, and downward
comparison (Erber & Erber, 2001; Larsen & Prizmic, 2004).
Nonetheless, since affects are integrated into the context of a remembered event (Parrot
& Spackman, 2000), a full recovery from an emotion-eliciting event is achieved only when
thoughts about the event no longer generate a negative affective response (Shepherd, 2003).
Otherwise, the negative event will continue to challenge one‟s thoughts and feelings (Salovey
et al., 2000). One of the effective strategies that can be used in order to recover from a
negative event is trying to reinterpret or redefine the event in non-affective terms (Wranik,
Barrett, & Salovey, 2007; Boss & Sims, 2008). Examples include viewing a situation from a
different perspective or persuading oneself that the objective situation was not as bad as one
imagined (Loewenstein, 2007). Alternatively, one may even try to find positive meanings
connected to a negative event (Larsen & Prizmic, 2004; Loewenstein, 2007).

5. IMPLICATIONS
As we have seen, an individual‟s judgment on which affect has an impact depends on
whether the individual pays attention to the affect, uses or guards against the affect, or
regulates the affect. Some people may be attentive to affects so that they are more motivated
to correct the biases before reaching a judgment. Others may be motivated to maintain
positive affects or guard against harmful ones so that they pay more attention to and regulate
them in order to minimize their adverse impact. Whatever path it is taken, the differences in
individuals‟ abilities or tendencies in dealing with affects may produce different judgments
even in the same situation. Some researchers have therefore claimed that individual
differences in emotional intelligenc or emotional competence will have different impact on
trust-related judgments (Goleman, 1995; Druskat & Wolff, 2001).
As defined by Mayer and Salovey (1997), emotional intelligence (EI) involves four
abilities: (1) the ability to accurately perceive and express emotions of self and others, (2) the
ability to understand emotions and their progression, (3) the ability to generate feelings to
assist thinking, and (4) the ability to regulate and manage emotions. Although EI highlights
the term „emotion‟, it also takes into account other affects such as feelings and moods (Mayer
 The Impact of Emotions on Trust Decisions 9

& Salovey, 1997; Mayer, 2001). The first two abilities correspond to the attention to affect.
The third one corresponds to motivation, whereas the fourth one correponds to regulation.
Several reasons have been proffered for the claim that EI is contributive to trust builing.
First, emotionally intelligent individuals are likely to take others‟ feelings into account during
personal interactions (Druskat & Wolff, 2001; Perry & Ball, 2005). This argument is partly
supported by studies that showed a positive relationship between EI and empathy (Schutte et
al., 2001: Jordan et al, 2002). Second, others claimed that those who are less emotionally
intelligent are less trusted by others because they may tend to render inept criticism to others
(Goleman, 1995). This again is partly supported by evidence that revealed that emotionally
intelligent people are less likely to exhibit deviant behaviors such as fighting with others
(Brackett, Mayer, & Warner, 2004). Third, a number of studies have found a positive
relationship between emotional intelligence and agreeableness (Lopes, Salovey, & Straus,
2003; Lopes, Brackett, Nezlek, Schutz, Sellin, & Salovey, 2004; Lopes, Salovey, Cote, &
Beers, 2005). Agreeableness is one of the five dimensions in the Big-Five Personality model
and is connected with dispositional trust (Mooradian, Renzl, & Matzler, 2006). Fourth,
another study has demonstrated that trust among group members is highly associated with
leaders‟ emotionally competent behavior such as interpersonal understanding (Druskat &
Pescosolido, 2006). All these suggest that individual difference in emotional intelligence may
have an impact on trust-related judgments.

CONCLUSION
This chapter has delineated that trust comprises of different dimensions, which include
rational, cognitive, affective, and relational. Rational or cognitive trusts concern the costs and
benefits of a trust decision, as well as the deliberate evaluation of another party‟s
trustworthiness. Nonetheless, these models of trust are empirically untenable (Kramer, 1999).
In effect, they should be complemented by relational or affective trust, which takes the
emotional bond between the parties into account. On the one hand, moods, feelings, and
emotions are an integral part of relational or affective trusts. On the other hand, these affects
can also indirectly influence the cognitive trust. A number of empirical studies have found
that affect influences trust-related judgments and decisions. These include the adoption of
cooperative bargaining strategies, the scrutiny of information, and the evaluation of another
individual‟s trustworthiness.
Nonetheless, we also argue that not all individuals are equally influenced by affects. This
is because within an individual, both System 1 and System 2 are at work. The affects may
serve as signals generated by System 1 but System 2 enables an individual to decide whether
to follow such signals (Price & Norman, 2008). First, an individual‟s decision may depend
on whether he or she pays attention to the affects. Previous studies have found that some
individuals are more alerted to the presence of affects and such recognition will make a
difference in judgment. Second, an individual may also be motivated to use affects or guard
against the influence of affects. Third, different people may use different strategies in
regulating affects in the formulation of judgments and decisions. In summary, the individual
difference in the knowledge, ability, or disposition to deal with affects may result in an
individual‟s difference in his or her trusting approach or evalution of others‟ trustworthiness.
10 Wing-Shing Lee and Marcus Selart

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