“OPERATING SYSTEMS”

PROF SHAHID FARID

LAB : 02:
 BASIC SHELL COMMANDS:

 pwd: Prints the current working directory path.

 ls: Lists files and directories in the current
directory.
 cd [directory]: Changes the current directory. Use
`cd ..` to go up one level.
 mkdir [directory]: Creates a new directory.
 rmdir [directory]: Removes an empty directory.
 rm [file|directory]: Removes files or directories. Use `rm -r
[directory]` to remove directories recursively.
 cp [source] [dest]: Copies files or directories. Use `cp -r
[source_directory] [dest]` to copy directories.
 mv [source] [dest]: Moves or renames files or directories.
 touch [file]: Creates a new empty file or updates the
timestamp of an existing file.
 cat [file]: Displays the contents of a file.
 more [file]: Views the content of a file one page at a
time.
 less [file]: Similar to `more`, but allows backward
movement in the file.
 head [file]: Displays the first few lines of a file (default
is 10 lines).
 tail [file]: Displays the last few lines of a file (default is
10 lines).
 man [command]: Displays the manual pages for
commands.
 echo [text]: Displays a line of text or the value of a
variable.
 env: Displays the environment variables.
 set: Sets or unsets shell attributes and positional
parameters.
 export [variable]: Exports a variable to the environment
of subsequently executed commands.
 alias [name]='[cmd]': Creates an alias for a command.
 unalias [name]: Removes an alias.
 history: Displays the command history.
 clear: Clears the terminal screen.
 find [path] -name [pattern]: Searches for files in a directory
hierarchy.
 grep [pattern] [file]: Searches for patterns in files.
 wc [file]: Counts lines, words, and characters in a
file.
 cut -d [delimiter] -f [field] [file]: Removes sections from each
line of files.
 sort [file]: Sorts lines of text files.
 uniq [file]: Reports or omits repeated lines.
 diff [file1] [file2]: Compares files line by line.
 tar [options] -f [archive_file] [files]: Archives multiple files
into one file.
 gzip [file]: Compresses files using the Lempel-Ziv
coding (LZ77).
 ping [host]: Checks network connectivity to a server.
 traceroute [host]: Traces the route packets take to a
network host.
 ssh [user]@[host]: Securely connects to a remote server.
 scp [source] [user]@[host]:[dest]: Securely copies files
between hosts on a network.
 ftp [host]: Transfers files between a client and a
server.
 curl [options] [URL]: Transfers data from or to a server
using various protocols.
 wget [URL]: Downloads files from the web.
 ps: Reports a snapshot of current processes.
 top: Displays dynamic real-time information
about running processes.
 kill [PID]: Sends a signal to a process, usually to
terminate it.
 chmod [permissions] [file]: Changes file permissions.
 chown [owner]:[group] [file]: Changes file owner and group.
 df: Displays disk space usage for file systems.
 du [file|directory]: Displays disk usage of files and
directories.
 mount [device] [mount_point]: Mounts a file system.
 umount [mount_point]: Unmounts a file system.
 shutdown [options]: Shuts down or reboots the system.
 reboot: Reboots the system.
 whoami: Displays the current user's username.
 uname [options]: Displays system information.
 uptime: Shows how long the system has been
running.
 date: Displays or sets the system date and time.
 cal: Displays a calendar.
 bc: An arbitrary precision calculator language.
 jobs: Lists active jobs in the current session.
 HELPING MATERIAL

chmod Command:
What is chmod?

The chmod command is used to change the file permissions of a file or directory in
Unix and Linux systems. Permissions determine who can read, write, or execute a file.

Understanding File Permissions

In Linux, every file and directory has three types of permissions:

 Read (r): Permission to read the contents of a file or list the contents of a directory.
 Write (w): Permission to modify the contents of a file or add/delete files in a directory.
 Execute (x): Permission to run a file as a program or script.

Permission Levels

Permissions can be set for three categories of users:

 Owner: The user who owns the file.

 Group: Other users who are part of the file's group.
 Others: All other users.

How to Use chmod:

You can use either symbolic or numeric notation to set permissions.

Symbolic Notation

 To add permission: +
 To remove permission: -
 To set permission: = (exactly that permission)

EXAMPLES
 chmod u+x filename

 chmod o-w filename

 TAR COMMAND:
Basic syntax:
tar [options] [archive-file] [file-or-directory-to-archive]

Common Options
 -c: Create a new archive.
 -x: Extract files from an archive.
 -t: List the contents of an archive.
 -f: Specifies the name of the archive file (this option is required).
 -v: Verbosely list files processed (optional, for visibility).
 -z: Compress the archive using gzip (optional).
 -j: Compress the archive using bzip2 (optional).
 -C: Change to a directory before performing operations (optional).

TASKS
Task 1: File Management
1. Create a new directory called Lab_Manual.
2. Inside Lab_Manual, create three subdirectories: Commands, Scripts, and Notes.
3. Create a text file in the Notes directory called summary.txt and write a summary of
basic shell commands.

Task 2: File Permissions

1. Create a file named data.txt in the Lab_Manual directory.
2. Change the file permissions to read and write for the owner, and read-only for the
group and others.
3. Verify the permissions using the ls -l command.

Task 3: Process Management

1. Use the top command to view running processes.
2. Identify a process that you want to terminate and note its PID (Process ID).
3. Use the kill command to terminate the process.

Task 4: Networking
 1. Use the ping command to check the connectivity to google.com.
2. Use the traceroute command to trace the path taken to reach google.com.

Task 5: File Compression and Archiving

1. Create a directory called Backup in Lab_Manual.
2. Move all files from Lab_Manual/Notes to Backup.
3. Create a compressed archive of the Backup directory using the tar command.