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A Step-by-Step Procedure to Perform Preliminary Designs of Salient-Pole

Synchronous Generators

Article in Energies · August 2021

DOI: 10.3390/en14164989

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 energies
Article
A Step-by-Step Procedure to Perform Preliminary Designs of
Salient-Pole Synchronous Generators
Thiago de Paula Machado Bazzo 1, * , Vinicius de Oliveira Moura 1 and Renato Carlson 2

1 Graduate Program on Energy Systems (PPGSE), Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná (UTFPR),
Curitiba 80230-901, Brazil; viniciusmoura@alunos.utfpr.edu.br
2 Electrical Engineering Department, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC),
Florianópolis 88040-900, Brazil; rencarlson@icloud.com
* Correspondence: thiagobazzo@utfpr.edu.br; Tel.: +55-41-992790089

Abstract: This paper presents a straightforward step-by-step procedure to design salient-pole syn-
chronous generators, starting with its main specifications and finishing with all necessary data to put
it on production. As most of the electricity is generated by synchronous generators, the design of
these machines remains an interesting subject, but, although it is important, it is difficult to find a
complete step-by-step procedure in the literature. The proposed procedure can be followed by an
electrical engineer or student and, distinctively from most papers and books, all steps are presented.
Such a procedure is based on analytic calculations, eventually relying on finite element simulation
to verify if everything is all right and to adjust some design parameters. All calculations have been
chosen to keep the design as simple as possible; otherwise, it would not be possible to present
all steps and procedures. Therefore, it can be used for beginners in the art of design-synchronous
generators, applied to obtain an initial design, or be adopted by any electrical engineering course,



not only aiming to be an introductory electrical machine design course but mainly to enhance the


students’ comprehension of synchronous machines. The results have been compared with finite
Citation: Bazzo, T.d.P.M.; Moura, element simulation, presenting very small differences.
V.d.O.; Carlson, R. A Step-by-Step
Procedure to Perform Preliminary Keywords: design methodology; electric machines; step-by-step design; synchronous generators
Designs of Salient-Pole Synchronous
Generators. Energies 2021, 14, 4989.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14164989

1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Oscar Barambones
Synchronous generators are the most important equipment in electrical energy pro-
Received: 30 June 2021 duction. Despise some applications, such as photovoltaic and micro energy harvesting,
Accepted: 11 August 2021 synchronous generators are the components responsible for converting the mechanical
Published: 14 August 2021 energy, provided by the primary mover, into electricity.
Although synchronous generators design is already well established in the literature,
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral there is still space for innovation in that field and a continuous necessity for specialists
with regard to jurisdictional claims in to deal with the ever-growing demand for electrical energy. Furthermore, recent energy
published maps and institutional affil- sources, such as small wind turbines and tidal power, require novel machines optimized to
iations. gather as much energy as possible from the natural resource.
There are several bibliography materials addressing electrical machines design [1–4].
These materials provide an excellent understanding of the main types of electrical machines
and explain the conceptual issues regarding electrical machine design, e.g., modeling leakage
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. flux and taking into account the winding factor. Additionally, there are quite a lot of papers
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. about this subject [5–12]. Nevertheless, most of these papers are focused on analysis, presenting
This article is an open access article the results and the advantages of a designed machine. The remaining few concerning the design
distributed under the terms and process [13–15] do not address wound-rotor salient-pole synchronous generators. Moreover,
conditions of the Creative Commons it is extremely rare to find a paper presenting a complete design procedure. Generally, the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// conception of the design is presented, but it is difficult to use the paper to design a machine on
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ its own.
4.0/).

Energies 2021, 14, 4989. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14164989 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

 This paper presents a straightforward step-by-step procedure to design salient-pole
(wound-rotor) synchronous generators. The proposed procedure does not lead to a com-
petitive industrial design neither brings technical innovation. Instead, it presents a sim-
plified procedure that takes into account the fundamental requirements of the generator
Energies 2021, 14, 4989 2 of 23
but neglects some features, such as the damper winding design and dynamical require-
ments. Nevertheless, these simplifications made it possible to present the entire process
in the paper, including all steps necessary to design a synchronous generator, which
This paper presents a straightforward step-by-step procedure to design salient-pole
makes the results easy to reproduce.
(wound-rotor) synchronous generators. The proposed procedure does not lead to a compet-
The presented procedure,
itive industrial designdue to its
neither ease
brings of replication,
technical is intended
innovation. Instead, to contribute
it presents a simplified to
procedure that takes into account the fundamental requirements
several applications. Beginners in designing electric machines may use it to perform of the generator but ne-
their
glects some features, such as the damper winding design and dynamical requirements.
first designs and gain experience. On the other hand, experienced designers could im-
Nevertheless, these simplifications made it possible to present the entire process in the
prove the proposed method,allincluding
paper, including complexity,
steps necessary to design ato achieve agenerator,
synchronous more realistic and the
which makes com-
petitive machine. Moreover, specialists in other areas, such as power electronics, power
results easy to reproduce.
system stability, orThe presented procedure,
optimization, generally due have
to its ease
some of trouble
replication, is intended
finding to contribute
all necessary data
to several applications. Beginners in designing electric machines may use it to perform
of electrical machines
their firstto use in
designs their
and gainresearch
experience.and could
On the achieve
other all generator
hand, experienced parameters
designers could
from their ownimprove
design the (a method
proposedfor transient
method, parameter
including determination
complexity, to model
to achieve a more the
realistic andgen-
competitive machine. Moreover, specialists in other areas, such as power
erator by an equivalent electrical circuit is presented by [16]). Finally, it can be used as an electronics, power
undergraduatesystem
course stability, or optimization, generally have some trouble finding all necessary data
in electrical engineering to introduce electric machine design and
of electrical machines to use in their research and could achieve all generator parameters
deepen the students’
from theirknowledge
own designabout synchronous
(a method for transientgenerators and their applications.
parameter determination to model the
generator by an equivalent electrical circuit is presented by [16]). Finally, it can be used as
an Methods
2. Materials and undergraduate course in electrical engineering to introduce electric machine design and
deepen the students’ knowledge about synchronous generators and their applications.
2.1. Generator Topology
2. Materials and Methods
The proposed methodology
2.1. Generator Topology is suitable to design salient-pole wound-rotor (inner ro-
tor) synchronous generators. The topology
The proposed methodology of such
is suitable a machine
to design is wound-rotor
salient-pole presented (inner
in Figure
rotor) 1,
where it can besynchronous
noticed that the air-gap
generators. between
The topology pole
of such shoes isand
a machine the internal
presented in Figure diameter
1, where it of
can be noticed that the air-gap between pole shoes and the internal
stator is constant. This assumption has been considered to keep the design as simple diameter of stator is as
constant. This assumption has been considered to keep the design as simple as possible.
possible. However,
However,the the
design
designprocedure
procedure can canbebe easily
easily improved
improved to consider
to consider a variableaair-gap
variable
air-gap if desired.
if desired.

Figure 1. Cross-section
Figure 1. Cross-section representing
representing thethe topology
topology of the synchronous
of the synchronous generator togenerator
be designed.to be designed.

The designallows
The design procedure procedure allows
either either single-layer
single-layer or double-layerarmature
or double-layer armature winding.
winding.
Although the design equations regard the bottom of the slot as straight-shaped (trape-
Although the design equations
zoidal slots), regard
a rounded bottomthe bottom
(dashed linesofinthe slot2)as
Figure straight-shaped
could (trapezoi-
be easily implemented by
dal slots), a rounded
changingbottom (dashed
(24) to calculate the lines
correctin
slotFigure
surface 2)
thatcould
wouldbe easily reduced.
be slightly implemented by
changing (24) to calculate the correct slot surface that would be slightly reduced.
 Energies 2021, 14, 4989 3 of 23
2021, 14, 4989 3 of 23
Energies 2021, 14, 4989 3 of 23

Figure 2. Detail of the slot.

Figure2.2.Detail
Figure Detailofofthe
theslot.
slot.

It has been chosen to use 36 slots and double-layer lap windings, which results in 36
ItIthas
hasbeen
beenchosen
chosentotouse
use 36
36 slots
slots and double-layer
double-layer lap
lap windings,
windings,which
whichresults
resultsinin36
coils, meaning 2 coils per pole per phase. The winding diagram is shown in Figure 3.
36coils,
coils,meaning
meaning2 2coils
coilsper
perpole
poleper
perphase.
phase.The
Thewinding
windingdiagram
diagramisisshown
shownininFigure
Figure3.3.

1 6 2 136 2 3 4 5 4 5
Figure 3. Winding diagram. Figure 3. Winding diagram.
Figure 3. Winding diagram.

The calculationsThe calculations

presented presented
in Section 2.3 and in Section 2.3 and the
the simulations simulations
presented presented
in Section 3 in Section 3
assume Thethe calculations
generator presented
terminals are inYSection
connected.2.3 and
Then, theterminals
simulations 4, 5, presented
and 6 of in Section
Figure 3 are 3
assume the generator terminals are Y connected. Then, terminals 4, 5, and 6 of Figure 3
assume
shortened, the generator
and1,terminals terminals are Y
1, 2, and 3 correspond connected. Then, terminals 4, 5, and 6 of Figure 3
are shortened, and terminals 2, and 3 correspond to phases A,toB,phases and C,A,respectively.
B, and C, respectively.
are shortened, and terminals 1, 2, and 3 correspond to phases A, B, and C, respectively.
2.2. General Design Flow
2.2. General Design Flow
2.2.The
General
designDesign Flowwith the design specifications, such as machine type, type of
begins
The designconstruction,
begins with the designofspecifications,
number phases, ratedsuch
power, as machine type, type
rated rotational of con-
speed, rated frequency,
The design begins with the design specifications, such as machine type, type of con-
struction, number
powerof phases,
factor, rated power,
and rated rated
voltage rotational
[1]. power, speed,
The present rated frequency, power
struction, number of phases, rated rated procedure regardsrated
rotational speed, 3-phase salient-pole
frequency, power
factor, and rated voltage [1]. synchronous
wound-rotor The present procedure
generators, regards
for which 3-phase salient-pole
specifications are wound-
presented in Section 3.
factor, and rated voltage [1]. The present procedure regards 3-phase salient-pole wound-
rotor synchronous generators,
The for which
next stage is thespecifications
initialfor sizing are presented
of specifications
the in Section
synchronous 3.
generator to Section
define its
rotor synchronous generators, which are presented in 3. main
The next stage is the initial
dimensions, mainlysizing rotor
of theexternal
synchronous generator
Such atovaluedefine itsbemain
The next stagethe is the initial sizingdiameter.
of the synchronous can
generator obtained
to define from the
its main
dimensions, mainly the rotor
admissible externalstress
diameter. Such a value canisbe obtainedfrom fromtolerated
the
dimensions, mainly the rotor external diameter. Such a value can be obtained from of
tangential in the air-gap, which calculated values the
admissible tangential
the stress
linear in thedensity
current air-gap,and which is calculated from tolerated values of the values and the
admissible tangential stress inthe
theflux density
air-gap, in air-gap.
which These
is calculated allowable
from tolerated values of the
linear current density and the
calculations flux density
leading to externalin air-gap. These allowable values andinthe thecal-
linear current density and therotor flux diameter
density inare well established
air-gap. These allowable literature
values and [3,12,14].
the cal-
culations leading to external
Therefore, rotor diameter are well established in the literature [3,12,14].
culations the procedure
leading to externalpresented in this paper
rotor diameter assumes
are well the rotor’s
established in theexternal
literature diameter
[3,12,14].
Therefore, the procedure
asTherefore,
an input presented in this parameter,
(or procedure
imposed) paper assumes the rotor’s external diameter as
the presented incalculated
this paper previously
assumes thebyrotor’s the designer
external or knownas
diameter
an input (or imposed) parameter, calculated previously by the designer or known by ex-
byanexperience.
input (or imposed) parameter, calculated previously by the designer or known by ex-
perience. Once the design specifications, presented in Table 1, and the rotor’s external diameter
perience.
Once the design specifications,
are known, the design presented
designer can move in Table 1, rotor
and the
onpresented
to rotor’s
sizing, as1,external
the diameter
flowchart of external
Figure 4diameter
shows.
Once the specifications, in Table and the rotor’s
are known, the The
designer
numbers can nearby
move on eachto block
rotor sizing,
correspond as the to flowchart
the design ofsteps
Figure 4 shows.
(which match the equations
are known, the designer can move on to rotor sizing, as the flowchart of Figure 4 shows.
The numbers nearby
numbers) eachpresented
block correspond to 2.3.
the design steps (which match the equa-
The numbers nearbyineach Section
block The designer
correspond to theneeds
design to steps
impose several
(which parameters
match the equa-
tions numbers) because
presented theinnumber
Section of 2.3.variables
The designer needs to
concerning animpose
electricalseveral
machineparameters
design overcomes the
tions numbers) presented in Section 2.3. The designer needs to impose several parameters
number
because the number of independent
of variables concerningequations. The values
an electrical machineof alldesign
33 imposed
overcomes parameters
the used in the
because the number of variables concerning an electrical machine design overcomes the
number of independent equations. The values of all 33 imposed parameters used in the
number of independent equations. The values of all 33 imposed parameters used in the
 design employed as an example are presented in Table 2, as well as their suggested ranges
and initial estimations.
After dimensioning the rotor, the surface reserved to field winding is known, which
Energies 2021, 14, 4989 4 of 23
allows the definition of field conductor surface and its number of turns. If the core reluc-
tance is neglected, the flux produced by the field can be calculated (even if the stator di-
mensions are not yet determined), considering only the air-gap and the generator’s axial
design employed as an example are presented in Table 2, as well as their suggested ranges
length. The flux and
density
initialin the pole body 𝐵 , then, can be estimated.
estimations.

34
Design
Redefine
specifications
field current
1-8
35
Rotor sizing
Recalculate EMF Ready for
9-10
36-48 validation
Field definitions
Calculate reactances 60-77
and resistances Estimation of losses
11-13
Flux and efficiency
fail
density 49-54 55-59
test fail Terminal
Damper winding
voltage success sizing
success 14-24 test
Stator sizing
25-31
Armature definitions

Redefine axial length

or slot surface yes
32-33
no Almost fail Output
pass? power test success

FigureFigure 4. flowchart
4. General Generalofflowchart ofdesign
the proposed the proposed design
methodology. methodology.
The numbers Theblock
alongside each numbers alongside
correspond each
to equation
block
numbers correspond
of Section 2.3. to equation numbers of Section 2.3.

After dimensioning the rotor, the surface reserved to field winding is known, which al-
At this point,
lowsthethedesigner
definition must
of fieldbe sure that
conductor 𝐵 and
surface is its
acceptable. If not,If the
number of turns. it iscore
necessary
reluctance
to change some isimposed parameters, such as 𝐾 (pole body factor that influences
neglected, the flux produced by the field can be calculated (even if the stator dimensions the
pole body width). areIfnot
redefining theseconsidering
yet determined), parameters onlydoes not provide
the air-gap an appropriate
and the generator’s shape,
axial length. The
flux density in the pole
e.g., pole body very tall and narrow, the PB body B , then, can be estimated.
solution could rely on redefining the external
At this point, the designer must be sure that BPB is acceptable. If not, it is necessary to
rotor diameter 𝐷 .
change some imposed parameters, such as K PB (pole body factor that influences the pole body
After somewidth).
adjustments to these
If redefining 𝐵 within
keepparameters does anotdesired
provide an range, the design
appropriate proceeds
shape, e.g., pole body
through stator sizing,
very tallasandshown
narrow,intheFigure
solution4.could
Then,relyafter dimensioning
on redefining therotor
the external slots, the arma-
diameter DRe .
After some adjustments to keep B within a desired
ture can be defined, which provides the number of turns needed to accomplish the voltage
PB range, the design proceeds
requirement andthrough stator sizing, as shown in Figure 4. Then, after dimensioning the slots, the
the armature conductor surface, leading to the estimation of armature
armature can be defined, which provides the number of turns needed to accomplish the
current and output power.
voltage Until this
requirement and point of the conductor
the armature design, the loading
surface, effects
leading areestimation
to the not con-of
sidered; then, it has beencurrent
armature calledand a no-load design
output power. (Section
Until this point2.3.1).
of the design, the loading effects are
The designernotmust observe
considered; then,ifitthe output
has been power
called is acceptable
a no-load design (Section before
2.3.1).moving to the
The designer must observe if the output
full-load design (Section 2.3.2). If the power is different from its desired power is acceptable before
value 𝑆 , to
moving the
the
full-load design (Section 2.3.2). If the power is different from its desired value SEd , the
armature currentarmature
ought current
to be changed, which can be completed by redefining some im-
ought to be changed, which can be completed by redefining some imposed
posed parameters, mainly, the machine axial
parameters, mainly, the machine axial length
length𝐿 ,Lfor minor changes, or increase the
A , for minor changes, or increase the slot
slot surface (adjusting
surface the statorthe
(adjusting yoke to slot
stator yokeheight
to slot height 𝐾 )Kfor
factorfactor SYS ) major
for majorchanges.
changes.If If
the
the
geometry starts to become weird, the solution, again, would redefine 𝐷 . The
geometry starts to become weird, the solution, again, would redefine D Re . The designer
designer
may be inclined to change the armature current density 𝐽 ; however, as this value is cho-
sen to guarantee operation under the maximum allowable temperature, it cannot be
changed without extra care. The same can be said about the tooth-to-slot width factor 𝐾
because a tiny tooth may cause saturation or structural problems.
Energies 2021, 14, 4989 5 of 23

may be inclined to change the armature current density J Ac ; however, as this value is
chosen to guarantee operation under the maximum allowable temperature, it cannot be
changed without extra care. The same can be said about the tooth-to-slot width factor KTS
because a tiny tooth may cause saturation or structural problems.
During load operation, the armature current affects the flux created by the rotor and,
consequently, the terminal voltage. Three factors influence the load voltage: the resistance
of armature conductor, the armature winding inductances, and armature reaction.
The resistive voltage drop is easily calculated, as the winding resistance is known
from (40). However, the latter two reasons for voltage drops demand more attention.
In order to take into account these voltage drops caused by the armature current,
the direct axis and quadrature axis reactances, Xd and Xq , should be obtained. It is not a
simple task to calculate these reactances from machine dimensions by analytical methods
because the air-gap geometry is very complex in salient-pole machines, which would
provide inaccurate results [3]. The proposed procedure obtains the values of Xd and Xq
from finite-element simulation. The effect of the end-windings leakage inductance, which
is not considered in 2D simulations, is then calculated analytically and included in the
inductances obtained from simulation.
If the self-inductance of two phases in series L2ps has only the second-order harmonic
and the DC components different from zero, the direct axis inductance can be considered
as half of L2ps maximum value, whereas the quadrature axis inductance can be approxi-
mated as half of L2ps minimum value [17]. Other methods to obtain the inductances from
finite element simulations can be found in [16,18], whereas their calculation by analytical
procedures is presented in [19,20].
Once the no-load induced voltage E An is known, the voltage drops caused by the
armature current should be calculated in order to obtain the terminal voltage VT . The
value of VT should be compared with its desired value VTd . At this point of the design
process, all generator geometry is defined, and the adjustment of terminal voltage must be
accomplished by setting an appropriate value for the field current IF , as shown in Figure 4.
When the terminal voltage matches its desired value, the next steps include sizing the
damper winding and estimating the losses to compute the generator efficiency. The damper
bars have the objectives of reducing space mmf harmonics and improving performance
during transients by creating torque against variations in rotation. The proposed design
procedure takes into account copper losses in armature and field windings (as transients
and harmonics are not modeled, the losses in damper bars are not considered). The iron
losses are estimated in the stator core, but the iron losses in the rotor are not considered
for the same reasons as the losses in damper bars. The windage (losses due to the moving
parts of the machine) and ventilation losses (usually small-size synchronous generators
have ventilators coupled to the shaft) are accounted, but friction losses in the bearings are
not. The reason for not considering the bearing losses is the difficulty of determining the
required parameter, such as the mass of the turbine and axial water push. The effect of
misplacing these parameters could cause more harm than neglecting bearing losses.
After the estimation of the efficiency, if the designer finds it is suitable, the obtained
synchronous generator is ready to be verified by finite element simulation. Such a simula-
tion can confirm if the design specifications are attained.

Table 1. Design specifications.

Symbol Unit Description Value

SEd VA Desired Output Power 15,000
VTd V Desired Terminal Voltage 400
PF - Power Factor 0.9
f Hz Electrical frequency 50
n rpm Rotation 1000
Energies 2021, 14, 4989 6 of 23

Table 2. Imposed parameters.

Symbol Unit Suggested Values 1 /Ranges Value

DRe mm 2 250
KαP - 1/2–5/6 2/3
K PB - 1/3–3/4 4/11
K PSs - 0.12–0.2 0.15
IFmax A 4–7.5 5
JF A/mm2 2–3.5 [1] 3
KF f - 0.5–0.9 0.8
L AG ≈1.5/100 of DRe 3 3.5
LA mm 2 200.2
K AG - 0.95–1.15 1.023
IFnl A ≈50% of IF_max 2.5
WSo - 4 2
hSo mm ≈WSo 2
hSw mm 5 2.24
KTS - 0.85–1.15 1
K PBSY - 0.5–1.5 4/5
KSYS - 1/3–5/6 0.692
K Ac - 5/6 or 2/3 5/6
NS slots 6 36
NCs paths number of poles 6
NSl layers 1 or 2 2
∆∅l - 0.75–0.95 [2] 0.89
KS f - 1/3–2/3 7 0.5
IFnl A 8 2.5
IF A 8 4.78
r Akm Ω/km 9 3.92
r Fkm Ω/km 10 10.30
JA A/mm2 4–6.5 [1] 5
Km - 1/3–1/1 4/5
K Dp - 0.8–0.9 or 1.1–1.2 [1] 0.8
K Ds - 0.1–0.3 [1] 0.1
ph W/kg 1.656 [21] 1.656
pf W/kg 0.698 [21] 0.698
1 These suggestions regard authors’ recommendations to perform academic designs of generators with power
between 5 and 200 kVA. Designers intended to design commercial generators must look for the best parameters to
achieve their goal, respecting their production limits. 2 Difficult to suggest values as they depend on the generator
power. 3 Larger machines usually have a shorter air-gap length. 4 Must be larger enough to insert the coils.
5 Adjusted to keep the inclination angle of the slot wedge between 20◦ and 40◦ . 6 Recommended to be chosen

in order to make NCpp integer. 7 The slot fill factor is the fraction of the slot surface occupied by copper (here,
only the copper surface was considered, without insulation); generally, small slots allow lower fill factors. Its
exact value depends on many factors, including the manufacturing process, but 0.5 is a reasonable initial guess.
8 Adjusted to keep terminal voltage close to its desired value, either under no-load or full-load operation.
9 Resistance of 10 wires AWG 18 in parallel with 2 wires AWG 20 at 20 ◦ C. 10 Resistance of AWG 15 at 20 ◦ C.

2.3. Step-by-Step Design Procedure

This section describes the proposed step-by-step procedure to design salient-pole
wound-rotor synchronous generators. The main geometric parameters of the generator are
shown in Figure 5, where the diameters and the air-gap are presented in Figure 5a; the pole
dimensions in Figure 5b; the pole pitch, the slot pitch, the angle of one slot at the top, and
stator yoke in Figure 5c; and the slot dimensions in Figure 5d. All variables presented in
Figure 5 are described in the following paragraphs.
 Energies 2021, 14, 4989 7 of 23

Energies 2021, 14, 4989 The complete procedure is detailed within the 77 steps in Sections 2.3.1 and 2.3.2.
7 ofThe
23
numbering of the steps coincides with the equations’number and with those presented in
Figure 4.

Figure 5. Main geometric parameters of the generator: (a) air-gap and diameters, (b) pole dimen-
Figure 5. Main geometric parameters of the generator: (a) air-gap and diameters, (b) pole dimensions,
sions, (c) stator yoke and angles, and (d) slot dimensions.
(c) stator yoke and angles, and (d) slot dimensions.

2.3.1.
TheNo-Load
complete Design
procedure is detailed within the 77 steps in Sections 2.3.1 and 2.3.2. The
As presented
numbering in Section
of the steps 2.2, the
coincides withproposed procedure takesand
the equations’number intowith
account
thoseat first the no-
presented
inload flux,4.and after, the load effects are included. The no-load design is composed of the
Figure
rotor design and the stator design.
2.3.1. No-Load Design
Rotor
AsDesign
presented in Section 2.2, the proposed procedure takes into account at first the
no-load Theflux, and begins
design after, the
as load effects
simple as by are included. the
calculating Thenumber
no-loadof polesis𝑃,composed
design which is ob- of
the rotorfrom
tained design
theand the stator
electrical design.𝑓 (Hz) and the rotational speed  (rad/s), both im-
frequency
posed by the designer/application requirements:
Rotor Design
120 ∙ 𝑓
The design begins as simple as by calculating 𝑃= the .number of poles P, which is obtained (1)
from the electrical frequency f (Hz) and the rotational  speed ω (rad/s), both imposed by
The arc-section height
the designer/application of pole shoes ℎ
requirements: (mm) is calculated from some imposed pa-
rameters: 𝐷 (mm), the pole pitch 𝛼 (°), and the pole pitch factor 𝐾 that defines the
percentage of the pole pitch actually used by 120a· pole:
f
P= . (1)
𝐷 ω 𝐾 𝐷
ℎ = − cos ∙𝛼 ∙ , (2)
The arc-section height of pole shoes 2 h 2 2
PSa (mm) is calculated from some imposed
from the result
parameters: DReof previous
(mm), step,pitch
the pole it is possible to obtain
α P (◦ ), and the pole thepitch
width of pole
factor KαPshoes 𝑊 (mm):
that defines the
percentage of the pole pitch actually used by a 𝑘pole: 𝐷
𝑊 = 2 ∙ tan 𝛼 ∙ ∙ −ℎ , (3)
 2 2
DRe KαPdefinedDas
then, the width of pole body h PSa𝑊= (mm) can be
− cos ·α P · Re ,a function of 𝑊 , imposing (2)
the pole body factor 𝐾 : 2 2 2

𝑊 =to
from the result of previous step, it is possible 𝑊obtain
∙ 𝐾 the
. width of pole shoes WPS (mm): (4)

k ℎ D(mm)
The straight-section height of pole shoes is also related to an imposed fac-
   
Re
tor named 𝐾 : WPS = 2· tan α P · αP · − h PSa , (3)
2 2

then, the width of pole body WPB (mm) can be defined as a function of WPS , imposing the
pole body factor K PB :
WPB = WPS ·K PB . (4)
Energies 2021, 14, 4989 8 of 23

The straight-section height of pole shoes h PSs (mm) is also related to an imposed factor
named K PSs :
K
h PSs = DRe · PSs , (5)
P
moreover, the sum of h PSa and h PSs gives the height of pole shoes:

h PS = h PSa + h PSs . (6)

The complementary width of pole body WPBc (mm) is:

WPS − WPB
WPBc = , (7)
2
the height of pole body h PB (mm) uses the apothem equation:

DRe W π − αP
h PB = − h PS − PS · tan . (8)
2 2 2
Imposing a value for maximum allowable field current IFmax (A) and the field current
density JF (A/mm2 ) allows finding the surface of field conductor S F (mm2 ):

IFmax
SF = , (9)
JF

which makes it possible to obtain the number of turns of the field winding TF , imposing
the field-winding fill factor K F f :

KF f
TF = h PB ·WPBc · . (10)
SF

The reluctance of the air-gap R AG (A·e/Wb) depends on DRe , α P , air-gap length L AG

(mm), axial length of active material L A (mm), and the air-gap factor K AG , imposed by
the designer:
L AG
R AG = , (11)
µ0 · L A ·K AG · D2Re ·KαP · α2P
if all core reluctances are neglected (including stator and rotor), and the value of no-load
field current IFnl (A) is imposed, the flux in the pole body ∅PB (Wb) can be estimated by:

TF · IFnl
∅PB = , (12)
R AG /2

finally, the flux density in pole body BPB (T) is obtained:

∅PB
BPB = . (13)
L A ·WPB

Stator Design
Once the rotor design is finished and the designer is satisfied with the flux density in
pole body, the design of the stator starts dimensioning its internal diameter DSi (mm):

DSi = DRe + 2· L AG , (14)

the diameter at the top of the slot DSt (mm) can be obtained by defining values for the
eight slot opening hSo (mm) and the height of slot wedge hSw (mm):

DSt = DSi + 2·(hSo + hSw ), (15)

Energies 2021, 14, 4989 9 of 23

the angle occupied by the top of one slot θSt (◦ ) can be defined by the slot pitch angle αS
and imposing the tooth-to-slot width factor KTS :
αS
θSt = , (16)
1 + KTS

then, the top of slot width WSt (mm) is:

θSt
WSt = DSt · tan , (17)
2
imposing a value to the width of slot opening WSo (mm) leads to the width of slot wedge
WSw (mm):
W − WSo
WSw = St . (18)
2
The pole body width to stator yoke factor K PBSY is imposed to define the height of
stator yoke hSY (mm):
hSY = WPB ·K PBSY , (19)
similarly, the height of the slot hS (mm) is obtained from an imposed factor: the stator yoke
to slot height factor KSYS :
hS = hSY ·KSYS , (20)
in order to keep the teeth parallel (same weights at top and bottom), the inclination angle
of the slot edge θSei (◦ ) must be:
α
θSei = S . (21)
2
The bottom of slot width WSb (mm) is defined by:

WSb = WSt + 2·hS · tan θSei , (22)

and the external diameter of stator DSe (mm) is obtained by:

DSe = DSt + 2·hS + 2·hSY , (23)

as the slot is trapezoidal, its surface Ss (mm2 ) is:

WSb + WSt
Ss = h S · . (24)
2
The armature coil pitch α Ac (◦ ) is calculated after imposing a value for the armature
coil-shortening factor K Ac :
P
α Ac = α P ·K Ac · , (25)
2
as the coil is shortened, the flux linked by the armature coil should be decreased by the
reduction factor due to coil shortening ∆∅Cs [1]:
α Ac
∆∅Cs = sin . (26)
2
The number of coils per pole and per phase NCpp can be calculated using the number
of slots NS and the number of layers in a slot NSl , both imposed:

NS · NSl
NCpp = . (27)
6· P
As the winding is not concentrated, a reduction factor due to winding distribution
∆∅Wd should be used [1]:
N ·α
sin Cpp2 S
∆∅Wd = . (28)
NCpp · sin α2S
Energies 2021, 14, 4989 10 of 23

The number of turns of armature winding per phase TA is obtained considering the
desired terminal voltage VTd (V) and reduction factor due to leakage flux ∆∅l , as part of
the flux produced by the field never reaches armature windings [2]:
V
√Td
3
TA = √ , (29)
2·π · f ·∆∅l ·∆∅Cs ·∆∅Wd ·∅PB

defining the number of coils in series per phase NCs , the number of turns of armature
winding per coil TA is:
TA
TAc = , (30)
NCpp · NCs
the slot fill factor KS f defines the armature conductor surface:

Ss · K S f
S Ac = . (31)
TAc · NSl

If the armature current density J A (mm2 ) is imposed, the allowable armature current
I A (A) is:
I A = S Ac · J A . (32)
Once the desired terminal voltage and the armature current are known, the electrical
output power SE (VA) supported by the generator is:
√
SE = 3· I A ·VTd . (33)

The electrical output active power PE (W) can be obtained considering a desired power
factor PF.

2.3.2. Full-Load Design

The pole-body flux during no-load operation has been calculated in (12). Using a new
value of field current IFn (A), the pole-body flux can be recalculated for nominal operation:

TF · IFn
∅PBn = , (34)
R AG /2

then, the phase-to-neutral EMF in nominal load E An (V) is:

√
E An = 2·π · TA · f ·∆∅l ·∆∅Cs ·∆∅Wd ·∅PBn . (35)

The next step is calculating the armature winding resistance per phase, which depends
on the armature winding length. The arc length between two slots of the same coil dS (mm) is:
α Ac
dS = ( DSt + hS )· , (36)
P
assuming that the coil end has the shape of a half-circle, its length is:

ds
LCe = π· , (37)
2
the total length of an armature coil turn L At (mm) is then:

L At = 2· LCe + 2· L A , (38)

finally, using the resistance per km of the armature conductor rkm , the phase armature
resistance R Are f (Ω) can be obtained:

R Are f = LCe · TA ·rkm ·10−6 , (39)

Energies 2021, 14, 4989 11 of 23

usually, tables of wires are referred to 20 ◦ C or 25 ◦ C; to correct the resistance value, the
wire resistance should be referred to the operating temperature [3]:

243.5 + Top
R A = R Are f · , (40)
243.5 + Tre f

where Top (◦ C) is the operating temperature, considered as 100 ◦ C, and Tre f is the reference
temperature (20 ◦ C) related to the wire resistance.
The field resistance referred to 20 ◦ C can be obtained using the resistance per kilometer
of the field conductor r Fkm (Ω/km):

R Fre f = L Fc · TF ·r Fkm ·10−6 , (41)

where L Fc (mm) is the total length of the field winding, obtained from:

WPB + WPBc
L Fc = 2·π· + 2· L A . (42)
2
Similarly to the armature resistance (Ω), the field resistance should be referred to the
operating temperature:
243.5 + Top
R F = R Fre f · . (43)
243.5 + Tre f
At this point, Xd and Xq must be known. Although they could be calculated from
analytical equations, here, they are obtained from numerical simulation, as described in
Section 2.2. However, as the simulations were performed in 2D, the leakage flux in armature
end-windings is not considered. The inductance that represents this behavior can account
for a significant portion of the total machine leakage inductance, especially in generators
applied for direct-driven wind turbines, usually with great diameter and short stack length.
To take the effect of end-windings leakage flux, [3] suggests the following calculations:

8· LCe
 
2
Lend = µ0 · LCe · TAc · ln −2 , (44)
RCe

where RCe (mm) is the geometric mean distance of the coilside from itself, obtained by:
s
SS
RCe = 0.447· . (45)
NSl

Equation (44) provides the leakage inductance of a single coil end, the total end-
winding inductance (H), considering the mutual inductances can be obtained by using
a factor Km that estimates the percentage of flux that is linked by two adjacent end coils.
Here, such a factor is considered 4/5 because the coil pitch is 5 slots and the two coils
of each group share 4/5 of it, as shown in Figure 3. The total end-winding inductance
is then [3]: 

L Tend = NCS · 1 + NCpp − 1 ·Km · Lend . (46)
Therefore, the value of L Tend should be added to both Ld and Ld , for which values
could be found by finite element simulation, as described in Section 2.2. To accomplish
this, the generator has been simulated with two phases in series, and the inductance of
this winding L2ps has been obtained as a function of rotor position—its maximum and
minimum values correspond to twice the value of Ld and Lq , respectively. The conductors
of the field and the remaining phase have been taken out of the simulation, whereas the
winding of the two phases in series has been excited with nominal armature current. The
values of Xd and Xq are obtained by:

Xd = 2·π· f ·( Ld + L Tend ), (47)

 Energies 2021, 14, 4989 12 of 23

rgies 2021, 14, 4989

Xq = 2·π· f · Lq + L Tend . (48)
The generator phasor diagram is presented in Figure 6.

𝐼 𝑉 𝐸

𝜑 𝛿 𝑗𝑋 · 𝐼
𝐼
𝑗𝑋 · 𝐼
𝑉∅
𝑉 𝐼 𝑅 ·𝐼
𝑅 ·𝐼
𝑅 ·𝐼 𝑗𝑋 · 𝐼
Figure
Figure 6. 6. Generator
Generator phasor phasor
diagram. diagram.

From Figure 6, the following relations can be established:

From Figure 6, the following relations can be established:
I · X · cos ϕ − I · R · sin ϕ
A q A A
δ = tan−1 V
, (49)
I A · Xq · sin ϕ + I A · R𝐼A · cos
∙ 𝑋 ∙ cos φ
− 𝐼 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ sin φ
ϕ + √Td
3
𝛿 = tan ,
Id = I A · sin( ϕ + δ), (50) 𝑉
𝐼 ∙ 𝑋 ∙ sin φ + 𝐼 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ cos φ +
Iq = I A · cos( ϕ + δ), (51) √3
Vd = Xq · Iq − R A · Id , (52)
Vq = E An − Xd · Id
𝐼 = 𝐼 ∙ sin 𝜑 + 𝛿 ,
− R ·I , (53)
A q
√ q
VT = 3· Vd2 + Vq2 , (54)
𝐼 = 𝐼 ∙ cos 𝜑 + 𝛿 ,
where δ is the load angle, ϕ is the displacement√ angle between voltage and current, VTd is
the desired value of terminal voltage equal to 3·Vϕ , Id and Iq are the armature current
components of direct and quadrature axes, Vd and V 𝑉q are
=the𝑋 voltage
∙ 𝐼 −components
𝑅 ∙ 𝐼 , on direct
and quadrature axes, and VT is the phase-to-phase terminal voltage.
An implicit loop is formed from (49)–(54) as (49) depends on terminal voltage, and the
terminal voltage depends on armature current, 𝑉 =𝐸
which needs− the𝑋load
∙ 𝐼angle
−𝑅 to be∙ calculated.
𝐼 ,
The proposed solution to solve it without numerical methods is to impose the desired value
of the terminal voltage in (49). These equations make sense if, and only if, the terminal
voltage obtained from (54) equals its desired value, which can be accomplished by choosing
𝑉 =finished
a proper value for IFn . Such an iterative process is usually √3 ∙ after
𝑉 few+ 𝑉attempts.
, Once
the terminal voltage is obtained and matches its desired value, the design flow (Figure 4)
leads to damper-winding sizing.
where 𝛿 is
In order to avoid flux harmonics,
the load angle, the 𝜑 damper
is thewinding pitch α D (angle
displacement between
angle damper voltag
between
bars) should not match the stator slot pitch αS [1,2]. In spite of the existence of methods to
is the desired
determine the dampervalue of terminal
winding voltage
pitch [2], it is equal
possible to imposeto √3 ∙K𝑉Dp,to𝐼obtain
a factor andit 𝐼 ar
rent components
from the slot pitch: of direct and quadrature
axes, 𝑉 and 𝑉 are the v
α D = αS · 1 − K Dp . (55)
on direct and quadrature axes, and 𝑉 is the phase-to-phase terminal
The number of damper bars per pole can be obtained from [2]:
An implicit loop is formed from (49)–(54) as (49) depends on ter
the terminal voltage depends α ·KαP
NPdb on
= Parmature
, current, which needs (56) the lo
αD
culated. The proposed solution to solve it without numerical method
if NPdb is not an integer, its value should be rounded, avoiding extrapolating the limits
desired
of K Dp .
value of the terminal voltage in (49). These equations make se
the terminal voltage obtained from (54) equals its desired value, wh
plished by choosing a proper value for 𝐼 . Such an iterative process
after few attempts. Once the terminal voltage is obtained and matche
the design flow (Figure 4) leads to damper-winding sizing.
Energies 2021, 14, 4989 13 of 23

The total copper surface of the damping winging (mm2 ) can be determined as a
fraction of the total armature surface [1], which can be obtained as:

S At = SS · NS ·KS f , (57)

then, the surface of each damper bar is (mm2 ):

S At ·K Ds
SDb = , (58)
NPdb · P

where K Ds is a factor that defines the damper bars surface as a fraction of total copper
of armature.
Finally, the diameter of the damper bars (mm) is calculated as:
r
4
DDb = ·S . (59)
π Db
The next step is to estimate the losses. The first one, which is the most simple, is the
copper loses present in the armature (ρ Ac ) and field (ρ Fc ) windings:
2
ρ Ac = 3· R A · I A , (60)

ρ Fc = R F · IF2 . (61)
Iron losses calculation represents a more difficult task. The estimation of these losses
relies on material characteristics that are represented by their known losses per kilogram of
material (provided by the datasheets of the laminations). The first step is to calculate the
volume of magnetic steel.
The volume of steel in stator yoke is:
π h
2

2 i
VSy = · L A · DSe − DSe − 2·hSy , (62)
4
and the volume of rotor teeth is:

VSt = L A · NS ·[WT ·hS + (WT + 2·WSw )·hSo + (WT + WSw )·hSw ], (63)

where WT is the width of a tooth, obtained as:

αS − θSt
 
WT = DSt · tan . (64)
2

The masses of steel in stator yoke and teeth can be obtained, respectively, by:

mSy = VSy ·d Fe , (65)

mSt = VSt ·d Fe , (66)

where d Fe is the mass density of the iron, considered as 7.7 g/cm3 .
The method chosen to estimate the iron losses is derived from [21] and uses the
losses per kilogram due to hysteresis ph and Foucault p f . This method also uses empirical
factors to account for hysteresis losses in the stator yoke KSyh (2.0) and teeth KSth (1.2), and
Foucault losses in the stator yoke KSy f (1.8) and teeth KSt f (2.5).
The hysteresis loss in the stator yoke is:

BSy 2
 
f
ρSyh = KSyh ·mSy · ph · · , (67)
50 1.5
Energies 2021, 14, 4989 14 of 23

where BSy is the peak of flux density in stator yoke. It can be approximated by:

hSy
BSy = BPB · · ∆ ∅l . (68)
WPB

Similarly, Foucault loss in stator yoke is:

BSy 2
 
f
ρSy f = KSy f ·mSy · p f · · , (69)
50 1.5

and both hysteresis and Foucault losses in the teeth are, respectively:

BSt 2
 
f
ρSth = KSth ·mSt · ph · · , (70)
50 1.5
 2
f B
ρSt f = KSt f ·mSt · p f · · St , (71)
50 1.5
where BSt is the peak value of the flux density in teeth, which can be approximated by:

BPB
BSt = θSt
· ∆ ∅l . (72)
1− αS

The values obtained from (68) and (72) can be used to estimate the flux densities
in stator yoke and teeth based on the flux in pole body (13) as a first approximation. A
design refinement can substitute these values after simulations by finite element under
load operation.
Windage and ventilator losses (W) can be estimated by [1]:

ρWV = KSt f · DRe ·( L A + 0.6·τP )·v2R , (73)

where KSt f is an experimental factor for windage and ventilation losses, suggested as
10 W·s2 /m4 by [1], τP (mm) is the arc length of a pole pitch, given by:

π · DRe
τP = , (74)
P
and vr (m/s) is the surface speed of the rotor:

DRe
vr = n · . (75)
2
Stray losses can be estimated as a factor of total losses, [1] which suggests values
between 0.1% and 0.2%. Adopting 0.2%, the total losses (W) are obtained from:
 
ρ T = 1.002· ρ Ac + ρ Fc + ρSyh + ρSy f + ρSth + ρSt f + ρWV . (76)

Although the friction losses in the bearings are not included in (76), by the reasons
explained in Section 2.2, the designer can estimate the bearing losses and account for them
by adding a term in (76).
Finally, the efficiency can be obtained by:

Pe
η= , (77)
Pe + ρ T

and all design steps are completed. At this point, if the designer is satisfied with the design,
numerical simulations should be carried out for further analysis and verification.
 Energies 2021, 14, 4989 15 of 23

3. Results and Discussions

In order to show how the design procedure works, it has been applied to perform a
89 design of a synchronous generator, for which specifications are shown in Table151.of 23
All imposed parameters (designer choices) regarding the example design, as their
suggested ranges, are shown in Table 2. The suggestions presented here are only a guide for
new designers; the best choices should rely on the designer’s own experience. The applica-
The finite-element simulationand
tion particularities was
the carried out to provide
design specifications the
ought to be values 𝐿 these
of in
considered 𝐿
andchoices.
used in (47) and (48), The
respectively, assimulation
finite-element described wasincarried
Section 2.2,
out to resulting
provide in the
the values of Lcurve
d and Lof
q used
𝐿 , shown in Figure
in (47) and (48),
7. These respectively,
values as described
are presented 3. 2.2, resulting in the curve of L2ps ,
in Section
in Table
shown in Figure 7. These values are presented in Table 3.

85
80 𝐿
Inductance (mH)

75
70
65
60
55 𝐿
50
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
Rotor angular position (°)
𝐿
Figure 7. Inductance Figure obtained by Lfinite
7. Inductance element
2ps obtained simulation.
by finite element simulation.

Generator main results.

This machine Table
is not3. optimized and surely does not match commercial machines com-
paring their torque density,
Symbol volume, and Unit active mass. However,
Description a skilled designer can
Value
choose the imposed parameters P with wisdom
poles to improveNumber
his machine.
of poles 6
W mm Width of pole shoes
In this example, the imposed parameters have been chosen to provide a reliable re-
PS 85.51
WPB mm Width of pole body 31.09
sult. As the design model h PShas simplifications,
mm some attention
Height ofhas
polebeen
shoes given to make re-
13.81
sults closer to the desired h PBvalues, such mmas: Height of pole body 37.14
SF mm2 Surface of field conductor
1.67
• As the iron core reluctance
TF is neglected,
turns the flux density has been
Field winding turnskept low;
485
• D
Narrow slots have beenSi mm Internal
avoided to minimize flux leakage. diameter of stator 257
WSt mm Top of slot width 11.59
A good security marginWSb has beenmm applied to fieldBottomcurrent,
of slot comparing
width its no-load
14.60
value and the conductor hcapacity.
S mm Height of the slot 17.20
hSy mm Height of stator yoke 24.87
The main results areDSeshown in Tablemm 3. External diameter of stator 349.6
NCpp coils Number of coils per pole and per phase 2
TAc
Table 3. Generator main results. turns Number of turns per coil 13
S Ac mm2 Armature conductor surface 4.33
Symbol D
Unit Db mm Description Diameter of damper bars Value 4.64
NPdb bars Number of damper bars per pole 4
𝑃 poles Ld mHNumber of poles Direct axis inductance 1 6 40.78
𝑊 mm Lq Width of pole Quadrature
mH shoes axis inductance 1 85.51 26.10
𝑊 L
mm Tend mHWidth of pole bodyEnd-winding inductance 31.09 1.18
Xd Ω Direct axis reactance 13.18
ℎ mm Xq Height
Ω of pole shoes
Quadrature axis reactance 13.81 8.57
ℎ mm R A Ω
Height of pole
Armature resistance per phase 37.14 0.6275
body 2

𝑆 mm² R F Ω
Surface Field resistance 2
of field conductor 1.67 3.80
𝑇
1 inductance, L Tend is taken into account
Without considering the effectField
turns of end-winding
winding leakage
turns 485 in Xd and Xq by
(47) and (48). 2 Referred to 100 ◦ C.
𝐷 mm Internal diameter of stator 257
𝑊 mm Top of slot width 11.59
𝑊 mm Bottom of slot width 14.60
ℎ mm Height of the slot 17.20
ℎ mm Height of stator yoke 24.87
𝐷 mm External diameter of stator 349.6
Energies 2021, 14, 4989 16 of 23

This machine is not optimized and surely does not match commercial machines
comparing their torque density, volume, and active mass. However, a skilled designer can
choose the imposed parameters with wisdom to improve his machine.
In this example, the imposed parameters have been chosen to provide a reliable result.
As the design model has simplifications, some attention has been given to make results
closer to the desired values, such as:
• As the iron core reluctance is neglected, the flux density has been kept low;
• Narrow slots have been avoided to minimize flux leakage.
A good security margin has been applied to field current, comparing its no-load value
and the conductor capacity.
The main results are shown in Table 3.
The losses and the efficiency obtained from this example are presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Losses and efficiency obtained in the design.

Symbol Unit Description Value

ρ Ac W Armature copper losses 883.0
ρ Fc W Field copper losses 87.5
ρSyh W Stator yoke core losses due to hysteresis 45.6
ρSy f W Stator yoke core losses due to Foucault 17.3
ρSth W Stator teeth core losses due to hysteresis 67.6
ρSt f W Stator yoke core losses due to Foucault 59.3
ρWV W Windage and ventilation losses 119.4
ρT W Total losses 1282.3
η % Estimated efficiency 91.3

The behavior of the designed generator under different load conditions can be ob-
served in Table 5. These data have been obtained from the following procedure:
• A new magnitude of armature current is imposed in step 32, corresponding to 25%,
50%, 75%, 100%, and 125% loads;
• The value of the field current is adjusted to keep the terminal voltage constant at 400 V;
• The values of direct and quadrature axis reactances, used in steps 49, 52, and 53, as
well as the power factor, are considered constants;
• The load angle value, corresponding to each load condition, is calculated by (49).

Table 5. Behavior of the designed generator under different load conditions.

Loading Armature Current Field Current Load Angle

25% 5.41 A 2.94 A 9.00◦
50% 10.83 A 3.49 A 16.19◦
75% 16.24 A 4.11 A 21.89◦
100% 21.66 A 4.78 A 26.43◦
125% 27.07 A 5.47 A 30.10◦

Figures 8 and 9 provide further information. The correspondence between the arma-
ture current and the field current is shown in Figure 9, regarding different load conditions,
forming the “V” curves of the synchronous machine. Three lines are also plotted crossing
these curves to inform usual power factors.
4989 Energies 2021, 14, 4989 17 of 23 17 of 23

35
𝑃𝐹 = 0.8 𝑃𝐹 = 0.8
30
𝑃𝐹 = 1.0
Armature current (A)

25

20

15

10

5
Under-excited Over-excited
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Field Current (A)
Figure 8.Figure
“V” curves
8. “V” of the of
curves resulting generator
the resulting corresponding
generator correspondingto
to different loadconditions.
different load conditions.

300

250
Electromagnetic Torque (N⋅m)

200

150

100

50

-50
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
Load angle (°)
Figure 9. Electromagnetic torque
Figure as a function
9. Electromagnetic of load
torque as a angle.
function of load angle.

The electromagnetic
Finite-element simulations torque,
have been as a functiontoofhelp
performed the load angle, isthe
validate presented
design.in Figure
The 9 for
several values of the field current, from 0% to 125%. These curves correspond to analytical
time-stepping simulations take into account the ferromagnetic saturation. The no-load
approximations, where the armature resistance has been neglected, using [2]:
and the full-load line flux and flux densities are presented in Figures 10 and 11, respec-
tively. 3 E An ·V∅
 
3 2 1 1
Te = · · sin(δ) + ·V∅ · − · sin(2·δ). (78)
The main electromagnetic results ω are Xdpresented in 2·ωTable 6.
XqIt can
Xd be observed that
there is good agreement between the values obtained from the design model and those
Finite-element simulations have been performed to help validate the design. The
attained by simulations.
time-stepping simulations take into account the ferromagnetic saturation. The no-load and
the full-load line flux and flux densities are presented in Figures 10 and 11, respectively.
 Energies 2021, 14, 4989 18 of 23
Energies 2021, 14, 4989 18 of 23
Energies 2021, 14, 4989 18 of 23

1.5
1.3
1.5
1.3 1.3
1.2
1.3
1.2 1.2
1.0
1.2

Flux Density (T)

1.0 1.0

Flux Density (T)

1.0 0.8
0.8 0.8
0.8 0.7
0.7 0.7
0.7 0.5
0.5 0.5
0.5 0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3 0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2 0.0
0.0

Figure10.
10. Finite-element solution of the magnetic field distribution and magnetic fluxunder
density unde
Figure 10.Finite-element
Figure Finite-elementsolution
solutionofof
the magnetic
the field
magnetic distribution
field andand
distribution magnetic flux flux
magnetic density
density under
no-loadoperation.
no-load operation.
no-load operation.

2.1
2.1
1.9 1.9
1.9 1.9
1.7 1.7
1.7 1.7
1.4 1.4

Flux Density (T)

1.4 1.4
Flux Density (T)
1.2 1.2
1.2 1.2
0.9 0.9
0.9 0.9
0.7 0.7
0.7 0.7
0.5 0.5
0.5 0.5
0.2 0.2
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0

Figure 11. Finite-element solution of the magnetic field distribution and magnetic flux density under
Figure11.
Figure 11.Finite-element
Finite-element solution
solution of the
of the magnetic
magnetic field field distribution
distribution and magnetic
and magnetic fluxunder
flux density density unde
full-load operation.
full-loadoperation.
full-load operation.
TableThe mainelectromagnetic
6. Main electromagnetic results are presented in Table 6. It can be observed that
results.
Table 6. Main electromagnetic results.
there is good agreement between the values obtained from the design model and those
Symbol Unit Design FEA diff. (%)
attained by simulations.
Symbol Unit Design FEA diff. (%)
𝐵 1 T 1.25 1.28 −2.3
𝐵 𝑉
1
Table 6. Main electromagnetic results. V T 1.25
400.3 1.28
405.98 −1.4−2.3
𝐼𝑉 AV 400.3
21.66 405.98
21.19 +2.2−1.4
Symbol 𝑆 𝐼 2 Unit kVA A Design 21.66
15.01 FEA 21.19
14.90 diff. (%) +0.7+2.2
BPB 1 𝑃𝑆 32
T kVA
kW 1.25 15.01
13.50 1.28 14.90
13.22 −2.3 +2.1+0.7
VT 𝑃 4
PF 3 V -kW400.3 13.50405.98
0.90 13.22 −1.4 +1.1+2.1
0.89
IA
1 Flux density PF 4 A - 21.66 0.90 21.19
during no-load operation measured in the center of pole body. 0.89
2 FEA +2.2 +1.1
result obtained
S 2 kVA 15.01 14.90 +0.7
E
1byFlux density
multiplying during
the rmsno-load operation
values of measured
the current, in theand
line voltage, √3.ofFEA
center 3 poleresult
body.obtained
2 FEA result
by theobtained
PE 3 kW 13.50
4 Calculated as 𝑃 /𝑆 .
13.22 +2.1
mean
by value
multiplying
PF 4 of the
theinstantaneous
rms values
- ofpower.
the current, line
0.90 voltage, and √3.
0.89
3 FEA result obtained by the
+1.1
1mean value of the instantaneous power. Calculated as 𝑃 /𝑆2 .
4
Flux density during no-load operation measured√ in theno-load
center of pole body. FEA result obtained by multiplying
Figure 12 shows the phase-to-neutral voltages. The shape of these voltages are
the rms values of the current, line voltage, and 3. 3 FEA result obtained by the mean value of the instantaneous
typical
power. of this
4 Calculatedkind
Figure 12 shows
as PE of
/S generator, being almost trapezoidal.
Ethe phase-to-neutral no-load voltages.
. TheThe
inflection
shape of points
these(e.g., 75°) are
voltages
are dueoftothis
typical a slot opening
kind that reduces
of generator, beingthe air-gap
almost flux under
trapezoidal. its inflection
The area. The points
THD of this75°
(e.g.,
curve is 7%.
are due to a slot opening that reduces the air-gap flux under its area. The THD of this
curve is 7%.
 Energies 2021, 14, 4989 19 of 23

021, 14, 4989 19 of 23

021, 14, 4989
Figure 12 shows the phase-to-neutral no-load voltages. The shape of these voltages are
19 of 23
es 2021, 14, 4989 typical of this kind of generator, being almost trapezoidal. The inflection 19 of 23 (e.g., 75◦ ) are
points
due to a slot opening that reduces the air-gap flux under its area. The THD of this curve is 7%.
𝐸
Ea 𝐸
Eb 𝐸
Ec
400 𝐸
Ea 𝐸
Eb 𝐸
Ec
400 𝐸
Ea 𝐸
Eb 𝐸
Ec
(V)(V)

400
200
Phase voltage (V)
voltage

200
200
voltage

0
00
Phase

-200
Phase

-200
-200
-400
-4000
-400 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
00 15
15 30
30 45
45 60Rotor75
75angular
90 position
90 105 °120
105 (120
) 135 150
135 150 165
165 180180
Rotor angular position(°()°)
angularposition
Figure 12. No-load phase voltages (field current equal to 𝐼 ).
Figure12.
Figure 12.No-load
No-load phase
phase
Figure voltages
voltages
12. (field
No-load(field
phasecurrent
current equal
equal
voltages to 𝐼𝐼 ).). equal to I ).
tocurrent
(field Fnl
The phase-to-phase voltages under full-load operation and the components of the
The
The
voltage phase-to-phase
inphase-to-phase
the quadrature voltages
The phase-to-phase
voltages
and under
directunder
axis full-load
voltages
full-load
are shown operation
under Figureand
in full-load
operation and
13. the
Thethecomponents
operation and the
components
variables 𝑉 of thethe
components
of
and 𝑉 of the
voltageininthe
voltage thequadrature
quadrature
voltage in theand
and direct axis
quadrature
direct and
axis are
are shown
direct
shown in
axisinFigure
are 13.
shown
Figure The
13.in
The variables
Figure 13.
variables 𝑉 𝑉and
The 𝑉 𝑉 Vq and Vd
variables
and
are the quadrature and direct axis components of the voltage obtained from phase volt-
arethe are the
thequadrature
quadrature quadrature
and andcomponents
direct axis direct axis components of theobtained
voltage obtained fromvolt-
phase voltages
are
ages by Park’s and
reference frameaxis
direct components
transformation of
ofthe
[22].the voltage
The flux obtained
voltage distortionfrom from
causedphase
byvolt-
phase arma-
ages by
ages reaction
by Park’s by
Park’s Park’s
reference
reference reference
frame frame transformation
transformation
frame transformation [22]. The [22].
flux The flux
distortion distortion
caused bycaused
arma- by armature
ture generally contributes to reducing [22]. The flux content
the harmonic distortion of caused by arma-
the voltage. The
turereaction reaction
reactiongenerally generally
generally contributes contributes
contributes to to
to reducing reducing
the the
harmonic harmonic content
content ofofthe of the
voltage. voltage.
The The THD
ture
THD of the line voltages presented in reducing
Figure the3%,
13 is harmonic
wherebycontent the voltage.
the eleventh—(1.2%) The
and
of the line voltages presented in Figure 13 is 3%, whereby
THD of the line voltages presented in Figure 13 is 3%, whereby the eleventh—(1.2%) and the eleventh—(1.2%) and the
THD
the of the line voltages
thirteenth—(2.5%) presented
order in Figure
components are 13 ismost
the 3%, important.
whereby the eleventh—(1.2%) and
thirteenth—(2.5%)
the thirteenth—(2.5%) order components
order components are the mostare important.
the most important.
the thirteenth—(2.5%) order components are the most important.
𝑉Vab
Vab
𝑉 𝑉
Vbc
𝑉
Vbc 𝑉
𝑉Vca
Vca 𝑉𝑉
Vq
Vq 𝑉
𝑉 Vd
Vd
700
700 𝑉
Vab 𝑉
Vbc 𝑉
Vca 𝑉
Vq 𝑉
Vd
700
500
500
(V)(V)

500
300
Voltage (V)

300
300
100
Voltage

100
100
-100
Voltage

-100
-100
-300
-300
-300
-500
-500
-500
-700
-700
-700 0 0 1515 30
30 45
45 60
60 75 90
90 105
105 120 120 135
135 150
150 165
165 180180
0 15 30 45 Rotor angular
60Rotor75 90 position(°(°) )
angular position
105 120 135 150 165 180
Rotor angular position (°)
Figure
Figure 13.13. Full-loadline
Full-load linevoltages
voltagesand
and the components
components of quadrature and
anddirect-axis voltages.
Figure 13. Full-load line voltages andthe
the componentsof
ofquadrature
quadrature and direct-axis
direct-axis voltages.
voltages.
Figure 13. Full-load line voltages and the components of quadrature and direct-axis voltages.
Figure1414shows
Figure shows thearmature
Figure
the armature
14 shows thecurrents and
armature
currents the
thecomponents
andcurrents corresponding
and the components
components toto
quad-
corresponding
corresponding quad- to quadra-
rature and
Figure direct
14 ture axis.
shows
and The
the THD
armature
direct axis.of armature
currents
The THD currents
and
of the
armature is 9%, where
components
currents is the most important
corresponding
9%, where
rature and direct axis. The THD of armature currents is 9%, where the most important the to
most is is
quad-
important is the
the
raturethird-order
and direct component,
third-order
axis. The THDwith
component,
the third-order component, with 8.4%. of8.4%.
with 8.4%.
armature currents is 9%, where the most important is
the third-order component, with 8.4%.
Ia
𝐼 Ib
𝐼 Ic
𝐼 Iq
𝐼 Id
𝐼
40 Ia
𝐼 Ib
𝐼 Ic
𝐼 Iq
𝐼 Id
𝐼
4030 Ia
𝐼 Ib
𝐼 Ic
𝐼 Iq
𝐼 Id
𝐼
30
4020
Current (A)

20
3010
(A)(A)

10
20 0
Current

0-10
10
Current

-10-20
0
-20
-10-30
-30
-20-40
-40
-30 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
-40 0 15 30 45 60 Rotor75angular90 position
105 (°)120 135 150 165 180
0 15 30 45 60Rotor75angular 105 (°120
90 position ) 135 150 165 180
Figure14.14.Full-load
Full-loadarmature
armaturecurrents
currentsand
andthethecomponents
componentsofofquadrature
Figure Rotor angular position quadrature
(°) and
and direct-axis
direct-axis currents.
currents.
Figure 14. Full-load armature currents and the components of quadrature and direct-axis currents.
Figure The
14. Full-load armaturetorque,
electromagnetic currentsthe
andthree-phase
the components of quadrature
output and direct-axis
power (instantaneous currents.
power),
andThe
its average value aretorque,
electromagnetic shown in theFigure 15. The output
three-phase averagepower
value of the electromagnetic
(instantaneous power),
and The
torque
its iselectromagnetic
average131.6 value
N⋅m, and torque,
are shown the
the average
in three-phase
value15.
Figure the output
of The averagepower
instantaneous (instantaneous
valuepower power),
of theiselectromagnetic
13.22 kW, as
presented
and
torque in Table
its isaverage
131.6 N⋅m, 6.and
value The ratio
are the
shownbetween the maximum
in Figure
average value15.
of The oscillation
average andpower
value
the instantaneous ofthe average
the value
kW,is as
electromagnetic
is 13.22
torque is 131.6
presented N⋅m,
in Table andratio
6. The the average
betweenvalue of the instantaneous
the maximum power
oscillation and is 13.22value
the average kW, as
is
 Energies 2021, 14, 4989 20 of 23

9 20 of 23
The electromagnetic torque, the three-phase output power (instantaneous power), and
its average value are shown in Figure 15. The average value of the electromagnetic torque
is 131.6 N·m, and the average value of the instantaneous power is 13.22 kW, as presented
in Table 6. The ratio between the maximum oscillation and the average value is 0.24 for the
0.24 for the electromagnetic torque and 0.14 for the output power. Such oscillations are
electromagnetic torque and 0.14 for the output power. Such oscillations are undesirable
undesirable and mainly exist duedue
and mainly exist to harmonic
to harmoniccontent involtage
content in voltageandand current.
current.

𝑃 
Pt 𝑃
Pm 
T
20 300

Torque (N ⋅ m)
15 225
Power (kW)

10 150

5 75

0 0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
Rotor angular position (°)
Figure 15. Output power
Figure and electromagnetic
15. Output torque under
power and electromagnetic full-load
torque under operation.
full-load operation.

Discussions about Improvements in the Design

Discussions about Improvements in the Design
The main objective of the proposed method is to provide a simple step-by-step proce-
The main objective
dure toofdesign
the proposed method is generators.
small size synchronous to provideThe a simple step-by-step
results obtained by suchpro-
a design
cedure to design small size synchronous generators. The results obtained by such
could be useful for several purposes, e.g., to provide an application for researches a design
in the ar-
could be useful foreas relatedpurposes,
several to control, optimization, and power
e.g., to provide electronics. However,
an application the design
for researches inprocedure
the
can be improved in several manners to produce, as a result,
areas related to control, optimization, and power electronics. However, the design proce-a more reliable generator.
The first suggestion of improvement regards harmonic content mitigation. There are
dure can be improved in several manners to produce, as a result, a more reliable generator.
three classic techniques to address harmonic reduction: carefully choosing the armature
The first suggestion
windingofconfiguration,
improvement regards
changing harmonic
the shape of pole content
shoes, andmitigation.
skewing the There
stator inare
relation
three classic techniques to address harmonic reduction: carefully choosing the armature
to the rotor.
Equations
winding configuration, changing (26) and
the (28) represent
shape of polethe reduction
shoes, andofskewing
the linkedthe
fluxstator
by the in
armature
rela- coil
due to, respectively, coil shortening and winding distribution. The coil is shortened if the
tion to the rotor.
coil pitch is smaller than the pole pitch and is distributed when there is more than one coil
Equations (26)per
and (28)
pole forrepresent
each phase.the reduction
In the presentedofexample,
the linked fluxisby
the coil the armature
shortened coil
by a factor of 5/6,
and the number of coils per pole and phase is two. It is possible
due to, respectively, coil shortening and winding distribution. The coil is shortened if the to calculate the attenuation
coil pitch is smallerfactor
than for
theeach harmonic due to winding distribution by [1]:
pole pitch and is distributed when there is more than one coil
per pole for each phase. In the presented example, thesin q·αshortened
coilυ·is u


by a factor of 5/6,
2

Kdυ = αu to, calculate the attenuation (79)
and the number of coils per pole and phase is two. It is possible
q· sin υ· 2
factor for each harmonic due to winding distribution by [1]:
where υ represents the harmonic order, q is the number of slots per pole, and αu is the angle
𝑞∙𝛼
sin 
(electrical) between two adjacent coils
∙ of the same group.
The attenuationKfactor 2 ,
 =
due to coil shortening can be obtained by [1]: (79)
𝛼
𝑞 ∙ sin  ∙
2 K Ac ·υ· ,
π
 
Ksυ = sin (80)
2
where  represents the harmonic order, 𝑞 is the number of slots per pole, and 𝛼 is the
where K Ac is the coil-shortening factor.
angle (electrical) between two adjacent coils of the same group.
Applying (79) and (80) can show how the choices concerning the winding configu-
The attenuation factor
ration can due to the
reduce coilharmonic.
shortening can be obtained
A shortening byreduces
factor of 5/6 [1]: a significant amount
of fifth- and seventh-order components and 𝜋 a moderate amount of third- and ninth-order
components, whereas K afactor
= sinof 2/3 ∙  ∙ , reduces third- and ninth-order components,
𝐾 drastically (80)
and moderately, fifth- and seventh-order 2components. Generally, increasing q provides
where 𝐾 is the coil-shortening factor.
Applying (79) and (80) can show how the choices concerning the winding configura-
tion can reduce the harmonic. A shortening factor of 5/6 reduces a significant amount of
fifth- and seventh-order components and a moderate amount of third- and ninth-order
Energies 2021, 14, 4989 21 of 23

an overall reduction of the harmonic contents, and a fractional q (chosen carefully) can
improve the reduction [1].
Another suggestion to reduce harmonics is to change the shape of pole shoes. The
presented example has the air-gap constant along the pole shoe’s surface. Such a shape
produces a trapezoidal flux density in the air-gap [2], contributing to producing harmonic
content. The pole shoes can be shaped in order to produce a sinusoidal flux density in the
air-gap by making the air-gap larger toward the pole shoe ends, [2] which suggests using:

L AG
L AG (θ ) =  , (81)
cos θ · P2

where L AG is the air-gap length in the center of pole shoe, θ is the mechanical angle where
L AG (θ ) is calculated, and P is the number of poles.
A generator with pole shoes shaped as (81) presents a very important attenuation
of the harmonic content. An easy way to include it in the design procedure is to replace
step 11 by an equivalent reluctance formed by several (10–20 are enough) parallel air-gap
reluctances, each one approximated by a rectangle with the same width and different
lengths, which can be obtained directly by (81).
Finally, it is possible to skew the stator to reduce the influences of permeance harmonics
caused by slots [1]. The reduction factor of each harmonic order due to stator skewing is:
 
sin υ· τsP · π2
Ksqυ = , (82)
υ· τsP · π2

where s is the skewing arc length (mm) and τP is the pole pitch arc length obtained in step 74.
These three suggestions can drastically reduce the current and voltage harmonic
contents of the generator, but unfortunately, they also reduce the fundamental component
(when υ = 1). To compensate such a drawback, it is advised to increase the stack length or
the armature number of turns per coil; both solutions increase the generator volume, mass,
and material costs.
Another suggestion of improvement is to estimate the operating temperature of the
generator. A practical way to estimate the temperature is to implement an equivalent
thermal circuit, which models the thermal resistances by resistors, the heating sources
(losses) by current sources, and the voltage at each node represents the temperature of the
corresponding region. An equivalent thermal circuit of a permanent magnet synchronous
generator has been implemented by [5], where the rotor losses have been neglected without
spoiling the results. Some guidelines to create an equivalent thermal circuit for electric
machines are provided by [3]. More complex and accurate thermal models based on
lumped parameters are presented in [23,24].
If the temperature is estimated, the design can benefit from it by using the actual
temperature of armature and field windings in steps 40 and 43. Therefore, the imposition
of current density (J A and JF ) are no longer mandatory, and the temperature (if estimated
appropriately) may govern the amount of current that the conductors can support.

4. Conclusions
A step-by-step procedure to design synchronous generators has been presented. Dif-
ferent from most papers, all equations and methods required to achieve the result are
shown, which makes the procedure easy to replicate. Therefore, many researchers can
benefit from this procedure to perform a preliminary design of a synchronous generator or
to improve it by incorporating other features.
In spite of the simplifications applied in the design, e.g., disregarding the iron reluc-
tance, its results are very close to those obtained with finite-element simulation, where
the core reluctance and its saturation have been taken into account. If it is important to
consider the iron magnetic permeability, the core reluctances should be calculated based
Energies 2021, 14, 4989 22 of 23

on geometry and used to estimate the flux created by field winding. Similarly, the thermal
behavior could be implemented, and the shape of pole shoes could be improved to achieve
better designs.
The proposed procedure has been applied to an example to help readers to understand
how it can be implemented. After the analysis of the results obtained from the example,
some considerations and guidelines to improve the design are presented. Such improve-
ments include design choices to reduce harmonics a suggestion to implement an equivalent
thermal circuit. However, the paper does not cover a method to create a thermal model
or the analytical calculation of the quadrature and direct-axis reactances. Fortunately, the
designer interested in refinement of the generator can apply the proposed method to obtain
a preliminary design and enhance the results with specialized bibliography.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.d.P.M.B.; Data curation, R.C.; Formal analysis, R.C.;
Funding acquisition, T.d.P.M.B.; Investigation, T.d.P.M.B.; Methodology, T.d.P.M.B.; Project adminis-
tration, T.d.P.M.B.; Resources, T.d.P.M.B.; Software, T.d.P.M.B. and V.d.O.M.; Supervision, T.d.P.M.B.;
Validation, T.d.P.M.B., V.d.O.M. and R.C.; Visualization, T.d.P.M.B.; Writing—Original draft, T.d.P.M.B.
and V.d.O.M.; Writing—Review and editing, T.d.P.M.B. and R.C. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The APC was funded by Universidade Tenológica Federal do Paraná (UTFPR).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or
in the decision to publish the results.

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