Poonia and Shiva  Food Production, Processing

Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26

https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014-022-00104-1 and Nutrition

REVIEW Open Access

Bioactive compounds, nutritional profile

and health benefits of colostrum: a review
Amrita Poonia*   and Shiva

Abstract
Bovine colostrum is defined as first milk by milching animals responsible for providing the innate immunity to the
neonatal and possess many immunoglobulins for preventing the calf from diseases. Colostrum consist of many
bioactive compounds like proteins, enzymes, growth factors, immunoglobulins and nucleotides that provides several
benefits to human health. Numerous clinical and pre-clinical studies have demonstrated the therapeutic benefits of
the bovine colostrum. This review focusses on bioactive compounds, their health benefits, potential of colostrum for
developing several health foods and prevention of respiratory and gastrointestinal tract disorders. Processing can also
be done to extend shelf-life and extraction of bioactive constituents either as encapsulated or as extracts. The prod-
ucts derived from bovine colostrum are high-end supplements possessing high nutraceutical value.
Keywords: Colostrum, Functional foods, Bioactive compounds, Health benefits, Microbial infections

*Correspondence: amrita12@bhu.ac.in
Department of Dairy Science and Food Technology, Institute of Agricultural
Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 221005, India

© The Author(s) 2022. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which
permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the
original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or
other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line
to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory
regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this
licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/.
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 2 of 21

Graphical Abstract
Processing of the BC to extend the shelf -life to obtain bioactive compounds for manufacturing functional foods.

BOVINE COLOSTRUM

Rapid Cooling (4°C)

NON THERMAL THERMAL

Micro- filtration Moderate Fermentation Freeze HTST LTST LTLT 60-63°C

Pore Size :1 µm Electric Field 24 hr (30°C) drying 72°C (15 sec) 63°C (15 sec) (30-120 min)
• Lactobacillus Long term
plantarum storage
High • Lactobacillus
Ultra-filtration paracasei Cooling Calf Feeding
Pressure
(4°C)
Processing Protein
Concentrate

Liquid Colostrum Packaging, Storage and

Distribution

Extraction of Bioactive Compounds Spray Drying

Extract Encapsulate Powder Additives in Dairy Products

Functional foods

Introduction for recovering and maintaining the health of gastro-

Bovine colostrum (BC) is defined as the first milk intestinal tract ultimately providing the useful out-
produced by the mammary glands of the milch- comes for the treatment of gastro disorders and also
ing animal after notably within first days (Rathe on prophylaxis (Dzik et al. 2017). Colostrum can also
et al. 2014). Approximately about 5–10 L of colostrum be used as a potential heath supplements aiming in
can be produced by a healthy cow per milking (Moore improvement of exercise performance and recovery of
et al. 2009). Due to the importance of colostrum, it is the athletes (Kotsis et al. 2018). So, the use of colos-
occasionally also referred as “Liquid Gold” (Kuralkar trum is not restricted to human beings but also for the
& Kuralkar 2010). Colostrum is profuse in bioactive well-being of the domestic pets and animals (Playford
compounds like immunoglobulins, growth factors, & Weiser 2021). There are clinical relevance cases and
lysozymes, lectoferrin, lactoperoxidase and designed no contradictions showing the ill effects of intake of
in such a way that it dispense the new born with pas- the higher dose of colostrum (Menchetti et al. 2016;
sive immunity against pathogens. It also possesses Davison et al. 2020). Ceniti et al. (2022) reported that
elevated levels of fats, proteins, minerals and vita- colostrum-based supplements may play a vital role in
mins (Gomes et al. 2021). There are many evidences the prevention and treatment of various diseases as
contributing to the verity that BC can be a valuable well as for pharmaceutical purposes or as a daily food
commodity for the treatment of diversified medical supplement.
constraints in both adults and children (Bagwe-Parab Due to higher protein content of BC along with lower
et al. 2020; Ulfman et al. 2018). The components pos- temperature of clotting creates several problems during
sessing immunomodulating nature are responsible industrial processing and on contrary the antimicrobial
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 3 of 21

activity drops the likelihood of fermentation (Tripathi the mental health too (Cleminson et al. 2016). The vita-
& Vashishtha 2006). Most of the metabolites present in mins concentration of colostrum is dependent on several
colostrum are gently affected or preserved well by pas- factors. Fattah et al. (2012) studied that bovine colostrum
teurization at 60 °C for 25 to 30 min (Xu et al. 2021 & contains 60 to 1040 μg.100 g-1 of vitamin E as compared
Nguyen et al. 2019). The bioactive components of the to milk. BC is also rich in minerals like calcium, mag-
colostrum are generally spray dried or freeze dried in nesium, copper, phosphorus, iron, manganese and zinc
order to maintain the biological activity and are made (Table 1).
commercially available (Borad & Singh 2018) which are
ready to consume with addition of whole milk, skimmed- Carbohydrates
milk and whey powder (Marnila & Korhonen 2011). Lactose is predominant carbohydrate in BC, with con-
The diet of bovine plays a major role in the composi- centration of about 2.50%. Lactose is found in lower
tion of colostrum (Coroian et al. 2013). Beside diet, the concentration in BC when compared to matured milk of
age of animal, health, lactation period, genetics, season bovine or human. It can provide the glucose and galac-
and breed also plays a role in variation of the composi- tose to the liver while supporting the storage and synthe-
tion of bovine colostrum (Zarcula et al. 2010). The per- sis of glycogen (Playford & Weiser, 2021). A low level of
centage of lactose is lower in the colostrum as compare lactose results in the production of milk that is extremely
to mature milk but the nucleotides, growth factors and viscous and contains less water due to the absence of
cytokines get reduced after 3 days of parturition (Sacer- the osmoregulator lactose (Bleck et al. 2009; McGrath
dote et al. 2013). The amount of the colostrum produced et al. 2016). Both glycans and oligosaccharides are pre-
by cow is enormous when juxtaposed with calf require- sent in bovine colostrum in acidic form ranging from 0.7
ment (McGrath et al. 2016). This review aims to provide to 1.2 mg/mL which are less in matured milk. The main
an extensive overview of the bioactive compounds of oligosaccharides are 6′ siayllactosamine, 3′ sialyllactose,
colostrum as a nutraceutical and food supplement. disialyllactose and 6′ sialyllactose. Among all the above
mentioned oligosaccharides the 3’siallactose contributes
Nutritional profile of bovine colostrum up- to 70% of total oligosaccharides (Arslan et al. 2021).
Fat The free oligosaccharides and conjugated N-glycans por-
The percentage of fat in colostrum is higher than the tray the greater number of prebiotic components (Karav
mature milk and the composition also distinctive (Arslan et al. 2015). Several opportunities have been provided
et al. 2021). Several changes are observed in the colos- by the introduction of enzymatic glycosylation for the
trum composition during its transition to mature milk enhancement of the structure of bovine oligosaccha-
and the concentration of palmitoleic, palmitic, and rides to the human milk oligosaccharides (Weinborn
myristic acid is higher (O’Callaghan et al. 2020). Mon- et al. 2020). Although the experiments carried in pilot
ounsaturated fatty acid in BC is approximately (24.0 to scale utilizing the bovine oligosaccharides have not yet
28.0%), saturated (65.0 to 75.0%) and polyunsaturated showed much generalized changes in the gastrointestinal
(4.0 to 5.0%) and the principal fatty acids involves pal- microbiota (Douëllou et al. 2017; Westreich et al. 2020).
mitic (40%) and oleic (21%), respectively (Contarini The hybrid and complex glycans can be a source of
et al. 2014; O’Callaghan et al. 2020). There are lot of evi- prebiotics (Karav et al. 2016). Moreover, the conjuga-
dences convicting the palmitate importance in the early tion of N-glycans with milk proteins allow them to be
nutrition (Miles & Calder 2017) and immunomodulat- recovered by different methods. Further, the conjuga-
ing benefits of oleic acid aiding in cardiovascular health tion of these N-glycans to milk proteins enables different
(Sales-Campos et al. 2013). Some of research evidences strategies for their recovery. Separation of protein from
support the fact about the role of fatty acids as mole- milk and followed by the treatment for the separation
cules responsible for signaling and their contribution in of N-glycans offer a potential avenue for their purifica-
the lipogenesis regulation in liver and also as dietary fats tions (Bunyatratchata et al. 2020). Therefore, the derived
(German et al. 2019). N-glycans consisting the N-glycosylated proteins can be
a formidable source of the substrates that are prebiotic
Vitamins and minerals in nature (Cao et al. 2019). Extensive characterization
BC consists of fat soluble vitamins like A, E, D, K and of N-glycans showed that they are extremely selective
water soluble such as B-complex vitamins that plays to particular bacteria in gut of adult. Further, the bacte-
important role in various metabolic mechanisms includ- ria which are capable to access them are restricted due
ing antioxidant activity and the bone growth. Vitamin D to relative huge repeated polymers having lesser com-
has been involved in the support of immunity system and plex nature of the oligosaccharides and thus contributing
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 4 of 21

Table 1 Comparison of composition of bovine colostrum with mature milk

Components Mature Milk Bovine Colostrum References

Total solids (%) 12.9 24–28 Playford and Weiser (2021)

Fat (%) 3.6–4.0 6–7 Zou et al. (2015)
Palmitoleic ω-7 C16:1 1.73–1.75 1.57–1.58
Linoleic ω-6 C18:2 7.06–7.09 6.53–6.55
Linolenic ω-3 C18:3 0.43–0.45 0.61–0.63
Oleic ω-9 trans C18:1 0.59–0.60 0.76–0.77
Gadoleic ω-9 C20:1 0.75–0.85 1.02–1.05
PUFA 9.45–9.55 10.28–11.00
MUFA 36.69–37.10 44.01–44.05
SFA 53.86–53.96 45.71–46.00
Saturated Fatty Acid 53.86–53.90 45.71–45.90
Lactose (%) 4.7–5.0 2.0–3.0 McGrath et al. (2016)
Proteins
Protein (%) 3.1–3.2 14.0–16.0 Playford and Weiser (2021); Samarütel et al. (2016)
Albumin (%) 0.4–0.5 1.7–3.49
Casein (%) 2.5–2.6 4.8–5.0
Immunoglobulins
Immunoglobulins (mg/mL) 0.4–0.9 42.0–90.0 Elfstrand et al. (2002); (Buttar et al. (2017); Bagwe et al. (2015)
IgA (g/L) 0.04–0.06 3.2–6.2
IgG1 (g/L) 0.31–0.40 34.0–87.0
IgG2 (g/L) 0.03–0.08 1.6–6.0
IgM (g/L) 0.03–0.06 3.7–6.1
Minerals
Sodium (g/kg) ≈ 0.4 0.7–1.1 Godden et al. (2019)
Calcium (g/kg) 1.2–1.3 2.6–4.7
Potassium (g/kg) 1.5–1.7 1.4–2.8
Magnesium (g/kg) 0.11–0.13 0.4–0.7
Phosphorus (g/kg) 0.9–1.2 ≈ 4.5
Zinc (mg/kg) 3.0–6.0 11.6–38.1
Vitamins
Vitamin A (μg/100 mL) 34.0–35.0 25.0–26.0 Arslan et al. (2021); Godden et al. (2019)
Tocopherol (E) (μg/g) 0.06 2.92–5.63
Thiamin (B1) (μg/mL) 0.4–0.5 0.58–0.90
Niacin (B3) (μg/mL) 0.8–0.9 0.34–0.96
Riboflavin (B2) (μg/mL) 1.5–1.7 4.55–4.83
Vitamin D (IU/g fat) 0.41 0.89–1.81
Antimicrobials
Lysozyme (mg/L) 0.07–0.6 0.14–0.7 Boudry et al. (2008)
Lactoferrin (g/L) 0.1–0.3 1.5–5.0 Boudry et al. (2008)
Lactoperoxidase (mg/L) 13.0–30.0 11.0–45.0 Arslan et al. (2021)
Growth hormone (mg/L) < 0.03 < 1 mg Bagwe-Parab et al. (2020)
Insulin-like growth factor-1 (μg/L) 200–600 50–2000 McGrath et al. (2016)
TGFβ1 (μg/L) 0.8–3.5 12.0–43.0
Insulin (ng/mL) 0.042–0.34 4.2–34.4 Georgiev (2008)

to limited selection by Bifidobacterium with improved Colostrum is considered as a liquid gold, immune milk
GI barrier and declined enteric inflammations (Henrick and “superfood” due to its excellent nutritional profile,
et al. 2019; Duar et al. 2020). functional compounds and bioactive compounds when
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 5 of 21

Fig. 1 Overview of various bioactive compounds present in the bovine colostrum

compared with single ingredients supplements. BC is parturition (McGrath et al. 2016). The subclass namely
very well known for its potential health benefits and IgG1 is responsible for accounting 75% antibody followed
some innovative technologies are required to explore by other subcategories including IgM then IgA & IgG2
novel methods to prepare colostrum enriched functional (Fasse et al. 2021). The bovine trypsin inhibitor is respon-
foods to enable their effective utilization in different food sible for protecting the growth factors. It can also provide
industries. protection to the proteins having the biological activi-
ties and IgGs from proteolytic degradation taking place
Bioactive compounds of colostrum in the gut. The concentration of this trypsin inhibitor is
There are about 250 or more functional compounds 100 times more in the bovine colostrum, when compared
found in BC (Sienkiewicz et al. 2021). The colostrum to the normal matured milk (Godden et al. 2019). The
have immnunomodulating components and contrib- concentration of α-lactalbumin is also high (1/4thof total
utes to direct as well as indirect mechanism for adjust- whey protein) along with elevated amount of essential
ing the immune response of host (Fasse et al. 2021). The amino acids (Playford & Weiser 2021). Figure 1, depicted
food products prepared from cow colostrum contributes an overview of different types of bioactive compounds
about 55.5% of global market in 2021 and the progno- present in colostrum.
sis stipulated that there will be 6.4% increase per year of Saad et al. (2016) delineated that the bovine colostrum
the colostrum products market from 2020 to 2030. This exhibit neutralizing effect for the endo-toxins and also
can be described by the spike in request and interest of show antimicrobial activity. Alsayed et al. (2020) reported
several health promoting items, well associated with the that utilization of colostrum can lead the way to alteration
health risks and illnesses owing from improper nutrition in the mirobiome of the respiratory tract. So, the bioac-
(Future Market Insights 2020). Bioactive compounds are tive compounds present in colostrum can be beneficial
present in higher amount in colostrum as compare to to the athletes vulnerable to the infections of respiratory
milk. Protein concentration in colostrum is on higher side tract after physical trainings (Jones et al. 2016; Glówka
during first 24 hours of post parturition (15.90 g/100 g) et al. 2020). Bioactive compounds of BC isolated either
which decreased to (3.3 g /100 g) after 5 months of calv- from unvaccinated/vaccinated cows have nowadays scru-
ing (Contarini et al. 2014). The immunoglobulin contrib- tinized for their potentiality as a protecting agent in oppo-
utes about 70–80% of total protein and present (30 to sition to infections caused in humans by SARS-CoV-2
200 g/L) which get declined to (0.4to1.0 g/L) shortly after (COVID-19) (Mann & Ndung’u, 2020; Jawhara 2020).
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 6 of 21

Immunoglobulins capable enough to obstruct the growth of L. monocy-

These are related to the immunological activity and act as togenes and E. coli. Lactoferrin in combination with
defense system for diseases and infections. Now-a-days, it Igs and Lactoperoxidase manifest synergistic effects
is possible to formulate hyperimmune colostrum (HBC) (Fasse et al. 2021). Thus, this bioactive compound is
preparation by the enrichment and fractionation tech- an interesting sector of research for the scientists and
niques (Feeney et al. 2018). This sector is very interesting researchers due to its multifunctional nature (Dzik
and industrial production must be focused owing of its et al. 2018).
good bioavailability (Anamika Das & Seth, 2017). IgG are
found abundantly (80–90%) in colostrum with concentra- Enzymes
tion ranging from 30 to 87 g ­L− 1 and lower amount of IgM, Enzymes are present in elevated amounts in post par-
IgD, IgA and IgE (Godden et al. 2019). IgG can modulate turition periods in colostrum than matured milk. They
the innate and adaptive immune responses and provides play diversified role and their synergistic effect along
passive immunity. The immunoglobulins derived from with some proteins provide antimicrobial action. About
colostrum are capable to fetch the pathogens with micro- 70 different indigenous enzymes have been recognized
phages, modify the microflora of intestine, stimulate the till now in the bovine milk with lysozymes and nucle-
activation of B and T cell, and prevent the binding of patho- ases being the highest concentration in colostrum
gen to the host cell along with the localized production of (Fasse et al. 2021).
IgA (Ulfman et al. 2018). Gasser et al. (2018) studied that
the combination of polyvalent from of immunoglobulins Lysozymes
with Vitamin D3 can beneficially impact on the systemic This enzyme is bactericidal in nature and responsible
inflammation occurring in the patients suffering from the for the destruction of cell wall of the bacteria (Ribeiro
colorectal cancer by promoting the level of cytokines which et al. 2016). Lysozymes hydrolyses the layer of pepti-
have anti-inflammatory activity. The IgG is effective against doglycan and leads to the lyses of both gram negative
the infections of gastrointestinal and respiratory tract like as well as gram positive counterparts. Lysozyme con-
allergic asthma by their improved epithelial integrity as a centration in colostrum varies between 0.14 to 0.7 mg/L
barrier (Anderson et al. 2019). The concentration of IgA is (Menchetti et al. 2016; McGrath et al. 2016). The average
higher in human in comparison to other immunoglobulins. lysozyme concentration in colostrum is about 0.28 μg/
mL and it also hydrolyzes bond which is β (1 → 4) pre-
Lactoferrin sent between N-acetylglucosamine & muramic acid. It
It is multifunctional protein which belongs to the fam- is also effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and E.
ily of tranferrin and generally engaged in regulation of coli (Fasse et al. 2021).
the iron. Lactoferrin is found in human breast milk and
colostrum (Buttar et al. 2017). The average concentra- Lactoperoxidase
tion of lactoferrin in cow colostrum is 0.2 g/L and 6 to It is vital antimicrobial agent, commonly found in milk
8 g/L. The health benefits owned by it includes antibac- (Korhonen 2013). Lactoperoxidase is accountable in cata-
terial, anti-inflammatory activities and possess protec- lyzing the system having antimicrobial mechanism from
tion against varied gastrointestinal infections (Niaz the ­H2O2 and the SCN- (thiocyanate ion), eventually pro-
et al. 2019). The N-terminal of lactoferrin interacts with ducing the reaction products which are capable enough
the target and microbial hosts thus contribute to its bio- to inhibit the growth of microorganisms such as fungi,
logical activity (Legrand, 2016). The lactoferrin inhibit bacteria and protozoa. The concentration of lactoperoxi-
the infections caused by viruses by binding to the cells dase is lower in early post parturition days but gradually
targeted and in turn obstructing the growth as well as increases and become the enzyme with highest concen-
intracellular replication of the viruses. The binding of tration in milk. It is normally engaged in natural defense
lactoferrin to Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans has also of the body (Borad & Singh 2018; Menchetti et al. 2016).
been shown in diversified cells (Sienkiewicz et al. 2021). This enzyme is heat resistant, retards the bacterial
Research had also shown that it possess very good metabolism and fabricated by the mammary gland of
resistance to the digestion rate and provides the favor- milking animal, and also in expression of the gene in epi-
ing benefit to the intestinal health of infant by reducing thelial cell for encoding of this particular enzyme. Addi-
the microbial load (Manzoni, 2016). Wakabayashi et al. tionally lactoperoxidase also safeguard the glands from
(2014) reported the inhibitory action of lactoferrin several infections caused by many pathogenic microbes
against viruses and the oral administration of lactofer- including P. aeruginosa, Streptococcus spp. (inflammatory
rin showed favorable results and opposed to influenza infections) and Listeria monocytogene. This enzyme con-
herpes, common cold and viral gastroenteritis. It is stitutes for about 1.25 to 2.5% of lactoperoxidase activity
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 7 of 21

(Fasse et al. 2021). Korhonen (2013) reported the average many cellular functions like oncogenesis, repression of
activity of lactoperoxidase was 37.8 μg/mL in BC. the immune responses and proliferation of cells (Ihara
et al. 2017). The structure of TGF-β1 is distinctive from
Proteinases that of TGF-α. They are largely articulated in gastroin-
The principal proteinase in milk is plasmin (serine pro- testinal superficial zones. The TGF-β1has near about 35
tease). Its concentration is ten times higher than the isoforms. Beside this TGF-β also have anti-inflammatory
mature milk. There is decrease in the activity of plas- and immunomodulatory activity and act as epithelial bar-
min during the conversion of colostrum to mature rier of intestine (van Neerven 2014; Kelly et al. 2017). In
milk. Along with this, the activity of Cathepsin D addition to the epithelium, TGF-β can also modulate the
and the protease is lower in colostrum than the milk immune cells and the luminal microbiota functions in the
(McGrath et al. 2016). intestine, thus contributing to maintain intestinal home-
ostasis (Ihara et al. 2017). TGF-β engages in the sup-
Role of micro RNA in bovine colostrum pression or inducement of immune responses which are
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short, endogenous, noncod- adaptive in nature and in the regulation of innate immu-
ing RNA molecules of approximately 21–25 nucleo- nity (Kelly et al. 2017). It can inhibit or control inflam-
tides (Lau et al. 2001). Higher amounts of miRNAs are mation of the airway and the hyperactivity by T helper
present in colostrum than milk and immune and devel- (effector). There are certain evidences contributing to
opment related are more prominent. Etheridge et al. the role of protein in the maintenance/development of
(2011) reported that MicroRNAs are very well known immunity in the children. This can lead to ultimate pro-
as biomarkers in human medicine for detection of many tection of children form many inflammations and aller-
diseases such as breast cancer. MicroRNAs can play an gies (Batista da Silva Galdino et al. 2021).
important role in development of good diagnostic tools The major growth factors involves β-cellulin (BTC),
for the early detection of mastitis disease in animals as epidermal growth factor (EGF), β1-transforming growth
well as important indicators for the quality of different factor (TGF-β1), insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1), fibro-
food products. MicroRNAs also includes the nutritive blast growth factor 1 & 2 (FGF1 & FGF2) and platelet-
indexes of fluid milk and powdered formula milk (Chen derived growth factor (PDGF) (McGrath et al. 2016).
et al. 2010). They are the main regulators for the differ- Polypeptides like TGF-β1, EGF and IGF-1 have the abil-
ent biological and developmental processes. In colostrum ity to be partially degraded or absorbed well intact in GI
as well as in milk, miRNAs are the signaling molecules tract (Gomes et al. 2021).
passed from mother to newborn. As they are packed in
extracellular vesicles, which makes them resistant to Cytokines
harsh conditions in the gastrointestinal tract and reached These compounds are exuded by the leukocytes, but
in small intestine, absorbed and transferred into blood- some cytokines present in the colostrum are propa-
stream. Van Hese et al. (2019) reported that miRNAs also gated in mammary glands of the bovine (Menchetti
regulates B and T-cell differentiation and affect interleu- et al. 2016). Normally the cytokines like TNF-α, IL-1β
kin production of macrophages. and IL-6 are found in the bovine colostrum. Cytokines
display anti or pro inflammatory action, and bracing the
Growth factors of bovine colostrum immunity against fungi, viruses and bacteria (Sienkiewicz
There are about 50 different polypeptides in the bovine et al. 2021). Cytokines are involved in stimulating the
colostrum termed as the growth factors. These perform inflammation mechanism like IL-8 for the stimulation of
multiple functions but their concentration is lower in the the migration of cell lines of colonial cells. Furthermore,
matured milk. Growth factors possess resistance for the they play role in prevention of excess inflammation like
heat treatment (up to 60 °C). Several newer technologies cytokines IL-10 (Rathe et al. 2014; Saraiva et al. 2020).
are being developed to extract such compounds from the
bovine colostrum (Gomes et al. 2021). The concentration Leukocytes
of growth factors varies with the species and also within The content of leukocytes in bovine colostrum is approx-
the species. Some of the studies have reported the reduc- imately about BC ∼ 106 /mL and fundamentally com-
tion of such factors in the bovine colostrum within the 48 prises the colostral mono-nuclear cells (CMCs) like
to 72 hr. after calving (Playford & Weiser, 2021). lymphocytes and macrophages along with epithelial and
polymorphonuclear cells. These are capable for modu-
β‑ transforming growth factor lating the responses of immune system and thus aids in
The β-transforming growth factor (TGF-β1) is produced maintenance of the equilibrium condition between toler-
by various kinds of cells and responsible for regulating ance of system and allergy (Sienkiewicz et al. 2021).
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 8 of 21

Casein neonate. Bovine colostrum proteome used centrifugation

The reported values of casein in colostrum and milk and ultracentrifugation for removal of fat layer and iso-
is approximately 9.24% and 2.5 to 2.8%, respectively. lation of whey from casein. Immunoabsorption and 2-D
Casein-derived bioactive peptides exerts anti-oxidative, gel electrophoresis were used to separate proteins before
immunomodulatory activity and cytomodulatory effects, microsequencing and tandem MS analysis. Altomare
generated through enzymatic hydrolysis, fermenta- et al. (2016) identified over 600 proteins that occur in low
tion, or gastrointestinal digestion (Fasse et al. 2021). quantity in colostrum and also reported that ProteoM-
The concentration of casein decreases after each milk- iner enrichment, gel separation, depletion, affinity chro-

There is increment in levels of к-casein, although

ing among which the proportions of αs-casein reduced. matography and nano-HPLC-MS/MS techniques are the
most expensive bovine colostrum proteome.
the β-casein values remained constant (McGrath
et al. 2016). The peptides of casein present opioid prop- Health benefits of bovine colostrum
erties and Brooke-Taylor et al. (2017) studied that the The bioactive compounds of BC have potential for treat-
β-casomorphin-7, μ-opioid peptide and some other short ing and preventing many gut and respiratory tract related
chain β-casomorphins (BCM-5, BCM-3 and BCM-4) are diseases and malfunctions. Different forms of preserved
released via the digestion in GI form. Additionally, the colostrum used for human consumption includes as liq-
hydrolysates prepared from both whey and casein have uid, powder, tablets or capsules (Silva et al. 2019). Liquid
been attained to show interaction with receptors involved BC is used as an ingredient in many dairy products such
in responses of innate immunity (Kiewiet et al. 2017). as cheese, dahi, khees, yoghurt, kefir, ice cream and milk
based beverages. BC can be processed in many ways to
Lactalbumin extend the shelf -life and to obtain bioactive compounds
The concentration of α-lactalbumin is higher in human for manufacturing functional foods.
milk as compare to bovine colostrum and matured milk.
β-lactoglobulin is not found in human milk but abun- Respiratory tract
dantly present in bovine milk (Sienkiewicz et al. 2021). BC can prevent from the infections of the Upper-respir-
There is release of many peptides occur in the small atory tract (URTIs) that affect the nose, trachea, mouth,
intestine having the antimicrobial and the immunomod- larynx and throat, evoking laryngotracheitis, nasoraf-
uatory activity released by the digestion of α-LA (Layman ingitis, pharyngitis, sinusitis and laryngitis. There are
et al. 2018). evidences showing the oral supplementation of BC posi-
tively acts against URTIs among both the adults and
Colostrinin children (Batista da Silva Galdino et al. 2021). Athletes,
It is a complex rich in proline-peptides known as Pro- who are subjected to higher duration of exercise also
line Rich Polypeptides (PRP) found in colostrum of cow, increased chances of infections in respiratory tract. This
goat, and human. The molecular weight of PRP range might be because of the mild immunosuppression due to
from 500 to 3000 Da (Janusz & ZabÅ, 2013). PRP dis- the prolonged overtraining and insufficient recovery of
covered for their role in affecting the differentiation and the body (Davison, 2013; Williams et al. 2019). The BC
maturation of thymocytes (murine) in the production has been explored as the option for improving the immu-
of interleukin 6, the gamma-interferon (γ-IFN), factor nity of the athletes (Gleeson & Pyne, 2016).
of α - tumor necrosis (α -TNF) and some other types of
cytokines. It was exhibited that some small constituent Gastrointestinal tract disorders
peptides of the PRP induce the augmentation of periph- Modulation of many immune responses takes place when
eral leukocytes in blood. It can reduce the stress in the diet is supplemented with BC. In recent years, research
cells due to oxidation and the cellular damage and sup- demonstrated the favorable effects against several dis-
presses signaling mediated by (4HNE)-4-hydroxynone- orders of the gastro intestine chiefly the inflammation,
nal (Zabłocka et al. 2020). prevention/ treatment of secondary ulceration and viral
diarrhea. Apparently, the BC anti-inflammatory activity
Minor compounds of bovine colostrum using proteomic on the epithelial cells of intestine is related to the repres-
approach sion of NF-κB (Nuclear factor involved in the immune
Proteomics techniques have provided new approach to and inflammatory responses). The BC also have the
study milk proteins and main progress towards milk pro- potential to be utilized in adjunctive therapy for easing
teomics research. This technique is very helpful in study- the side effects induced by drug, among which the GI
ing the complex components of bovine colostrum and tract is weakened because of pharmacological therapies.
could have vital applications for care and management of BC is capable for the reduction of the oral and intestinal
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 9 of 21

mucosa inflammation caused due to the cancer treat- Necrotizing enterocolitis

ments (Gomes et al. 2021). Anderson et al. (2019) carried Necrotizing enterocolitis is a usual morbidity related
an experiment of cell culture with 4 processed products to preterm birth and a principal cause of mortality of
of colostrum and exhibited that industrially processed infants (Niño et al. 2016). Diversified studies have been
products have the potential to improve barrier integrity conducted for the examination of the impacts of BC
of small intestine. In another study the researchers inves- and human colostrum on outcomes of NEC and also in
tigated the BC administration effect on the permeability the development of the preterm. In a clinical trial con-
of intestine of 16 fighters (mixed martial arts) in the com- ducted by Balachandran et al. (2017) 86 lower birth
petitive season. The reports showed that there was resto- weight infants (1000 to 1500 g), the BC supplementation
ration in less than 3 weeks of mild supplementation in the was provided in 2 g dose for 4 times in a day. No note-
intestinal permeability (Halasa et al. 2017). worthy differences were shown for the NEC occurrence
when supplemented with BC in comparison to the pla-
Short bowel syndrome cebo. Among the meta-analysis by Sadeghirad et al.
Short Bowel Syndrome is the insufficiency of the intes- (2018) cumulative findings suggested that neither BC
tine because of intestinal enucleation due to the infarc- nor human colostrum (HC) had affected the prevalence
tion of mesenteric vessels, abnormalities, trauma or of NEC that is severe, feed intolerance, mortality, sepsis
the Crohn’s disease compilations. It is identified by proved by culture.
lower absorption of nutrients and diarrhea and onset
of weight-loss and malnutrition (Jin & Gramlich, 2019). Microbial infections
Gomes et al. (2021) studied the effect of supplementa- BC is able to lessen the growth of bacteria includ-
tion of piglets with protein concentrate obtained from ing Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Proteus
BC and promising results were derived such as improved vulgaris, Escherichia coli and Enterobacter aerogenes.
levels of IGF-1, muscle hypertrophy and the binding Many promising food products are developed and
proteins. So, supplementation of protein concentrate of promoted that can probably be utilized like functional
BC can be alternative in treatment and prevention of foods aiding in forestall of GI infections (Bartkiene
Short Bowl Syndrome. However there was no persis- et al. 2018). The authors examined the fermentation
tent evidence of adaption of small bowl when feed with of BC with Lactobacillus paracasei and Lactobacillues
IGF-1 enriched BC diet. Alongside, stool normalization plantarum, and effect of drying methods on Igs like
and usual weight gain in the test animals when fed with IgM, IgG and IgA and its antimicrobial activity. The
protein concentrate of BC was observed. The supple- results depicted that product obtained from the colos-
mentation with protein concentrate of BC improved the trum fermentation inhibited 12 pathogenic microbes
intestinal morphological features like increased crypt growth and also possessed higher IgM and IgG content
depth and villus length leading to the intestinal adapta- (Bartkiene et al. 2020).
tion (Gomes et al. 2021). H. pylori is contemplated among most common infec-
tions in human by bacteria. The infection is caused by
Inflammatory bowel syndrome oral ingestion of the bacterium, transmitted in early
It affects the intestine and is grouped into 2 phenotypes childhood and its elimination in children can be spon-
namely: Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. The cause taneous (Gomes et al. 2021). H. pylori infection is highly
is not yet well clarified by the scientist but some studies associated with several gastrointestinal disorders, includ-
suggested that this might be because of dis-functioning ing chronic gastritis, peptic and duodenal ulcers, and
of mucosal immune system. Therefore, BC can be a sub- gastric adenocarcinoma (Kao et al. 2016). The addition of
stitute to supply the growth factors and the immune lactoferrin form BC aids in improvement of eradication
factors, leading to the recovery of GIT (Hisamatsu rate of H. pylori infection (Table 2).
et al. 2013). An investigation related to the antibacterial
and the anti-inflammatory effects of BC on the cells of Infectious diarrhea
intestine showed positive benefits on the intestine health This is a disorder of digestive tract and chiefly caused
(Chae et al. 2017). Menchetti et al. (2021) observed the by pathogens like E. coli, Cryptosporidium spp., rotavi-
modulation of microbiota of intestine and depletion of rus and BC supplementation showed its action against
the inflammatory markers when evaluated for 7 days BC such pathogens. Over past years rich evidences support-
administration like a prophylactic measure in lessening ing the fact that BC can prevent viral diarrhea has been
colitis in mice. The stimulation of the growth of benefi- congregated (Bagwe et al. 2015). The BC role in diarrhea
cial colonial microbes like Lactobacillus spp. and Bifido- infections with randomized and controlled trails, meta-
bacterium spp., was reported. analysis and systematic search depicted that the products
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 10 of 21

made from BC lighten the infectious diarrheal symptoms Key differences between bovine colostrum
among children (Li et al. 2019). BC is capable to protect and human colostrum
the neonatal calf form pathogens, like Enterotoxigenic Human colostrum (HC) performs peculiar part in the
E.coli (ETEC) which is the primary cause of neonatal support of newborn as a protective agent against many
diarrhea in calf by providing passive immunity. Kolenda chronic diseases and allergies, along with providing
et al. (2015) conducted a clinical trial for examination of metabolic benefits for long time. The peptides in human
the difference among BC and HBC on the children suf- milk manifest different functions, including antibacte-
fering from shigellosis caused by Shigella dysenteriae. No rial, mineral binding, immunomodulatory, antioxidant,
improvement was found in patients suffering from shig- antihypertensive activity, antithrombotic, and the opioid
ellosis when compared to antibiotic therapy. All these antagonism effect (Bardanzellu et al. 2017). Both the HC
findings show the ability of HBC on the S. dysenteriae and BC are rich source of protein, growth factors, immu-
progression which invades the epithelial cells (Arslan noglobulin, lactoferrin and many other bioactive com-
et al. 2021). pounds which are capable to treat autoimmune disorders
(Godhia & Patel 2013). The HC contains high amount
Viral influenza of whey as compared to the matured milk (Juhl 2017).
Viral influenza is accountable for respiratory infections The concentrations of bioactive compounds like EGF,
and Type A & Type B genera that affects the humans with IGF, lactoferrin, growth hormone and IgA are notice-
the symptoms like mild infection in the upper respira- ably higher in case of HC as compared to BC (Bagwe
tory area, coughing, sore throat, headache, fever, muscle et al. 2015; Godhia & Patel 2013). Whereas cow colos-
pain, runny nose and fatigue to elevated conditions and trum have 20% higher content of IgG than HC having
leading to severe pneumonia. The mode of transmission about 2% IgG (Thapa 2005). Comparison of the BC and
is via air in aerosol or droplets of the respiratory secre- HC composition is mentioned in Table 3.
tions form infected person to another person (Kram- Research has exhibited that the BC have 100 to 1000-
mer et al. 2018). The oral administration of BC can be fold more potential than the HC. So, human infants can
helpful in treatment or prevention of the influenza and also thrive well on consuming the infant formulas based
sometimes can be equally successful against the infection on BC. As it can provide the infant with growth factors
compared to the standard interventions (Batista da Silva and passive immunity required for the GI as well as phys-
Galdino et al. 2021). ical development (Bagwe-Parab et al. 2020). Liang et al.
(2018) reported that the total content of free amino acid
Assist in therapy for management of COVID‑19 in BC & HC was 0.32 g ­L− 1 & 0.63 g ­L− 1 which is twice in
BC contains lactoferrin as a bioactive compounds which HC than that of BC. Nevertheless, the total content of
helps to slow down the disease progression. BC plays hydrolytic amino acid was 4.2 g ­L− 1 & 2.2 g ­L− 1 in BC and
dual role as an antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and anti- HC, respectively. A grand total of 920 exosomes of milk
viral as well as also strengthen the human immune sys- proteins were quantified and identified in BC & HC by
tem. Yadav et al. (2016) reported that bovine colostrum (Yang et al. 2017).
has strong antimicrobial activity against Gram negative
and Gram positive strains of microorganisms. Colostrum Commercially available bovine colostrum
also exhibits 100 μg/ml minimal inhibitory concentration supplements
(MIC) against S. aureus, P. vulgaris, E. coli and S. typhi. There are many BC supplements manufactured world-
All these facts formulate a base that it is possible to state wide, available in various forms such as capsule, tab-

virus. Lactyferrin Forte™ (oral supplement with lacto-

that it might have viricidal effects against COVID-19 lets, gels and powder. Some of the supplements are
Biostrum/B-colostrum manufactured by Nutritech Pvt.
ferrin) was given to 75 COVID-19 positive patients for Ltd. in the form of capsule containing components like
10 days and found that there was a reduction in head- IgD, IgE, IgA, IgM and IgE with the serving size rang-
ache, dry cough and diarrhea and an improvement in ing from 4 to 6 capsule twice per day. Symbiotics colos-
muscle pain shortness of breath and anosmia (Serrano trum powder having BC Phospholipids with serving size
et al. 2020). In another study Serrano et al. (2020) studied of 3.0 g. Zenith Nutrition Colostrum in the form of cap-
that 128–192 mg/day of the supplement was given to 256 sule containing IgD, IgE, IgA, IgM and IgE whose serving
peoples who had contacted with the COVID-19 positive size is 2 capsule (Godhia & Patel, 2013). APS BioGroup,
patients. The authors reported a preventive role of the Mt Capra Wholefood Nutritionals, Biostrum Nutritech
supplement against infection by the virus and lactoferrin Private Ltd., are some of the company’s manufacturing
seems to be effective in prevention as well as treatment of colostrum powder form cow, goat and buffalo colostrum
people affected by COVID-19. (Bagwe et al. 2015).
Table 2 Studies contributing to the health benefits of colostrum (Since 2016 onwards)
Disease Form of colostrum Administration mode Inferences References

Gastrointestinal carriage Anti-UPEC Hyperimmune Bovine Colos- De-fatted, concentrated, and freeze dried Disruption of colonization of ST131 UPEC Larcombe et al. (2019)
trum (HBC) colostrum (suspended at 10% (w/v) in in the gastrointestinal tract due to thera-
­dH2O) peutic value of HBC was observed when
fed with IgG antibody purified from
colostrum using a protein G column (GE
Healthcare) as per the manufacturer’s
instructions
Respiratory tract infections (URTI or Colostrum (liquid form) 6.0 g/day BC supplementation have the tendency Saad et al. (2016)
diarrhea) to suppress the inflammation of gut and
stimulate mucosal integrity and tissue
repair under different conditions related
to tissue injury
H1N1 (influenza A) Colostrum (liquid form) 1.0 g per kg body weight BC dose of 1.0 g per kg body weight Wong et al. (2014)
showed the increased activity of natural
killer cells
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition

Gut-barrier malfunction Colostrum powder 20 g of BC thrice per day for 10 days Reduction of intestinal permeability and Eslamian et al. (2019)
incidence of diarrhea was reported
Gut-barrier malfunction Bovine colostrum powder 500 mg of BC twice a day for 20 days Exhibited decrease of intestinal perme- Halasa et al. (2017)
ability
Infections (Acute diarrhoea) caused by Bovine colostrum powder 3.0 g of BC diluted in (50 ml of water) per Displayed decrease in frequency as well Barakat et al. (2020)
(2022) 4:26

Rotavirus and E. coli day for 7 days as duration of vomiting and diarrhoea
Necrotizing enterocolitis Bovine colostrum BC mixed with human milk, 24 to 40 ml/ Exhibited improvement of gut function, Sun et al. (2019)
kg/day bacterial defense mechanisms, nutrient
absorption in comparison to formula-
based fortifiers
Necrotizing enterocolitis Bovine colostrum Reduction of feeding intolerance, NEC, Ismail et al. (2021)
delay-onset sepsis and mortality
Drug-induced lesions Bovine colostrum (commercial products) Commercially available bovine colostrum Indomethacin damage (20 mg/kg, Playford et al. (2020)
products, 2 mL (7 mg/mL) (orally admin- subcutaneously) was induced 30 min
istration) after gavage. Results depicted that there
is restoration of gastric mucosa from the
supplementation of commercially avail-
able BC products in male rats
Drug-induced lesions Spray-dried BC powder (Biofiber- 7.5–30.0 g per day (thrice a day) Decreased the peak severity of oral Rathe et al. (2020)
Damino™) mucositis
Inflammatory bowel disease (Ulcerative Bovine colostrum 100–500 mg/kg/day IMM-124E (colos- 100–500 mg/kg/day IMM-124E (colos- Spalinger et al. (2019)
colitis and Crohn’s disease) trum-based product) trum-based product from cows, immu-
nized with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from
E. coli) have the ability to decrease the
levels of infiltrating immune cells and
less pronounced mucosal damage
Increase of regulatory T cells and serum
levels of LPS binding protein
Page 11 of 21
Table 2 (continued)
Disease Form of colostrum Administration mode Inferences References

Acute infectious diarrhea Colostrum powder 3.0 g BC sachet with 50 ml water Reported to lower the frequency of diar- Menchetti et al. (2016);
rhea and vomiting Barakat et al. (2020)
Inflammatory bowel disease BC powder BC powder dissolved in saline solution Depicted that there was modulation of Menchetti et al. (2020)
(100 mg in 0.6 ml) for 1 week pro-inflammatory cytokines, TLR4 and
microbiota
Helicobacter pylori infection Lactoferrin derived from BC 200 mg (Pravotin™), taken after 2 h of Improvement of the eradication rate of Megahed et al. (2017)
break-fast and 100 mg after 2 h of dinner H. pylori was observed
for 1 week
Gut-barrier malfunction BC powder 20 g of BC/ day, 3 times per day, for Decrease of intestinal permeability and Eslamian et al. (2019)
10 days, enteral nutrition (ICU Patient) occurrence of diarrhea
TNBS- induced colitis. Nutra-Summa Pure BC Powder® 100 mg of colostrum dissolved in 0.6 mL Enterococci and E.coli count was Filipescu et al. (2018)
of saline solution for 21 days increased but Bifidobacterium, anaerobes
and lactobacilli reduced
Antimicrobial activity BC fortifier Powder 2.8 g of BC Fortifier mixed in 100 ml of The results depicted that the physico- Gao et al. (2021)
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition

human milk chemical properties were modified

along with the prevention of in-vitro
bacteria responsible in the neonatal
sepsis
Human studies
(2022) 4:26

Respiratory tract Bovine colostrum 20 g of BC mixed with 250-300 ml of Can cut down the decrease in immunity Jones et al. (2019)
water and twice a day in cases of the athletes performing
prolonged exercises
Intestinal permeability Freeze dried BC 500 mg of BC was given twice a day for The test performed was mannitol/lactu- Hałasa et al. (2020)
20 days lose (M/L) test which is differential sugar
absorption. The BC collected after 2 &
24 hrs resulted in significant reduction
in permeability of the intestine of 31
athletes.
Intestinal BC powder Supplemented with BC consisting of 160 children suffering from acute diar- Barakat et al. (2020)
35.3 mg IgA, 350 mg IgG & 25.3 mg mixed rhea were fed and after 48 hr., results of
in 50 ml of water, given for 1 week. the study revealed that BC supplementa-
tion lowered the vomiting and diarrhea
frequency and also was effective in the
treatment of rotavirus and bacterial (E.
coli) related diarrhea
Page 12 of 21
Table 2 (continued)
Disease Form of colostrum Administration mode Inferences References

HIV-related diarrhea ColoPlus powder 50 g of BC based product possessing Open-labeled study was conducted Florén et al. (2006)
3–4 g of IgG in 50 g, two times a day. on 30 subjects provided with the men-
tioned dose and Results suggested that
products based on BC reduced diarrhea
associated with HIV & the daily no. of
bowel evacuations and also increased
the ­CD4+ cell, hemoglobulin & albumin
concentrations.
Upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) BC capsules 2 capsules of BC (500 mg) for 4 weeks This supplementation was proved Alsayed et al. (2020)
effective in the treatment of URTI nasal
swab micro-biome in 27-year-old non-
alcoholic, non-smoker patient.
Respiratory allergies BC 1000 mg BC for 3 months A total of 19 children (7-18 years) suffer- Oloroso-Chavez et al. (2017)
ing from respiratory tract allergies were
supplemented with BC and reported
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition

with improved the nasal congestion &

lungs functioning among the mono-
sensitized groups suffering from allergies
of respiratory tract.
Vulvovaginal atrophy Gel Applied 5 ml of gel (Monurelle Biogel) for BC based purified gel given to 172 Schiavi et al. (2019)
(2022) 4:26

12 weeks women suffering from vulvovaginal

atrophy. They applied 5 ml of gel for
12 weeks after intercourse or intimate
cleaning. The outcomes showed the
potential of BC-based gel in the vulvo-
vaginal atrophy treatment, improvement
of sexual life.
COVID-19 infection Nutritional syrup 32 mg BC liposomal lactoferrin per 10 ml The outcomes proved that this supple- Serrano et al. (2020)
along with 12 mg of vitamin C and 4–6 mentation was effective in the preven-
doses for 10 days tion of COVID-19 infected 75 patients
NEC BC concentrate BC concentrate for 2 weeks A randomized, double-blinded, placebo Awad et al. (2020)
study was conducted in 80 preterm
neonates supplemented with BC
concentrate for 2 weeks. The outcomes
showed that the hypo-caloric feeding of
BC reduced the risk of NEC, morality and
feeding intolerance.
Skin disease Lyophilized BC Lyophilized BC (collected within 1 h after The results observed were found ben- Kovacs et al. (2020)
parturition) given @ 0.05–0.5% for a eficial for the treatment of keratinocytes
period of 24–48 hrs. or skin diseases and for the cutaneous
dryness among the old age people.
Page 13 of 21
 Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition

Table 2 (continued)
Disease Form of colostrum Administration mode Inferences References
Gastrointestinal disorders Bovine colostrum product 0.3 g twice/day supplementation of BC This dose was given to the children Sanctuary et al. (2019)
(2022) 4:26

oligosaccharides with bacteria named (2–11 years) suffering from the GI symp-
Bifidobacterium longum subspecies toms & autism disorders. A reduction in
Infanti for 12 weeks IL-13 and TNF-α production was noticed.
Page 14 of 21
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 15 of 21

Table 3 Comparison of bovine colostrum with human colostrum

Components Bovine colostrum Human colostrum References

Energy (kcal) ~ 130 58 Kehoe et al. (2007)

Fat ~ 6.7 3–5% Guthrie (1989)
Protein(g/100 ml) ~ 14.9 0.8–0.9 Bagwe et al. (2015)
Lactose(g/100 ml) ~ 2.6 6.9–7.2 Buttar et al. (2017)
Immune factors
Lactoferrin (mg/ml) 100.0 700.0 Stelwagen et al. (2009)
IgM (mg/ml) 3.7–6.1 1.59
IgG (mg/ml) 34.0–87.0 0.43
IgG2 (mg/ml) 1.6–6.0 –
IgA (mg/ml) 3.2–6.2 17.35
Growth Factors
Growth hormone (GH) ng/L ≤ 0.03 41.0 Playford et al. (2000);
Insulin like growth factor (IGF) mg/L 10 18.0 Kaducu et al. (2011)
Epidermal growth factor (EGF) mcg/L 30–50 200.0
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) mcg/L NA 75.0
Transforming growth factor (TGF α) mcg/L 2.2–7.2 2.2–7.2
TGF β mg/L 1–2 20–40

Other commercially available products based on the colostrum. Heat treatment such as pasteurization and
BC and its derivatives are Igazym lozenges consisting sterilization and Ultra High Temperature (UHT) can be
of lysozyme and powdered colostrum manufactured by used for destructions of all these pathogens. Use of dif-
Pedersen Biotech in Vejle Denmark; Smart Naco, SDN, ferent combinations of heat treatments also reduces the
Malaysia manufacturing product named Naco IgG Plus Igs concentrations and increases the viscosity of bovine
which is skimmed BC; Emma cream based on colostrum colostrum.
& Extra Edge BC powder by Immuno-Dynamics Inc.
in Fennimore; Lactobin IG enriched spray dried pow-
Control‑on‑farm constraints
dered product by Biotest Pharma, Germany; ColoPlus by
The collection and storage of colostrum are the major
­ColoPlusAB in Sweden (Rathe et al. 2014). Novatreat Pvt.
factors in determining the shelf life of the colostrum dur-
Ltd. in Turku, Finland produced world’s first drinkable
ing primary production (Phipps et al. 2016). Udder of
product based on BC (Mehra et al. 2006).
the animal, environmental conditions, workers and con-
taminated equipment’s are primary source of contamina-
Overcoming hurdles during commercialization
tion. Microbes may contaminate bovine colostrum due to
of colostrum
poor hygienic conditions, milking, processing, packaging,
The microflora and nutritional profile of raw bovine
transport and storage. According to European Union reg-
colostrum is likely to be highly diverse and also increased
ulations, bovine colostrum must immediately be cooled
possibility for the growth spoilage and pathogenic micro-
below 8 °C to evade the fast accumulation of high bacte-
organisms. Consumption of raw bovine colostrum
rial counts and stored separately and temperature must
increases the chances of illness owing to spoilage, intoxi-
be kept below 10 °C during transportation.
cation and infections. So, there is a need of imparting
different types of heat treatments to bovine colostrum
before consumption. There are various other hurdles Control of risks in processing bovine colostrum
faced during processing of colostrum for commercial The industrial processing of bovine colostrum is an
purposes. urgent need to avoid the potential pathogens being inher-
ent in unprocessed milk and milk products. Food Stand-
Contamination by bovine pathogens ards Australia New Zealand (2019, 2020) reported that
Many pathogens including Salmonella Spp., L. monocy- health condition of animal, milking hygiene, chilling
togenes, Mycobacterium bovis, Mycoplasma spp., Myco- facility and efficiency, cleaning practices of equipment’s,
bacterium avium subsp. Paratuberculosis, Compylobacter maintenance and disinfection, personal hygiene of the
spp., and E. coli may be transmitted to dairy calves via workers and chilling temperature during packaging,
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 16 of 21

storage and transportation are some important steps for IgG against pH 12.0 and 2.0 environments by 33–62% and
maintaining the quality of BC prior and during process- 21–56%, respectively.
ing. Several processing techniques used to destroy patho-
gens and improve the quality of colostrum includes Low Regulatory issue of bovine colostrum
Temperature Short Time (LTST) and High Temperature for commercialization
Short Time (HTST) pasteurization, Ultra-Heat Tempera- Bovine colostrum has been used since domestication of
ture (UHT) High Pressure Processing (HPP), microfiltra- the animals and thousand years back as a human food in
tion and fermentation. Nanotechnology and liposomal India. In United Stated, it is used as an antibacterial agent
technology are some advanced technologies used to pro- until the development of antibiotics. On the Western
cess BC for human consumption with many advantages. World, bovine colostrum is used in the form of medicine
for boosting the immune system since eighteenth century
Processing challenges (Godhia & Patel 2013). Regulation of the Industrial and
Preservation of colostrum and its prevention from micro- Sanitary Inspection of Products of Animal Origin has
bial contamination is one the main challenge for process- prohibited the commercialization of bovine colostrum
ing and development of colostrum based products for for human consumption in Brazil (Brasil, Ministério da
human consumption. Various problems occurring during Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento – MAPA 2017).
industrial processes are the low clotting temperature and The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has rec-
high protein content of BC which interferes with heat ognized the safety of hyperimmune milks on the basis
treatments such as pasteurization. High content of anti- that no adverse health effects have been shown in clinical
microbial compounds in colostrum may inhibit or slow studies. Lactoferrin extracted from colostrum and added
down the fermentation process (McMartin et al. 2006). to conventional formulas in some countries and consid-
Bioactive compounds including Igs, with nutraceutical ered as safe food supplement by FDA. Regulation (EC)
value for humans are degrading by using high tempera- 853/2004 states that raw milk and colostrum must have a
ture for bovine colostrum. Separation of bioactive frac- SPC at 30 °C of ≤105 CFU/mL (Rathe et al. 2014). Bovine
tions from colostrum remains a huge challenge to both colostrum shall fulfil the provisions of the Food Safety
study the mechanisms by which this fluid can act on and Standards (Contaminants, Toxins, and Residues)
humans as well as for product development. Regulations, (2011). It should be prepared and handled
according the requirements specified in Schedule 4 of the
FSSAI (Licensing and Registration of Food Businesses)
Loss of nutrients and bioactive compounds
regulations 2011 and other guidelines as may be specified
Bovine colostrum contains many bioactive compounds
from time to time under the FSSAI act 2006.
that needs to be preserved during processing. However,
since most bioactive compounds are fragile, their sta-
bilization is a big challenge for many applications. Heat
treatment is the most common to ensure the microbial
Conclusions
The bovine colostrum own a distinctive combination of
safety but adversely affect the bioactive compounds.
bioactive compounds and nutrients, ultimately making
Some recent technologies including freeze drying, high
it a good natural source of high valued molecules. These
pressure and irradiation are recommended for enhancing
bioactive compounds can be used for the manufacturing
shelf-life of bovine colostrum (Borad & Singh 2018). The
of high-end functional foods products. There are variety
authors reported that high pressure processing is a prom-
of bioactive constituents in BC ranging from immuno-
ising method for preservation of Igs. Tacoma et al. (2017)
globulins, enzymes to growth factors. BC is a promising
studied the effect of heat treatment on the proteome of
and nutritionally attractive source due to its high value
colostrum identified by LC-MS/MS and reported an
proteins and less lactose content. Although in India, the
altered composition of high and low abundance proteins.
history of utilization of bovine colostrum goes back to
Nanoencapsulation technology encapsulates the bioac-
thousand years but its use as a supplement is quite recent.
tive compounds present in colostrum into nanometer
The use of BC as a supplement is slowly and steadily gain-
sized vesicles for prevention of their denaturation (Srini-
ing interest of the researchers and the consumers because
vas et al. 2010). This technology is very efficient to avoid
of its respective health benefits. There are many studies
instability problems during preservation of BC and its
providing a sound proof for the beneficial impacts of the
bioactive proteins. Chen et al. (1999) studied the encap-
bovine colostrum in treatment of various ailments as well
sulation of IgG by using 0.5% of Tween 80, soy protein,
as the prevention of many respiratory and gastrointesti-
sucrose stearate and reported enhanced stability of free
nal related issues like Short Bowl syndrome, Infectious
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 17 of 21

diarrhea, Travelers’ diarrhea, and Necrotizing enterocol- Anamika Das, D., & Seth, R. (2017). Studies on quality attributes of skimmed
colostrum powder. International Journal of Chemical Studies, 5, 17–20.
itis. Furthermore, BC has the potential to enhance the Anderson, R. C., Dalziel, J. E., Haggarty, N. W., Dunstan, K. E., Gopal, P. K., & Roy,
respiratory ability of the athletes. N. C. (2019). Processed bovine colostrum milk protein concentrate
The processing conducted on-farm can improve the increases epithelial barrier integrity of Caco-2 cell layers. Journal of Dairy
Science, 102, 10772–10778.
BC quality and also extend its shelf life. New and non- Arslan, A., Kaplan, M., Duman, H., Bayraktar, A., Ertürk, M., Henrick, B. M., & Karav,
thermal technologies such as High Pressure Processing, S. (2021). Bovine colostrum and its potential for human health and
Micro-filtration and Moderate Electric filed has been nutrition. Frontiers in Nutrition, 8, 651721.
Awad, H. A., Imam, S. S., Aboushady, N. M., Ismail, R. I. H., Abdou, R. M., &
used as a pasteurization alternative which can prevent Azzam, N. T. (2020). Gut priming with oral bovine colostrum for preterm
the destruction of bioactive compounds occurring due to neonates: A randomized control trial. QJM: An International Journal of
heat treatment. Nevertheless, these newer technologies Medicine, 113(Supplement_1), hcaa063-025.
Bagwe, S., Tharappel, L. J., Kaur, G., & Buttar, H. S. (2015). Bovine colostrum:
are not very cost effective and can lead to increment of an emerging nutraceutical. Journal of Complementary and Integrative
cost of the end product. Future placebo and clinical trials Medicine, 3, 175–185.
are required in order to address the gaps in knowledge of Bagwe-Parab, S., Yadav, P., Kaur, G., Tuli, H. S., & Buttar, H. S. (2020). Therapeutic
applications of human and bovine colostrum in the treatment of
BC mechanism in GI disorders and weather the fraction- gastrointestinal diseases and distinctive cancer types: The current
ated or whole BC is good for human consumption. evidence. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 11, 11. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3389/​
fphar.​2020.​01100.
Balachandran, B., Dutta, S., Singh, R., Prasad, R., & Kumar, P. (2017). Bovine
Abbreviations colostrum in prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis and sepsis in very
NEC: Necrotizing enterocolitis; BC: Bovine colostrum; URTIs: Upper-respiratory low birth weight neonates: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-
tract; HBC: Hyperimmune bovine colostrum; TGF: Transforming growth factor. controlled pilot trial. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 63, 10–17.
Barakat, S. H., Meheissen, M. A., Omar, O. M., & Elbana, D. A. (2020). Bovine
Acknowledgements colostrum in the treatment of acute diarrhea in children: A double-
The authors would like to thank the Journal Editor and reviewers for thought- blinded randomized controlled trial. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 66,
ful reading of the manuscript and constructive comments. 46–55. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1093/​tropej/​fmz029.
Bardanzellu, F., Fanos, V., & Reali, A. (2017). “Omics” in human colostrum and
Authors’ contributions mature milk: Looking to old data with new eyes. Nutrients, 9(8), 843.
AP contributed to all sections and writing of the article. AP also contributed Bartkiene, E., Lele, V., Sakiene, V., Zavistanaviciute, P., Ruzauskas, M., Stankevicius,
the idea and extracted data and review the literature. Shiva contributed to A., & Juodeikiene, G. (2020). Fermented, ultrasonicated, and dehydrated
writing of the article. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript. bovine colostrum: Changes in antimicrobial properties and immuno-
globulin content. Journal of Dairy Science, 103, 1315–1323.
Funding Bartkiene, E., Ruzauskas, M., Lele, V., Zavistanaviciute, P., Bernatoniene, J., Jaks-
Not applicable. tas, V., et al. (2018). Development of antimicrobial gummy candies with
addition of bovine colostrum, essential oils and probiotics. International
Availability of data and materials Journal of Food Science & Technology, 53, 1227–1235.
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from Batista da Silva Galdino, A., do Nascimento Rangel, A. H., Buttar, H. S., Sales
the corresponding author on request. Lima Nascimento, M., Cristina Gavioli, E., Oliveira, R. D. P., et al. (2021).
Bovine colostrum: Benefits for the human respiratory system and
potential contributions for clinical management of COVID-19. Food and
Declarations Agricultural Immunology, 1, 143–162.
Bleck, G., Wheeler, M., Hansen, L. B., Chester-Jones, H., & Miller, D. (2009).
Ethics approval and consent to participate Lactose Synthase components in milk: Concentrations of α-lactalbumin
Not required. and β1,4-galactosyltransferase in milk of cows from several breeds
at various stages of lactation. Reproduction in Domestic Animals, 44,
Consent for publication 241–247. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1111/j.​1439-​0531.​2007.​01047.x
Not applicable. Borad, S. G., & Singh, A. K. (2018). Colostrum immunoglobulins: Processing,
preservation and application aspects. International Dairy Journal, 85,
Competing interests 201–210.
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the Boudry, C., Dehoux, J. P., Portetelle, D., & Buldgen, A. (2008). Bovine colostrum
research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. as a natural growth promoter for newly weaned piglets: A review.
Biotechnologie, Agronomie, Société et Environnement, 12(2), 157–170.
Received: 5 May 2022 Accepted: 4 September 2022 Brasil, Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento – MAPA. (2017).
Regulamenta a Lei n° 1.283, de 18 de dezembro de 1950, e a Lei n° 7.889,
de 23 de novembro de 1989, que dispõem sobre a inspeção industrial e
sanitária de produtos de origem animal- RIISPOA (Decreto n° 9.013, de 29
de março de 2017). Diário Oficial [da] República Federativa do Brasil,
References seção 1, p. 3.
Alsayed, A., Al-Doori, A., Al-Dulaimi, A., Alnaseri, A., Abuhashish, J., Aliasin, K., Brooke-Taylor, S., Dwyer, K., Woodford, K., & Kost, N. (2017). Systematic review
& Alfayoumi, I. (2020). Influences of bovine colostrum on nasal swab of the gastrointestinal effects of A1 compared with A2 β-casein.
microbiome and viral upper respiratory tract infections–A case report. Advances in Nutrition, 8, 739–748.
Respiratory Medicine Case Reports, 31, 101189. Bunyatratchata, A., Huang, Y. P., Ozturk, G., Cohen, J. L., Bhattacharya, M., MLN
Altomare, A., Fasoli, E., Colzani, M., Parra, X. M. P., Ferrari, M., Cilurzo, F., Rumio, C., de Moura Bell, J., & Barile, D. (2020). Effects of industrial thermal treat-
Cannizzaro, L., Carini, M., Righetti, P. G., & Aldini, A. (2016). An in depth ments on the release of bovine colostrum glycoprotein N-Glycans
proteomic analysis based on ProteoMiner, affinity chromatography and by Endo-β-N-acetylglucosaminidase. Journal of Agricultural and Food
nano-HPLC-MS/MS to explain the potential health benefits of bovine Chemistry, 68, 15208–15215.
colostrum. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis, 121, Buttar, H. S., Bagwe, S. M., Bhullar, S. K., & Kaur, G. (2017). Health benefits of
297–306. bovine colostrum in children and adults. In R. R. Watson, R. J. Collier, & V.
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 18 of 21

R. Preedy (Eds.), Dairy in human health and disease across the lifespan (pp. Holstein cows. BMC Veterinary Research, 8(1), 19. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
3–20). Academic. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​B978-0-​12-​809868-​4.​00001-7 1186/​1746-​6148-8-​19
Cao, X., Yang, M., Yang, N., Liang, X., Tao, D., Liu, B., & Yue, X. (2019). Characteri- Feeney, S., Morrin, S. T., Joshi, L., & Hickey, R. M. (2018). The role of immuno-
zation and comparison of whey N-glycoproteomes from human and globulins from bovine colostrum and milk in human health promotion.
bovine colostrum and mature milk. Food Chemistry, 276, 266–273. Novel proteins for food, pharmaceuticals and agriculture (pp. 291–314).
Ceniti, C., Costanzo, N., Morittu, V. M., Tilocca, B., Roncada, P., & Britti, D. (2022). Wiley.
Review: Colostrum as an emerging food: Nutraceutical properties and Filipescu, I. E., Leonardi, L., Menchetti, L., Guelfi, G., Traina, G., Casagrande-
food supplement. Food Reviews International. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​ Proietti, P., & Brecchia, G. (2018). Preventive effects of bovine colostrum
87559​129.​2022.​20341​65. supplementation in TNBS-induced colitis in mice. PLoS One1, 13(8),
Chae, A., Aitchison, A., Day, A. S., & Keenan, J. I. (2017). Bovine colostrum dem- e0202929.
onstrates anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activity in in vitro models Florén, C. H., Chinenye, S., Elfstrand, L., Hagman, C., & Ihse, I. (2006). ColoPlus, a
of intestinal inflammation and infection. Journal of Functional Foods, 28, new product based on bovine colostrum, alleviates HIV-associated diar-
293–298. rhoea. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology, 41(6), 682–686.
Chen, C. C., Tu, Y. Y., & Chang, H. M. (1999). Efficiency and protective effect of Food Standards Australia New Zealand. (2019). Food safety hub. Available
encapsulation of milk immunoglobulin G in multiple emulsion. Journal online: https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/foodsafety/Pages/default.
of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 47, 407–410. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1021/​ aspx.
jf980​9075 Food Standards Australia New Zealand. (2020). Primary production and process-
Chen, X., Gao, C., Li, H., et al. (2010). Identification and characterization of ing (PPP) standards. Available online: https://www.foodstandards.gov.
microRNAs in raw milk during different periods of lactation, commer- au/foodsafety/standards/Pages/Primary-Production-and-Processing-
cial fluid, and powdered milk products. Cell Research, 20, 1128–1137. (PPP)-Standards-(Chapter-4).aspx.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1038/​cr.​2010.​80 Future Market Insights. (2020). Colostrum market to surge at 6.4% CAGR, rising
Cleminson, J. S., Zalewski, S. P., & Embleton, N. D. (2016). Nutrition in the health concern due to COVID-19 will promote overall growth, says FMI.
preterm infant: what’s new? Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Available online: https://www.futuremarketinsights.com/press-release/
Metabolic Care, 19(3), 220–225. colostrum-market.
Contarini, G., Povolo, M., Pelizzola, V., Monti, L., Bruni, A., Passolungo, L., & Deg- Gao, X., Li, Y., Olin, A. B., & Nguyen, D. N. (2021). Fortification with bovine
ano, L. (2014). Bovine colostrum: Changes in lipid constituents in the colostrum enhances antibacterial activity of human milk. Journal of
first 5 days after parturition. Journal of Dairy Science, 97(8), 5065–5072. Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition, 45(7), 1417–1424.
Coroian, A., Erler, S., Matea, C. T., Mireșan, V., Răducu, C., Bele, C., & Coroian, Gasser, M., Lissner, R., Nawalaniec, K., Gasser, Li-Li Hsiao Ana Maria., & W. (2018).
C. O. (2013). Seasonal changes of buffalo colostrum: Physicochemi- KMP01D demonstrates beneficial anti-inflammatory effects on immune
cal parameters, fatty acids andcholesterol variation. Chemistry Central cells: an ex vivo preclinical study of patients with colorectal cancer.
Journal, 7(1), 1–9. Frontiers in Immunology, 11(2020), 684.
Davison, G. (2013). Bovine colostrum and immune function after exercise. In M. Georgiev, I. P. (2008). Differences in chemical composition between cow colos-
Lamprecht (Ed.), Acute Topics in Sport Nutrition. Med Sport Sci (pp. 62–69). trum and milk. Bulgarian Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 11(1), 3–12.
Karger: Karger. German, J. B., Argov-Argaman, N., & Boyd, B. J. (2019). Milk lipids: A complex
Davison, G., Jones, A. W., Marchbank, T., & Playford, R. J. (2020). Oral bovine nutrient delivery system. Human milk: Composition, clinical benefits and
colostrum supplementation does not increase circulating insulin-like future opportunities (Vol. 90, pp. 217–225). Karger Publishers.
growth factor-1 concentration in healthy adults: Results from short-and Gleeson, M., & Pyne, D. B. (2016). Respiratory inflammation and infections
long-term administration studies. European Journal of Nutrition, 59(4), in high-performance athletes. Immunology and Cell Biology, 94(2),
1473–1479. 124–131.
Douëllou, T., Montel, M. C., & Sergentet, D. T. (2017). Invited review: Anti- Glówka, N., Durkalec-Michalski, K., & Woźniewicz, M. (2020). Immunological
adhesive properties of bovine oligosaccharides and bovine milk fat outcomes of bovine colostrum supplementation in trained and physi-
globule membrane-associated glycoconjugates against bacterial food cally active people: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients,
enteropathogens. Journal of Dairy Science, 100(5), 3348–3359. 12(4), 1–24. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​nu120​41023
Duar, R. M., Casaburi, G., Mitchell, R. D., Scofield, L. N., Ortega Ramirez, C. A., Godden, S. M., Lombard, J. E., & Woolums, A. R. (2019). Colostrum management
Barile, D., & Frese, S. A. (2020). Comparative genome analysis of Bifido- for dairy calves. Veterinary Clinics: Food Animal Practice, 35(3), 535–556.
bacterium longum subsp. infantis strains reveals variation in human Godhia, M. L., & Patel, N. (2013). Colostrum–its composition, benefits as a
milk oligosaccharide utilization genes among commercial probiotics. nutraceutical–A review. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science
Nutrients, 12(11), 3247. Journal, 1(1), 37–47. https://​doi.​org/​10.​12944/​CRNFSJ.​1.1.​04
Dzik, S., Miciński, B., Aitzhanova, I., Miciński, J., Pogorzelska, J., Beisenov, A., & Gomes, R. D., Anaya, K., Galdino, A. B., Oliveira, J. P., Gama, M. A., Medeiros,
Kowalski, I. M. (2017). Properties of bovine colostrum and the possibili- C. A., & Rangel, A. H. (2021). Bovine colostrum: A source of bioactive
ties of use. Polish Annals of Medicine, 24(2), 295–299. compounds for prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal disorders.
Dzik, S., Miciński, B., Miciński, J., Mituniewicz, T., & Kowalski, P. M. (2018). Thera- NFS Journal, 25, 1–11.
peutic properties of lactoferrin. Polish Annals of Medicine, 25, 158–161. Guthrie, H. A. (1989). Introductory nutrition, times mirror.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​29089/​2017.​17.​00020 Hałasa, M., Maciejewska-Markiewicz, D., Baśkiewicz-Hałasa, M., Safranow, K.,
Elfstrand, L., Lindmark-Månsson, H., Paulsson, M., Nyberg, L., & Åkesson, B. & Stachowska, E. (2020). Post-delivery milking delay influence on the
(2002). Immunoglobulins, growth factors and growth hormone in effect of oral supplementation with bovine colostrum as measured
bovine colostrum and the effects of processing. International Dairy with intestinal permeability test. Medicina, 56(10), 495.
Journal, 12(11), 879–887. Halasa, M., Maciejewska, D., Baśkiewicz-Hałasa, M., Machaliński, B., Safranow, K.,
Eslamian, G., Ardehali, S. H., Baghestani, A. R., & Shariatpanahi, Z. V. (2019). & Stachowska, E. (2017). Oral supplementation with bovine colostrum
Effects of early enteral bovine colostrum supplementation on intestinal decreases intestinal permeability and stool concentrations of Zonulin in
permeability in critically ill patients: A randomized, double-blind, athletes. Nutrients, 9. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​nu904​0370.
placebo-controlled study. Nutrition, 60, 106–111. Henrick, B. M., Chew, S., Casaburi, G., Brown, H. K., Frese, S. A., Zhou, Y., & Smi-
Etheridge, A., Lee, I., Hood, L., Galas, D., & Wang, K. (2011). Extracellular lowitz, J. T. (2019). Colonization by B. infantis EVC001 modulates enteric
microRNA: A new source of biomarkers. Mutation Research, 717, 85–90. inflammation in exclusively breastfed infants. Pediatric Research, 86(6),
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​mrfmmm.​2011.​03.​004 749–757.
Fasse, S., Alarinta, J., Frahm, B., & Wirtanen, G. (2021). Bovine colostrum for Hisamatsu, T., Kanai, T., Mikami, Y., Yoneno, K., Matsuoka, K., & Hibi, T. (2013).
human consumption—Improving microbial quality and maintaining Immune aspects of the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease.
bioactive characteristics through processing. Dairy, 2(4), 556–575. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 137(3), 283–297.
Fattah, A. A. M., Abd Rabo, F. H. R., EL-Dieb, S. M., & Elkashef, H. A. S. (2012). Ihara, S., Hirata, Y., & Koike, K. (2017). TGF-β in inflammatory bowel disease: A
Changes in composition of colostrum of Egyptian buffaloes and key regulator of immune cells, epithelium, and the intestinal micro-
biota. Journal of Gastroenterology, 52(7), 777–787.
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 19 of 21

Ismail, R., Awad, H. A., Imam, S. S., Gad, G. I., Aboushady, N. M., Abdou, R. M., García-Sastre, A. (2018). Influenza. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 4(1),
Eissa, D. S., Azzam, N. T., Barakat, M. M., Yassin, M. M., & Barakat, N. M. 1–2. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1038/​s41572-​018-​0002-y
(2021). Gut priming with bovine colostrum and T regulatory cells in Kuralkar, P., & Kuralkar, S. V. (2010). Nutritional and immunological impor-
preterm neonates: A randomized controlled trial. Pediatric Research, tance of colostrum for the new born. Veterinary World, 3(1), 46.
90(3), 650–656. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1038/​s41390-​020-​01344-y Larcombe, S., Hutton, M. L., & Lyras, D. (2019). Hyperimmune bovine colos-
Janusz, M., & ZabÅ, A. (2013). Colostrinin: A proline-rich polypeptide complex trum reduces gastrointestinal carriage of uropathogenic Escherichia
of potential therapeutic interest. Cellular and Molecular Biology, 59(1), coli. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 15(2), 508–513.
4–11. Lau, N. C., Lim, L. P., Weinstein, E. G., & Bartel, D. P. (2001). An abundant class
Jawhara, S. (2020). Can drinking microfiltered raw immune milk from cows of tiny RNAs with probable regulatory roles in Caenorhabditis elegans
immunized against SARS-CoV-2 provide short-term protection against Science, 294, 858–862. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1126/​scien​ce.​10650​62
COVID-19? Frontiers in Immunology, 11, 1888. Layman, D. K., Lönnerdal, B., & Fernstrom, J. D. (2018). Applications for
Jin, J., & Gramlich, L. (2019). Survival of patients with short-bowel syndrome on α-lactalbumin in human nutrition. Nutrition Reviews, 76(6), 444–460.
home parenteral nutrition: A prospective cohort study. Journal of Paren- Legrand, D. (2016). Overview of lactoferrin as a natural immune modulator.
teral and Eternal Nutrition, 8, 23–32. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​jpen.​1984 The Journal of Pediatrics, 173, S10–S15.
Jones, A. W., March, D. S., Curtis, F., & Bridle, C. (2016). Bovine colostrum supple- Li, J., Xu, Y.-W., Jiang, J.-J., & Song, Q. (2019). Bovine colostrum and product
mentation and upper respiratory symptoms during exercise training: intervention associated with relief of childhood infectious diarrhea.
A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Scientific Reports, 9. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1038/​s41598-​019-​39644-x.
BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation, 8(1), 1–10. https://​doi.​ Liang, X., Han, H., Zhao, X., Cao, X., Yang, M., Tao, D., & Yue, X. (2018). Quanti-
org/​10.​1186/​s13102-​016-​0047-8 tative analysis of amino acids in human and bovine colostrum milk
Jones, A. W., March, D. S., Thatcher, R., Diment, B., Walsh, N. P., & Davison, G. samples through iTRAQ labeling. Journal of the Science of Food and
(2019). The effects of bovine colostrum supplementation on in vivo Agriculture, 98(13), 5157–5163.
immunity following prolonged exercise: A randomised controlled trial. Mann, J. K., & Ndung’u, T. (2020). The potential of lactoferrin, ovotransferrin
European Journal of Nutrition, 58(1), 335–344. and lysozyme as antiviral and immune-modulating agents in COVID-
Juhl, S. M. (2017). Necrotizing enterocolitis-classification and two initial steps 19. Future Virology, 15(9), 609–624.
towards prevention. Danish Medical Journal, 64, B5362. Manzoni, P. (2016). Clinical benefits of lactoferrin for infants and children.
Kaducu, F. O., Okia, S. A., Upenytho, G., Elfstrand, L., & Florén, C. H. (2011). Effect The Journal of Pediatrics, 173, S43–S52.
of bovine colostrum-based food supplement in the treatment of Marnila, & Korhonen, H. (2011). Milk |Colostrum. In J. Fuquay (Ed.), Encycl.
HIV-associated diarrhea in northern Uganda: A randomized controlled Dairy Sci (pp. 591–597). Academic. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​B978-0-​
trial. Indian Journal of Gastroenterology: official journal of the Indian 12-​374407-​4.​00322-8
Society of Gastroenterology, 30(6), 270–276. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​ McGrath, B. A., Fox, P. F., McSweeney, P. L., & Kelly, A. L. (2016). Composition
s12664-​011-​0146-0 and properties of bovine colostrum: A review. Dairy Science Technol-
Kao, C. Y., Sheu, B. S., & Wu, J. J. (2016). Helicobacter pylori infection: An over- ogy, 96, 133–158. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s13594-​015-​0258-x
view of bacterial virulence factors and pathogenesis. Biomedical Journal, McMartin, S., Godden, S. M., Metzger, L., Feirtag, J., Bey, R., Stabel, J., Goyal,
39(1), 14–23. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​bj.​2015.​06.​002 S., Fetrow, J., Wells, S., & Chester-Jones, H. (2006). Heat treatment of
Karav, S., Bell, J. M. L. N. D. M., Parc, A. L., Liu, Y., Mills, D. A., Block, D. E., & bovine colostrum I. Effects of temperature on viscosity and immuno-
Barile, D. (2015). Characterizing the release of bioactive N-glycans globulin G level. Journal of Dairy Science, 89, 2110–2118.
from dairy products by a novel endo-β-N-acetylglucosaminidase. Megahed, F. A., El-Assal, M. A., Dabour, A. S., Samy, R. A., Rizk, M. A., & Al Adhm,
Biotechnology Progress, 31(5), 1331–1339. S. H. (2017). Lactoferrin as an added therapy in the treatment of helico-
Karav, S., Le Parc, A., Leite Nobrega de Moura Bell, J. M., Frese, S. A., Kirmiz, N., bacter pylori. Benha Medical Journal, 34(2), 119.
Block, D. E., & Mills, D. A. (2016). Oligosaccharides released from milk Mehra, R., Marnila, P., & Korhonen, H. (2006). Milk immunoglobulins for health
glycoproteins are selective growth substrates for infant-associated promotion. International Dairy Journal, 16(11), 1262–1271.
bifidobacteria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 82(12), Menchetti, L., Agradi, S., Gazzonis, A. L., Curone, G., Faustini, M., Draghi, S., &
3622–3630. Brecchia, G. (2021). Lactation Characteristics in Alpine and Nera di Ver-
Kehoe, S. I., Jayarao, B. M., & Heinrichs, A. J. (2007). A survey of bovine zasca Goats in Northern Italy: A Statistical Bayesian Approach. Applied
colostrum composition and colostrum management practices on Sciences, 11(16), 7235.
Pennsylvania dairy farms. Journal of Dairy Science, 90(9), 4108–4116. Menchetti, L., Curone, G., Filipescu, I. E., Barbato, O., Leonardi, L., Guelfi, G.,
Kelly, A., Houston, S. A., Sherwood, E., Casulli, J., & Travis, M. A. (2017). Regula- & Brecchia, G. (2020). The prophylactic use of bovine colostrum in a
tion of innate and adaptive immunity by TGFβ. Advances in Immunol- murine model of TNBS-induced colitis. Animals, 10(3), 492.
ogy, 134, 137–233. Menchetti, L., Traina, G., Tomasello, G., Casagrande-Proietti, P., Leonardi, L.,
Kiewiet, M. G., Dekkers, R., Gros, M., van Neerven, R. J., Groeneveld, A., de Barbato, O., & Brecchia, G. (2016). Potential benefits of colostrum in
Vos, P., & Faas, M. M. (2017). Toll-like receptor mediated activation gastrointestinal diseases. Frontiers in Bioscience, 8(1), 331–351.
is possibly involved in immunoregulating properties of cow’s milk Miles, E. A., & Calder, P. C. (2017). The influence of the position of palmitate in
hydrolysates. PLoS One1, 12(6), e0178191. infant formula triacylglycerols on health outcomes. Nutrition Research,
Kolenda, R., Burdukiewicz, M., & Schierack, P. (2015). A systematic review and 44, 1–8.
meta-analysis of the epidemiology of pathogenic Escherichia coli of Moore, D. A., Taylor, J., Hartman, M. L., & Sischo, W. M. (2009). Quality assess-
calves and the role of calves as reservoirs for human pathogenic E. ments of waste milk at a calf ranch. Journal of Dairy Science, 92(7),
coli Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 5, 23. 3503–3509.
Korhonen, H. J. (2013). Production and properties of health-promoting Nguyen, D. N., Currie, A. J., Ren, S., Bering, S. B., & Sangild, P. T. (2019). Heat
proteins and peptides from bovine colostrum and milk. Cellular and treatment and irradiation reduce anti-bacterial and immune-modu-
Molecular Biology, 59(1), 12–24. latory properties of bovine colostrum. Journal of Functional Foods, 57,
Kotsis, Y., Mikellidi, A., Aresti, C., Persia, E., Sotiropoulos, A., Panagiotakos, D. 182–189.
B., & Nomikos, T. (2018). A low-dose, 6-week bovine colostrum sup- Niaz, B., Saeed, F., Ahmed, A., Imran, M., Maan, A. A., Khan, M. K. I., & Suleria, H. A.
plementation maintains performance and attenuates inflammatory R. (2019). Lactoferrin (LF): a natural antimicrobial protein. International
indices following a Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test in soccer Journal of Food Properties, 22(1), 1626–1641.
players. European Journal of Nutrition, 57(3), 1181–1195. Niño, D. F., Sodhi, C. P., & Hackam, D. J. (2016). Necrotizing enterocolitis: New
Kovacs, D., Maresca, V., Flori, E., Mastrofrancesco, A., Picardo, M., & Cardinali, insights into pathogenesis and mechanisms. Nature Reviews. Gastroen-
G. (2020). Bovine colostrum induces the differentiation of human terology & Hepatology, 13(10), 590–600. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1038/​nrgas​
primary keratinocytes. The FASEB Journal, 34(5), 6302–6321. tro.​2016.​119
Krammer, F., Smith, G. J. D., Fouchier, R. A. M., Peiris, M., Kedzierska, K., O’Callaghan, T. F., O’Donovan, M., Murphy, J. P., Sugrue, K., Mannion, D., McCa-
Doherty, P. C., Palese, P., Shaw, M. L., Treanor, J., Webster, R. G., & rthy, W. P., & Tobin, J. T. (2020). Evolution of the bovine milk fatty acid
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 20 of 21

profile–from colostrum to milk five days post parturition. International Spalinger, M. R., Atrott, K., Baebler, K., Schwarzfischer, M., Melhem, H., Peres, D.
Dairy Journal, 104, 104655. R., Lalazar, G., Rogler, G., Scharl, M., & Frey-Wagner, I. (2019). Admin-
Oloroso-Chavez, K., Andaya, P., & Wong, C. (2017). OR082 bovine colostrum istration of the hyper-immune bovine colostrum extract IMM-124E
supplementation in respiratory allergies according to sensitization: Sub- ameliorates experimental murine colitis. Journal of Crohn’s and Colitis,
group analysis of randomized controlled trial. Annals of Allergy, Asthma 13(6), 785–797. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1093/​ecco-​jcc/​jjy213
& Immunology, 119(5), S11–S12. Srinivas, P. R., Philbert, M., Vu, T. Q., Huang, Q., Kokini, J. L., Saltos, E., et al. (2010).
Phipps, A. J., Beggs, D. S., Murray, A. J., Mansell, P. D., Stevenson, M. A., & Pyman, Nanotechnology research: Applications in nutritional sciences. The
M. F. (2016). Survey of bovine colostrum quality and hygiene on north- Journal of Nutrition, 140, 119–124. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3945/​jn.​109.​115048
ern Victorian dairy farms. Journal of Dairy Science, 99, 8981–8990. Stelwagen, K., Carpenter, E., Haigh, B., Hodgkinson, A., & Wheeler, T. T. (2009).
Playford, R. J., Cattell, M., & Marchbank, T. (2020). Marked variability in bioactiv- Immune components of bovine colostrum and milk. Journal of Animal
ity between commercially available bovine colostrum for human use; Science, 87(suppl_13), 3–9.
implications for clinical trials. PLoS One1, 15(6), e0234719. Sun, J., Li, Y., Pan, X., Nguyen, D. N., Brunse, A., Bojesen, A. M., Rudloff, S.,
Playford, R. J., Macdonald, C. E., & Johnson, W. S. (2000). Colostrum and milk- Mortensen, M. S., Burrin, D. G., & Sangild, P. T. (2019). Human milk fortifi-
derived peptide growth factors for the treatment of gastrointestinal cation with bovine colostrum is superior to formula-based fortifiers to
disorders. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72(1), 5–14. prevent gut dysfunction, necrotizing enterocolitis, and systemic infec-
Playford, R. J., & Weiser, M. J. (2021). Bovine colostrum: Its constituents and tion in preterm pigs. JPEN. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition,
uses. Nutrients, 13(1), 265. 43(2), 252–262. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​jpen.​1422
Rathe, M., De Pietri, S., Wehner, P. S., Frandsen, T. L., Grell, K., Schmiegelow, K., Tacoma, R., Gelsinger, S. L., Lam, Y. W., Scuderi, R. A., Ebenstein, D. B., Heinrichs,
Sangild, P. T., Husby, S., & Müller, K. (2020). Bovine colostrum against A. J., & Greenwood, S. L. (2017). Exploration of the bovine colostrum
chemotherapy-induced gastrointestinal toxicity in children with acute proteome and effects of heat treatment time on colostrum protein
lymphoblastic leukemia: A randomized, double-blind, placebo- profile. Journal of Dairy Science, 100(11), 9392–9401. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
controlled trial. JPEN. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition, 44(2), 3168/​jds.​2017-​13211
337–347. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​jpen.​1528 Thapa, B. R. (2005). Health factors in colostrum. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics,
Rathe, M., Müller, K., Sangild, P. T., & Husby, S. (2014). Clinical applications of 72(7), 579–581.
bovine colostrum therapy: A systematic review. Nutrition Reviews, 72(4), Tripathi, V., & Vashishtha, B. (2006). Bioactive compounds of colostrum and its
237–254. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1111/​nure.​12089 PMID: 24571383. application. Food Reviews International, 22(3), 225–244.
Ribeiro, K. D. S., Lima, M. S. R., Medeiros, J. F. P., Rebouças, A. S., Dantas, R. C. Ulfman, L. H., Leusen, J. H. W., Savelkoul, H. F. J., Warner, J. O., & van Neerven, R.
S., Bezerra, D. S., Osório, M. M., & Dimenstein, R. (2016). Association J. J. (2018). Effects of bovine immunoglobulins on immune function,
between maternal vitamin E status and alphatocopherol levels in allergy, and infection. Frontiers in Nutrition, 5, 1–20. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
the newborn and colostrum. Maternal and Child Nutrition, 12(4), 1–7. 3389/​fnut.​2018.​00052
PMID:26924492. Van Hese, I., Goossens, K., Vandaele, L., & Opsomer, G. (2019). Invited review:
Saad, K., Abo-Elela, M. G. M., Abd El-Baseer, K. A., Ahmed, A. E., Ahmad, F. A., MicroRNAs in bovine colostrum- focus on their origin and potential
Tawfeek, M. S., … Abdel-Mawgoud, E. (2016). Effects of bovine colos- health benefits for the calf. Journal of Dairy Science, 103, 1–15. https://​
trum on recurrent respiratory tract infections and diarrhea in children. doi.​org/​10.​3168/​jds.​2019-​16959
Medicine, 95(37), 1–5. Van Neerven, R. J. J. (2014). The effects of milk and colostrum on allergy and
Sacerdote, P., Mussano, F., Franchi, S., Panerai, A. E., Bussolati, G., Carossa, S., Bar- infection: Mechanisms and implications. Animal Frontiers, 4(2), 16–22.
torelli, A., & Bussolati, B. (2013). Biological components in a standardized Wakabayashi, H., Oda, H., Yamauchi, K., & Abe, F. (2014). Lactoferrin for preven-
derivative of bovine colostrum. Journal of Dairy Science, 96, 1745–1754. tion of common viral infections. Journal of Infection and Chemotherapy,
https://​doi.​org/​10.​3168/​jds.​2012-​5928 20(11), 666–671. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jiac.​2014.​08.​003 PMID:
Sadeghirad, B., Morgan, R. L., Zeraatkar, D., Zea, A. M., Couban, R., Johnston, B. 25182867.
C., & Florez, I. D. (2018). Human and bovine colostrum for prevention of Weinborn, V., Li, Y., Shah, I. M., Yu, H., Dallas, D. C., German, J. B., & Barile, D.
necrotizing enterocolitis: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 142(2), e20180767. (2020). Production of functional mimics of human milk oligosac-
Sales-Campos, H., Reis de Souza, P., Crema Peghini, B., Santana da Silva, J., & charides by enzymatic glycosylation of bovine milk oligosaccharides.
Ribeiro Cardoso, C. (2013). An overview of the modulatory effects of International Dairy Journal, 102, 104583.
oleic acid in health and disease. Mini Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry, Westreich, S. T., Salcedo, J., Durbin-Johnson, B., Smilowitz, J. T., Korf, I., Mills,
13(2), 201–210. D. A., & Lemay, D. G. (2020). Fecal metatranscriptomics and glycomics
Samarütel, J., Baumrucker, C. R., Gross, J. J., Dechow, C. D., & Bruckmaier, R. suggest that bovine milk oligosaccharides are fully utilized by healthy
M. (2016). Quarter variation and correlations of colostrum albumin, adults. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 79, 108340.
immunoglobulin G1 and G2 in dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Research, Williams, N. C., Killer, S. C., Svendsen, I. S., & Jones, A. W. (2019). Immune nutri-
83(2), 209–218. tion and exercise: Narrative review and practical recommendations.
Sanctuary, M. R., Kain, J. N., Chen, S. Y., Kalanetra, K., Lemay, D. G., Rose, D. R., & European Journal of Sport Science, 19(1), 49–61.
Angkustsiri, K. (2019). Pilot study of probiotic/colostrum supplemen- Wong, E. E., Mallet, J. F., Duarte, J., Matar, C., & Ritz, B. W. (2014). Ovine colostrum
tation on gut function in children with autism and gastrointestinal enhances natural killer cell activity and immune response in a mouse
symptoms. PLoS One1, 14(1), e0210064. model of influenza infection and mediates intestinal immunity through
Saraiva, M., Vieira, P., & O’garra, A. (2020). Biology and therapeutic potential of toll-like receptors 2 and 4. Nutrition Research, 34(4), 318–325. https://​doi.​
interleukin-10. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 217(1), e20190418. org/​10.​1016/j.​nutres.​2014.​02.​007 PMID: 24774068.
Schiavi, M. C., Di Tucci, C., Colagiovanni, V., Faiano, P., Giannini, A., D’Oria, O., Xu, W., Mann, S., Curone, G., & Kenéz, Á. (2021). Heat treatment of bovine
& Benedetti Panici, P. (2019). A medical device containing purified colostrum: Effects on colostrum metabolome and serum metabolome
bovine colostrum (M onurelle B iogel) in the treatment of vulvovaginal of calves. Animal, 15(4), 100180.
atrophy in postmenopausal women: R etrospective analysis of urinary Yadav, R., Angolkar, T., Kaur, G., & Buttar, H. S. (2016). Antibacterial and
symptoms, sexual function, and quality of life. LUTS: Lower Urinary Tract anti-inflammatory properties of bovine colostrum. Recent Patents on
Symptoms, 11(2), O11–O15. Inflammation & Allergy Drug Discovery, 10(1), 49–53. https://​doi.​org/​
Serrano, G., Kochergina, I., Albors, A., Diaz, E., Oroval, M., Hueso, G., & Serrano, J. 10.​2174/​18722​14810​66616​02191​63118
M. (2020). Liposomal lactoferrin as potential preventative and cure for Yang, M., Song, D., Cao, X., Wu, R., Liu, B., Ye, W., & Yue, X. (2017). Comparative
COVID-19. International Journal of Research Health Science, 8(1), 8–15. proteomic analysis of milk-derived exosomes in human and bovine
Sienkiewicz, M., Szymańska, P., & Fichna, J. (2021). Supplementation of bovine colostrum and mature milk samples by iTRAQ-coupled LC-MS/MS. Food
colostrum in inflammatory bowel disease: Benefits and contraindica- Research International, 92, 17–25.
tions. Advances in Nutrition, 12(2), 533–545. Zabłocka, A., Sokołowska, A., Macała, J., Bartoszewska, M., Mitkiewicz, M.,
Silva, E. G. D. S. O., Rangel, A. H. D. N., Mürmam, L., Bezerra, M. F., & Oliveira, J. P. Janusz, M., & Polanowski, A. (2020). Colostral proline-rich polypeptide
F. D. (2019). Bovine colostrum: Benefits of its use in human food. Food complexes. Comparative study of the antioxidant properties, cytokine-
Science and Technology, 39, 355–362. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1590/​fst.​14619 inducing activity, and nitric oxide release of preparations produced by
Poonia and Shiva Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2022) 4:26 Page 21 of 21

a laboratory and a large-scale method. International Journal of Peptide

Research and Therapeutics, 26(2), 685–694.
Zarcula, S., Cernescu, H., Mircu, C., Tulcan, C., Morvay, A., Baul, S., & Popovici,
D. (2010). Influence of breed, parity and food intake on chemical com-
position of first colostrum in cow. Scientific Papers Animal Science and
Biotechnologies, 43(1), 154–157.
Zou, X., Guo, Z., Jin, Q., Huang, J., Cheong, L., Xu, X., & Wang, X. (2015). Com-
position and microstructure of colostrum and mature bovine milk fat
globule membrane. Food Chemistry, 185(15), 362–370. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1016/j.​foodc​hem.​2015.​03.​145 PMID: 25952880.

Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in pub-
lished maps and institutional affiliations.

Ready to submit your research ? Choose BMC and benefit from:

• fast, convenient online submission

• thorough peer review by experienced researchers in your field
• rapid publication on acceptance
• support for research data, including large and complex data types
• gold Open Access which fosters wider collaboration and increased citations
• maximum visibility for your research: over 100M website views per year

At BMC, research is always in progress.

Learn more biomedcentral.com/submissions