Amphibious House Repository Design with

Wastewater Electrochemical Treatment

by:

Anne Marnel C. Mayao

Kristina Casandra B. Bolalin
Rey Alvin J. Pante

A Thesis Presented to the

Faculty of the College of Engineering and Architecture
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

University of Nueva Caceres

January 2025
 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1 1
INTRODUCTION 1
Definition of Terms 5
CHAPTER 2 8
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES 8
2.1 Revised National Plumbing Code of the Philippines 8
2.2.1 Septic System During Floods 9
2.2.2 Electrochemical Treatment 9
2.2.3 Electrolysis 13
2.3 Quality of Treated Water 13
Synthesis and Justification 15
CHAPTER 3 19
3.1 Theoretical Framework 20
3.2 Conceptual Framework 21
3.3 Design of Amphibious House Repository 22
3.3.1 Pipe Connections 22
3.3.2 Repository Design Parameters 22
1. Drainage Fixture Unit 23
2. Flow in One Tank 23
3. Surface Area 24
4. Volume 24
5. Depth 25
6. Width and Length 25
7. Cross-Sectional Area of the Tank 26
8. Flow Through Velocity 26
3.3.3 Electrochemical Reactor Chamber 27
A. Design Parameters 27
3.4 Modeling and Layout 29
3.4.1 CAD Layout (Pipe Connection) 29
3.4.2 CAD Layout (Actual Scale) 29
3.4.3 Sketch-Up 30
3.5 Acquisition of Materials 30
3.5.1 Marine Blackwater Holding Tank 30
3.5.2 Electrodes used in Electrochemical Treatment 31
3.5.3 Voltage Controller 31
3.6 Prototype (Testing Purposes) 32
 3.6.1 Acquisition of Materials 32
3.6.2 CAD Layout 34
3.7 Conducting Water Assessment 35
3.7.1 Collection of Sample Wastewater 35
A. Selection of Sampling Stations 35
B. Sampling Method 35
C. Sampling Procedure 36
3.7.2 Electrochemical Treatment of Wastewater using Prototype 38
3.7.3 Assessment of Wastewater Contents 39
A. YSI Water Quality Multiparameter 39
B. pH Level Tester 39
3.8 Results of Treatment using Prototype 40
CHAPTER 4 42
ANALYSIS 42
CHAPTER 5 45
CONCLUSION 45
CHAPTER 6 47
RECOMMENDATIONS 47
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Climate change has been a problem that the world is trying to resolve for years. It

caused a large amount of change in how the world processes its day to day tasks. It is

known that increased human activities such as urbanization have impacted the natural

cycle of climate change. Since the pre-Hispanic time, floods have been a natural

occurrence in the Philippines because most settlements are in very close proximity to

bodies of water. These floods often result in calamities that are aggravated by the

uncontrolled urbanization which brings about even bigger problems. [1] Floods cause

water pollution which is one of the most pressing environmental issues of our time, with

the quality of water resources declining globally. According to the World Bank Report

On Safe Water And Sanitation [2], over 60% benefit from safely managed sanitation

services, as well as the treatment and disposal of human waste. However, these figures

are below the average results registered in the East Asia Pacific region (74% for safe

water access and nearly 70% for access to sanitation). As urbanization and industrial

activities continue to increase, the need for effective and sustainable wastewater

treatment solutions has never been more critical.

An effective risk avoidance strategy for flooding and other natural phenomena

includes changing the placement of towns and villages, and even the design of houses

and buildings were taken into consideration. One of the designs made was the idea of

1
Amphibious Homes. These structures stay on the ground during normal conditions and

float when floods occur. Amphibious houses present a unique challenge for conventional

wastewater management systems due to their fluctuating environments. Electrochemical

(EC) is an emerging technology in water and wastewater treatment. The fundamental

principle of Electrochemical is "electrolysis". The term "electrolysis" refers to the use of

electricity to break down compounds. The process occurs in an electrolyte solution,

allowing ion transfer between electrodes. In the Electrochemical cell, positive ions travel

toward the cathode and are reduced. Simultaneously negative ions travel toward the

anode and are oxidized. [3]

Currently being tested on sewage and flood water, electrolysis has become a real

possibility in the world of large-scale water filtration. According to the United Nations

Industrial Development Organization [4], electrolytes flocculate pollutants by means of

an electrical charge and perform the solid-liquid separation. Reactive species generated

during electrolysis can destroy pathogens, bacteria, and viruses in the water.

Electrochemical treatment provides promising alternatives to traditional physical and

chemical wastewater treatment methods. It addresses several key limitations of these

conventional approaches such as high energy efficiency, cost-effectiveness, ease of

automation, and a significant reduction in chemical consumption and sludge production.

[5] To build a septic system for amphibious houses, it is important to identify its

structure. Sedimentation tank lowers the water's flow velocity, which permits the majority

of suspended particles to settle. Effective sedimentation tank design necessitates careful

consideration of several critical parameters. These include overflow velocity, detention

2
period, flow-through velocity, tank dimensions, sludge zone depth, and overall treatment

efficiency. [6] The design of a tank's dimensions is primarily influenced by the

relationship between the volume of water it needs to hold and the overflow velocity.

The wastewater produced in sustaining daily human activities are classified into

two types: 1. Greywater (GW) and 2. Blackwater (BW).[7] In traditional houses, this

wastewater goes to the septic tanks. However, increase in risks due to flooding led to

development of amphibious houses to cater the safety and security of the residents. The

primary problem addressed by this research is the development of a wastewater treatment

repository for amphibious houses, utilizing electrochemical treatment methods. This

entails addressing several sub-problems: 1. Traditional septic tanks only produce primary

treatment as the adjacent soil processes further treatment. These soil are called absorption

fields. The soil absorption field provides final treatment and distribution of the

wastewater. Harmful coliform bacteria, viruses and nutrients are naturally removed as the

wastewater percolates into the soil. [8] 2. Traditional septic tanks are not recommended

for houses that float according to Olivia Hutsler (2017). [9] Plumbing for greywater from

kitchen sink, floor drains, and the like for floating houses are usually connected to the

sewage treatment facility of the community. 3. Discharge of wastewater directly into the

environment increases pollution and risk of water contamination. [10] This wastewater

contains airborne bacteria, pathogens, and other minerals which, upon release to ponds

and rivers, would pollute the water bodies and affect aquatic life. [11]

3
 The main objective of this study is to design a wastewater treatment repository

using electrochemical treatment for an amphibious house. This study ought to: 1.

Determine the maximum wastewater produced will support single household residential

capacity in flood prone areas. 2. Determine the dimensions of Amphibious House

Repository, and 3. Assess the quality of the treated water using Dissolved Oxygen Level

and pH Level as the parameters.

In this study the researchers looked into the applicability of amphibious house

wastewater repository design with electrochemical treatment. A research design on

wastewater management in this type of setup was conducted. An Electrochemical

approach of a wastewater treatment technique was used in order to treat water that is

environmentally accepted to discharge. Computations of the dimension were first

established. For the Electrochemical Reactor, Aluminum anode and Stainless-steel

cathode pipes were used with electrode distance of 0.5 cm. In order to demonstrate the

effectiveness of Electrochemical treatment, a prototype was devised. Sample wastewater

was collected and treated for 15 minutes. A 9 volt battery was used to supply 7.5V, 6.5V,

and 6V during the electrochemical treatment. After treatment, the water was tested by

the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources for DO (Dissolved Oxygen) levels and the

researchers conducted a pH level test. The amphibious house wastewater repository

design with electrochemical treatment will support single household residential capacity

in flood prone areas in amphibious homes.

4
Definition of Terms

● Wastewater - used water that has been affected by domestic, industrial and

commercial use (greywater and blackwater).

● Greywater - the relatively clean waste water from baths, sinks, washing machines,

and other kitchen appliances.

● Blackwater - wastewater from toilets.

● Repository - a place, building, or receptacle where things are or may be stored.

● Amphibious House - a building that rests on the ground but whenever a flood

occurs, the entire building rises up in its dock, where it floats, buoyed by the

floodwater.

● Electrochemical Treatment - is characterized by multistage and relative

complexity of physical and chemical phenomena occurring in electrochemical

reactors (electrolyzers).

● Electrochemical Reactor - allows for carrying out chemical transformations via

electric current.

● Purification - the removal of contaminants from something.

● Devise - plan or invent (a complex procedure, system, or mechanism) by careful

thought.

● Sedimentation - the process of settling or being deposited as a sediment.

● Climate Change - refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns.

● Contamination - the action or state of making or being made impure by polluting

or poisoning.

5
● Discharge - allow (a liquid, gas, or other substance) to flow out from where it has

been confined.

● Coagulation - the action or process of a liquid, especially blood, changing to a

solid or semi-solid state.

● Flocculation - the process by which individual particles of clay aggregate into

clotlike masses or precipitate into small lumps.

● Electrolysis - chemical decomposition produced by passing an electric current

through a liquid or solution containing ions.

● Sludge - thick, soft, wet mud or a similar viscous mixture of liquid and solid

components, especially the product of an industrial or refining process.

● Dissolved Oxygen (DO) - refers to the concentration of oxygen gas incorporated

in water.

● Total Suspended Solid (TSS) - non-settleable solid particles found in water.

● Anode - The electrode in an electrochemical cell where oxidation occurs, often

releasing electrons into the external circuit.

● Cathode - The electrode in an electrochemical cell where reduction occurs,

attracting cations from the solution.

● Current Density - The amount of electric current per unit area of cross-section,

which influences the efficiency of electrochemical reactions in treatment

processes.

● Electrocoagulation - A process using an electric current to remove pollutants by

coagulating and separating suspended particles in water.

6
● Pathogen - Any microorganism that can cause disease, such as bacteria, viruses,

or protozoa, often targeted for removal in wastewater treatment.

● Detention Time - The time water or wastewater spends in a treatment system,

which affects the efficiency of processes like sedimentation or disinfection.

● Effluent - Treated water discharged from a treatment facility, ideally meeting

environmental standards for safe release.

7
 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This section discusses the relevant literature that the researchers considered in

order to provide an extensive understanding of the existing knowledge on the topic and to

draw attention to the gaps in the literature that the current study seeks to fill.

2.1 Revised National Plumbing Code of the Philippines

An effective plumbing code is a critical component of ensuring modern and

healthful living conditions. [12] To determine the precise flow rate, measured in gallons

per minute (GPM), through a building's plumbing system, adherence to the Revised

National Plumbing Code of the Philippines (RNPCP) is essential. Specifically, Table 7-2

of the Revised NPCP outlines the Minimum Trap Diameters and Drainage Fixture Unit

(DFU) Values, which serve as a fundamental reference. Table 7-2 provides DFU values

assigned to various fixtures, applicable for both private and public use. By identifying the

fixtures present in a building and referencing their respective DFU values in Table 7-2,

the total DFU for the building can be calculated. This total DFU is then converted into

GPM by applying a conversion factor of 7.48, as 1 DFU is equivalent to 7.48 GPM. This

process allows for the determination of the total water flow rate, ensuring proper

plumbing system design and functionality.

8
2.2.1 Septic System During Floods

Factors such as heavy rainfall, poor drainage systems, deforestation, and

urbanization increase the risk of flooding. A recent incident was the flood brought by

tropical storm Kristine to the Bicol Region. According to GMA Integrated News [13], in

Naga City, 70% of its residents were affected and 30% of Naga’s land area was covered

by flood waters. Floods in general are contaminated and polluted. Flood water may enter

septic tank systems through the toilet, other fixtures, or the overflow relief gully grate and

may wash out solids from the tank causing blockages or system damage. This can also

cause a pungent odor around the tank and land application area, blocked fixtures with

wastewater overflowing from the relief point, high sludge levels within the primary tank,

and sewage flowing up through the toilet and sinks. Overall, the capacity or effectiveness

of a septic system can also be reduced by floods. [14]

2.2.2 Electrochemical Treatment

Human consumption of wastewater has greatly led to exhaustion of groundwater,

depletion of minerals, and scarcity of clean water resources. This situation pushed

researchers to develop technologies that aim to create wastewater treatment facilities. To

ensure water treatment facilities in rural areas, researchers innovate small-scale,

renewable-energy-based, and on-site treatment methodologies. Wastewater treatment

includes the extraction of pollutants, removal of coarse particles, and elimination of

toxicants to produce clean water. The use of wastewater treatment paves way to

minimizing water waste, reducing the use of natural sources of water, as well as it

9
produces clean energy. In this research, it was found that wastewater treatment improves

the supply of clean water and so enables sustainable resource management. [15]

Household activities cover 60% of the wastewater produced. [16] These wastewater are

usually disposed directly to bodies of water increasing the concentration of pollutants

such as Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Chemical oxygen Demand (COD). With that

said, household wastewater should be treated before its disposal. Moreover, it is

important that the design of the wastewater treatment is in its optimum version which is

why planning beforehand is necessary. [17] One of the wastewater treatments is called

Electrochemical Treatment.

Anusuyadevi, et.al. recommends the Electrochemical (EC) method of treating the

supernatant of blackwater to produce purified non-potable water. This treatment method

does not require additional use of chemicals and can be powered by sustainable

technologies (like solar panels), thus reducing the treatment cost. Electrochemical

treatment is the most flexible, easily integrable system for the on-site treatment of

Wastewater. It scales down the conventional treatment processes: (i) chlorination, (ii)

ozonation, (iii) membrane filtration, and (iv) ultra-violet (UV) irradiation into a single

process. This eliminates the drawbacks of having a space-consuming, sophisticated

wastewater treatment facility that cannot be utilized for single home dwelling. In terms

of external chemical use, this treatment does not require such as it produces the chemicals

needed for the treatment of wastewater in situ within the reactor, where the treatment is

carried out. Electrolysis is the basic principle of the electrochemical method. It is the

process of splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen. Electrochemical reactor is the space

10
or the setup in which the electrochemical process occurs. This consists of an anode and a

cathode, and the space between these two electrodes is filled with a solution called

electrolyte; in our case, the wastewater is the electrolyte. The electrochemical reactor can

easily treat sludge-free liquid of the wastewater. A power source would be utilized to

provide current for the EC reactor.

Barroso-Martinez, et.al. [18] presents the practicability of a wastewater

electrolysis cell (BEC) for the application of decentralized mobile toilet wastewater

disinfection. Real wastewater was collected during the continuous operation of a

self-contained mobile toilet system that was used in their study on electrochemical

disinfection efficiency. Figure 2.1 schematically shows the oxidants generated in situ

within the electrochemical reactor during the electrochemical treatment resulting in the

elimination of organic compounds and disinfection of microorganisms present in

wastewater. In their study, the electrochemical reactor is treating 20L of wastewater

collected from the mobile toilet. This wastewater has a low concentration of

microorganisms compared to a regular toilet due the truncated usage of the toilet. In this

study, electrochemical disinfection optimization was carried out on a bench scale of a

working volume of 250 mL, composed of a BiOx/TiO2 anode with a very low

overpotential for OER of about 0.32 V and a stainless steel cathode. A distance of 0.5cm

between the cathode and anodes was used. For their set-up shown in Figure 2.2, it

requires around 13–15 Wh/L which signifies that a wastewater electrolysis reactor can be

operated using commercial photovoltaic panels and represents a tremendous potential for

a decentralized wastewater treatment process.

11
 Figure 2.2.2.1 Oxidants generated in situ within the electrochemical reactor

during the electrochemical treatment resulting in the elimination of organic compounds

and disinfection of microorganisms present in wastewater.

Figure 2.2.2.2 Electrochemical treatment set-up for for toilet flushing and irrigation of

crops

12
2.2.3 Electrolysis

The reaction between the hydroxyl radicals and molecular oxygen produces the

reactive oxygen species (ROS), (i) hydrogen peroxide (𝐻2𝑂2), (ii) ozone (𝑂3), and (iii)

superoxide anion radicals (𝑂2−). These ROS-based oxidants are crucial for the

purification (oxidation) of oxidizable pollutants and also disinfection of microbes present

in the wastewater. Furthermore, reactive chlorine species (RCS) provides the primary

−
disinfection, (i) active chlorine molecules (𝐶𝑙2, 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙, 𝑂𝐶𝑙 ) and (ii) chlorine radical

species (𝐶𝑙). Reactive chlorine species RCS does not need external sourcing as its

contents is purely in situ within the EC reactor, as it is achieved through the reaction

between natural chloride material in wastewater and hydroxyl radicals. [19] Human urine

has a chloride concentration of about 50–150 mM making the BW contain higher

concentrations of chlorides. [20] Anodic oxidation or direct oxidation directly oxidizes

pollutants on the anode surface by electron transfer.

2.3 Quality of Treated Water

Wastewater sample data were gathered before the treatment process. Temperature

and pH levels of both the controlled and experimental variables are collected during the

filtration test. TSS and COD, on the other hand, were tested in the laboratory using SNI

gravimetric method and Cr2O7-2 reduction method by spectrophotometric respectively.

The results were compared to Indonesia Minister of Environment and Forestry

Regulation Number P.68, Domestic Wastewater Quality Standards to identify if the

filtered water met the environmental quality standard. After analyzing the gathered data,

it was concluded that household wastewater treatment using the filtration method is

13
considered effective. The results showed that after passing through the filtration, TSS

concentrations were reduced to 79.01% and COD up to 77.84%. It was recommended

that the filter system is to be distributed by the government especially to households near

rivers to reduce water pollution. [21] In the study conducted by Anusuyadevi, et.al., the

Electrochemical method resulted in an 85% decrease in Biochemical Oxygen Demand

(BOD) and 81%-91% reduction in Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). Pathogens and

other harmful pollutants were also removed in the treated wastewater. [22] The study

conducted by Barroso-Martinez, et.al., the cell is operated in potentiostatic mode at 3 V, 4

V, and 5.5 V, resulting in current density values of 3.9, 1.2, and 2.4 mA/cm2, respectively.

Voltage of under 3V did not result in the inactivation of the microorganisms. However, an

applied voltage of 4 V, microbial inactivation was achieved within 60 min of operation

and was evaluated to be around 2 Wh/L. It is important to stress that quantification of

individual oxidants is also virtually impossible in real wastewater due to its complexity of

composition and swift reactions of oxidants with organic matter present in the

wastewater. Nevertheless, the quantity of disinfection byproducts (like chlorinated

organics) was significantly higher in electrochemical treated wastewater than in the

traditional chemical chlorination (CC) treated wastewater. For electrochemical treated

water, the estimated total chlorine concentration was equivalent to CC-disinfected

Blackwater with a dosage of 5 mg/L of chlorine. This was treated for 60 minutes using

4V voltage. Increasing the voltage will result in a higher production of chlorinated

organics. This shows that the operating voltage has a profound influence on the

disinfection byproducts generated in the treated water. This study concludes that

applying higher voltage to the electrolysis cell and extended reaction time should be

14
avoided when the disinfection of the wastewater is completed. The EC treatment

inactivates microorganisms (especially bacteria) by the complete destruction of the

genome integrity of their cells or by the damages to the cell wall. Regrowth of bacteria in

the electrochemical treated wastewater will be limited by the presence of chlorine and the

health risks associated with non-potable water reuse are completely eliminated.

Synthesis and Justification

The Review of Related Literature and Studies underscores the necessity of

focusing on critical points within the topics to consolidate a comprehensive

understanding of the research domain. Each subsection integrates key concepts,

contemporary findings, and technological advancements to bridge the existing gaps in

knowledge.

The discussion on the Revised National Plumbing Code of the Philippines

(RNPCP) highlights its indispensable role in ensuring accurate plumbing system design.

By employing Table 7-2 of the RNPCP to determine Drainage Fixture Unit (DFU) values

and converting these to gallons per minute (GPM), this process ensures the proper sizing

and functionality of plumbing systems. The methodology emphasizes precision, which is

critical for the efficient implementation of plumbing standards, especially in the context

of modern health and safety requirements. The researchers utilized the Revised National

Plumbing Code of the Philippines to determine the maximum wastewater produced that

can be identified by the total drainage fixture unit (DFU) in gallons per minute (gpm).

This was achieved by multiplying the total DFU by 7.48 gpm for conversion. The

15
available fixtures and their quantities in the amphibious house were identified, and the

fixture unit of each was determined using Table 7-2. By multiplying the quantity of each

fixture by its respective fixture unit, the total DFU for each fixture was calculated.

Summing these values provided the total DFU, a key parameter required for further

calculations.

The analysis of Septic Systems During Floods reveals the vulnerabilities posed by

extreme weather conditions. Flooding, exacerbated by urbanization and poor drainage,

compromises septic system integrity, leading to contamination, blockages, and

environmental hazards. By connecting these observations to real-world incidents such as

the flooding in Naga City, this section demonstrates the need for resilient infrastructure to

mitigate such risks effectively. The researchers emphasized the importance of

determining the dimensions of the repository in an amphibious house, as its design plays

a crucial role in its functionality. The repository needed to be lightweight to ensure it

could be supported by the amphibious house while floating during floods. Additionally, it

required proper design to prevent backflow during flooding. Using the computed total

drainage fixture unit (DFU), the researchers calculated the necessary dimensions for the

entire repository. These calculations included the flow in a single tank, surface area,

volume, depth, width, length, cross-sectional area, and flow velocity of the repository.

The review of Wastewater Treatment delves into innovative solutions addressing

water scarcity and pollution. Through small-scale, renewable-energy-based technologies,

it is evident that advancements in wastewater treatment promote sustainable resource

management. The focus on reducing pollutants like Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and

16
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is crucial for improving water quality. By stressing the

importance of proactive design and optimization, the discussion lays a foundation for

environmentally sustainable practices.

The exposition on Electrochemical Treatment and its process provides a detailed

insight into the revolutionary methods for decentralized wastewater purification. The

integration of electrochemical reactors, which generate Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)

and Reactive Chlorine Species (RCS) in situ, streamlines traditional wastewater treatment

processes. The section justifies the feasibility of such systems for on-site applications,

highlighting their adaptability, cost-efficiency, and reduced environmental footprint.

However, it also critically examines potential drawbacks, such as the generation of

chlorinated organics, underscoring the need for balanced operational parameters.

Finally, the Assessment of Electrochemical Treated Water corroborates the

efficacy of the discussed methods through empirical data. Studies demonstrate significant

reductions in Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), COD, and pathogenic content,

establishing the method’s superiority over traditional approaches. However, the findings

also underscore the importance of monitoring disinfection byproducts to ensure safe and

sustainable water reuse practices. By synthesizing this data, the review justifies the

adoption of electrochemical treatment as a cornerstone of future wastewater management

strategies. The researchers treated the wastewater in the repository using an

electrochemical method. The treated water samples were then evaluated based on two

parameters: dissolved oxygen (DO) levels and pH levels. Dissolved oxygen refers to the

amount of oxygen present in water. A low DO level indicates water pollution, while a DO

17
level greater than 5 ppm falls within the normal range, as specified by the Bureau of

Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR). The pH level, which measures the acidity or

alkalinity of a solution, was also used to assess the treated water. Using a pH tester, the

researchers recorded an ideal value of 7.6, with a maximum of 8.2 and a minimum of 6.8.

In summary, the comprehensive focus on these key points substantiates the

relevance of the selected literature and establishes a clear pathway for addressing the

study's objectives.

18
 CHAPTER 3

DEVISING A WASTEWATER TREATMENT REPOSITORY FOR AN

AMPHIBIOUS HOUSE USING ELECTROCHEMICAL TREATMENT

Increase in human population increases the demand for clean water as well as

escalates volume of wastewater discharge. [23] Numerous approaches were devised to

decrease the amount of contaminants in the water that pose risks for consumers.

Treatment methods include adsorption, membrane filtration, coagulation/flocculation,

oxidation, and biological treatment, among others. [24] In this study, the researchers

decided to use Electrochemical Treatment. It is an electrolysis process that uses electric

current to remove suspended, emulsified, or dissolved pollutants from water.

Electrochemical wastewater treatment technology has begun to regain attention because it

is an environmentally friendly option that can produce the least sludge, does not require

chemical additives, and the smallest footprint, without affecting the water quality after

treatment. [25]

19
3.1 Theoretical Framework

Figure 3.1.1 Theoretical Framework

Figure 3.1.2 Wastewater Treatment Process

20
3.2 Conceptual Framework

Figure 3.2.1 Conceptual Framework

21
3.3 Design of Amphibious House Repository

3.3.1 Pipe Connections

For actual scale, PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) pipes are chosen as the

material to be used for pipes. Compared to other materials, PVC is known to be

the most resistant material against both chemical degradation and abrasion. [26]

Sizes of each pipe are shown using Table 3.3.1

Table 3.3.1 Sizing the Pipes of Wastewater

SIZING THE PIPES OF WASTEWATER

Section/Part DFU Served Size Slope
Horizontal Branch A1 4 DFU 2" ¼
Stack A1 4 DFU 2" ¼
Building Drain of Stack A 4 DFU 2" ¼
Horizontal Branch B1 4 DFU 2" ¼
Stack B1.1 2 DFU 2" ¼
Stack B1.2 1 DFU 2" ¼
Stack B1.3 1 DFU 2" ¼
Building Drain of Stack B 4 DFU 2" ¼

3.3.2 Repository Design Parameters

In the realm of water treatment, sedimentation emerges as a crucial

technique for eliminating suspended coarse particles. This process relies on

gravity to induce the settling of these particles to the bottom of a designated tank.

To facilitate this settling process, it's essential to reduce the water's flow

velocity.[27]

22
 1. Drainage Fixture Unit

One DFU is equal to 7.48gpm.

One gpm is equal to 0.063 Lps.

4 DFU x 7.48 gpm = 29.92 gpm

Table 3.3.2.1 Drainage Fixture Unit (DFU)

DRAINAGE FIXTURE UNIT

FIXTURES QUANTITY FIXTURE UNIT TOTAL
Floor Drains 1 2 2
Lavatory 1 1 1
Sink Bar 1 1 1
Total: 4

2. Flow in One Tank

The flow should be divided into at least two tanks and the flow

through-each tank should be calculated using the formula shown below:

[28]

𝑄 29.92 𝑔𝑝𝑚
𝑄𝑐 = 𝑛
= 3
= 9. 9733 𝑔𝑝𝑚

Equation 3.1

Where:

Qc = flow in one tank

Q = total flow

n = number of tanks

23
3. Surface Area

Next, the required tank surface area is calculated. We will base this

surface area on an overflow rate of 500 litres/hr/m2 in order to design the

most efficient sedimentation tank.

𝑄𝐶 9.9733 𝑔𝑎𝑙/𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 2
𝐴= 𝑂.𝑅.
= 𝐿 1ℎ𝑟 1𝑔𝑎𝑙 = 4. 5299 𝑚 ≈ 48. 7593 𝑓𝑡
500 2 ( 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 )( 3.785 𝐿 )
ℎ𝑟−𝑚

Equation 3.2

Where:

A = surface area, ft2

Qc = flow, gpm

O.R. = overflow rate, lit/hr-m2

Normal values of surface loading or overflow velocity ranges

between 500 - 750 litres/hr/m2 of plan area for H plain sedimentation

tanks.[29] In this study, the researchers assume that overflow rate (O.R.) is

equal to 500 litres/hr/m2.

4. Volume

The tank volume is calculated just as it was for flocculation basins

and flash mix chambers, by multiplying flow by detention time. The

optimal detention time for sedimentation basins depends on whether

sludge removal is automatic or manual. When sludge removal is manual,

detention time should be 6 hours and when it is automatic the detention

time should be 4 hours. The researchers will consider a chamber with

manual sludge removal, so the detention time should be 6 hours.

24
 3
𝑔𝑎𝑙 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.134𝑓𝑡
𝑉 = 𝑄𝑐𝑡 = 9. 9733 𝑚𝑖𝑛
(6ℎ𝑟𝑠)( 1ℎ𝑟
)( 1 𝑔𝑎𝑙
)

3
𝑉 = 481. 1136 𝑓𝑡

Equation 3.3

5. Depth

The tank’s depth is calculated as follows:

3
481.1136 𝑓𝑡
𝑑 = 𝑉/𝐴 = 2 = 9. 8671 𝑓𝑡
48.7593 𝑓𝑡

Equation 3.4

Where:

d = depth, ft

V = volume, ft3

A = surface area, ft2

6. Width and Length

Width and Length is calculated as follows:

𝑉 = 𝐿𝑊𝑑

Equation 3.5

Where:

V = volume

L = length

W = width

d = depth

25
 For our tank, the length has been defined as follows:

𝐿 = 4𝑊

Equation 3.6

Combining these two formulas, we get the following formula used

to calculate the width of our tank:

3
𝑉 481.1136 𝑓𝑡
𝑊= 4𝑑
= 4(9.8671 𝑓𝑡)
= 3. 4914 𝑓𝑡

Equation 3.7

The length is calculated as:

𝐿 = 4(4. 9376 𝑓𝑡) = 19. 7504 𝑓𝑡

7. Cross-Sectional Area of the Tank

Checking the flow through velocity is done just as it was for the

flocculation basin. First, the cross-sectional area of the tank is calculated:

2
𝐴𝑥 = 𝑊𝑑 = 3. 4914 𝑓𝑡(9. 8671 𝑓𝑡) = 34. 4500 𝑓𝑡

Equation 3.8

8. Flow Through Velocity

Then the flow through velocity of the tank is calculated (with a

conversion from gallons to cubic feet):

𝑔𝑎𝑙 3
9.9733 𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.134 𝑓𝑡
𝑉 = 𝑄𝑐/𝐴𝑥 = 2 ( 1 𝑔𝑎𝑙
) = 0. 2895 𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛
34.4500 𝑓𝑡

Equation 3.9

26
 The velocity for our computation is less than 0.5 ft/min, so it is

acceptable. As a result, we do not need to repeat our calculations.

3.3.3 Electrochemical Reactor Chamber

A. Design Parameters

The reactor volume and electrode surface area were determined

based on these criteria, with an assumption of maintaining a constant

current for a specified treatment duration.

Equation 3.10

𝑟𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝐸𝐶𝑅 481.1136 𝑓𝑡

3
𝑓𝑡
(a) 𝑇𝐶𝐸𝐶𝑅 = τ𝐸𝐶𝑅
= 𝑆𝐴×τ𝐸𝐶𝑅
= 2 = 0.41 ℎ𝑟
4692.376 𝑓𝑡 ×0.25ℎ𝑟

Equation 3.11

𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
(b) 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑇𝐶𝐸𝐶𝑅 × 𝑃𝐴 = 0.41 ℎ𝑟 x 0.67 =0.2748 ℎ𝑟

Equation 3.12
𝑓𝑡
𝑇𝐶×τ𝐸𝐶𝑅 0.2748 ×0.25ℎ𝑟 𝑓𝑡
3
(a) &(b) } 𝑟𝑉𝑆 = 𝑃𝐴
=( ℎ𝑟
0.67
) = 0.1025 2
𝑓𝑡

where:

𝑓𝑡
TCECR: treatment capacity of the ECR = 0.41 ℎ𝑟

3
VECR: volume of wastewater that needs to be treated = 481. 1136 𝑓𝑡

2
SA: surface area of the electrodes = 4692.376 𝑓𝑡

τ𝐸𝐶𝑅: treatment time = 0.25 hrs

rVS: volume of surface ratio = 0.1025 ft3/ft2

27
 Due to the availability of a battery for the wastewater to be treated and the

predicted lower power availability (PA=0.67) assuming it is turned off 8 hrs during

the night, in the rVS of 0.1025 ft3/ft2. The volume of wastewater requiring

treatment (VECR) and the electrode surface area (SA) must be considered in order to

achieve the actual volume-to-surface ratio (actual rVS). [30]

The electrocoagulation process's efficiency is influenced by the cell shape,

pH, current density, electrode spacing, and electrode arrangement. The electrode

distance that was used in this study was adapted from Past research conducted by

(Xiao Huang, Yan Qu, Clément A. Cid),[31] The stability of metal hydroxides is

influenced by pH. The rate of gas formation and metal ion release is affected by

current density. Electrode Distance Regulates the electric field's intensity and

coagulation rate. Cell geometry can help or hurt the coagulation process by

affecting residence time, electrode surface area, and water flow[32].

Figure 3.3.3 Flow of EC Treatment

28
3.4 Modeling and Layout

AutoCAD and Sketch-Up were used to create the installation layout of the

wastewater treatment tank.

3.4.1 CAD Layout (Pipe Connection)

Figure 3.4.1 CAD Layout of the Pipe Connection

3.4.2 CAD Layout (Actual Scale)

Figure 3.4.2 Y-axis Elevation View of the Repository

29
 3.4.3 Sketch-Up

Figure 3.4.3 Sketch-Up

3.5 Acquisition of Materials

3.5.1 Marine Blackwater Holding Tank

The “plastics,” PE and FRP are the most reliable and least likely to

leak, provided they are designed and manufactured accurately. PE tanks

should be linear as opposed to cross-linked. Wall thickness is critical: too

thin and you can count on bulging or other distortion, which often leads to

leaks at fittings, as well as permeation and odor.

Figure 3.5.1 Weida Polystor

Square Tapered Tank Series

30
3.5.2 Electrodes used in Electrochemical Treatment

The researcher used Aluminum as its Anode, despite the high

removal efficiency of Al electrodes, its passivation is prejudicial to

treatment performance due to the speciation of the oxide layer formed by

HCO3− and SO42− with selected metals, including Ca2+ and Mg2+ on

the surface. Stainless steel (SS) is very inexpensive, and cathodes made of

this material with high specific surface areas can achieve performance

similar to carbon cathodes containing a platinum catalyst in MECs.

Tubular cathodes were examined here as a method to provide a higher

surface area material than flat plate electrodes. [33]

Ratio and proportion was used to determine the surface area of the

electrodes for the actual scale.

3
𝑉 = 481. 1136 𝑓𝑡 = 13623 𝐿

0.016 𝑚
2 𝑆𝐴 2 2
0.5 𝐿
= 13623 𝐿
∴𝑆𝐴 = 435. 936𝑚 = 4692. 376 𝑓𝑡

3.5.3 Voltage Controller

A 220V voltage controller is used to convert voltage from the

supply to the electrochemical reactor. A voltage controller maintains a

constant voltage level despite variations in input voltage or load

31
 conditions. Voltage controllers help in reducing energy waste and

improves overall system efficiency.

Figure 3.5.3 220V Voltage Controller

3.6 Prototype (Testing Purposes)

3.6.1 Acquisition of Materials

Table 3.6.1 Materials used in Prototype

Connection Plastic Straw A scale of 1:500 is to be used
for the small scale. A 0.004”
diameter plastic straw will be
used as a 2” diameter pipe.

Repository 1.5ml Plastic 1.5 ml plastic bottles were used

Bottles as a tank for the repository
system.

Three plastic bottles reflect the

three chambers necessary for
the treatment process, mainly:
Digestion Chamber,
Electrochemical(EC) Reactor
Chamber, and Settling
Chamber.

32
Electrodes Stainless Steel
used in Stainless Steel tube was used as
Electroche Cathode and Aluminum tube
mical was used as Anode
Process

Aluminum

Power 9V Battery For simplification of the

Supply prototype, the researcher opted
to use the DC to supply the
electrochemical reactor with
varying voltages in the attempt
to get results for an
environmentally accepted
wastewater discharge. A
voltage controller was used to
LM2596 be able to modify the voltage
DC-DC Buck flowing through the electrodes.
Step Down
Converter

9 Volt Battery
Snap
Connector

Alligator Clips

33
 Wires For
Positive And
Negative
Connection

3.6.2 CAD Layout

Figure 3.6.2 Prototype CAD Layout

34
3.7 Conducting Water Assessment

3.7.1 Collection of Sample Wastewater

A. Selection of Sampling Stations

The sampling stations will depend on the purpose of effluent

quality monitoring. To meet the DENR requirement on Self-Monitoring

program, sampling from the “effluent streams of the wastewater treatment

plant” (WTP) will be sufficient. In this study, researchers will gather

samples from Brgy. Lerma, Naga City.

B. Sampling Method

The preferred sampling method is Manual Grab Sampling. This is

a technique used for collecting grab samples for immediate on-site field

analysis. The frequency of sampling depends on the variability of effluent

flow rate and on the wastewater characteristics.

35
 Figure 3.7.1 Acquiring wastewater directly from the flow of effluents

C. Sampling Procedure

The sampling procedure followed was from the presentation

“Wastewater Sampling Procedures, Protocols & DENR Approved

Methods For Laboratory Analyses”. However, some parts of the procedure

were coordinated with the laboratory as there should be procedures to be

followed primarily on their available equipment, reagents and apparatus.

1. Wear protective gloves and a face mask.

2. Pre-label a sample bottle and remove the lid without touching the

inner surface of either the bottle or the lid.

3. Rinse the container at “least three times” with the effluent.

4. Ensure that the hands do not touch the bottle opening by holding

the bottle below the neck and lower it into the effluent.

36
5. The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR)

specifically requires that sample waters are placed on a 500ml

bottle filled to the brim.

6. Cap or cover the container and place the sample in a cooler

containing sufficient quantity of ice for transportation.

37
 3.7.2 Electrochemical Treatment of Wastewater using Prototype

Table 3.7.2 Treatment of Wastewater

Sample Time Quantity Voltage

A 15 mins 500 ml 7.5 V

B 15 mins 500 ml 6.5 V

C 15 mins 500 ml 6V

38
3.7.3 Assessment of Wastewater Contents

A. YSI Water Quality Multiparameter

Assessment of Dissolved Oxygen levels for both treated and

untreated wastewater samples were tested at the Bureau of Fisheries and

Aquatic Resources (BFAR) Region V - Regional Fisheries Laboratory

(RFL). The test was conducted by an authorized personnel of the agency.

Figure 3.7.3.1 Submission of wastewater samples at BFAR-RFL

B. pH Level Tester

A pH level indicator bought from an online shop was used to

determine the pH levels of the samples, using a comparator to test. To

conduct this test, the test vial was rinsed and filled to the mark with water

sample. Four drops of Phenol Roure/Red were added to a sample of water,

changing its color. A cap was placed on the vial and shaken to mix. Lastly,

the readings were compared with the scale values.

39
 Figure 3.4. pH Level Indicator

3.8 Results of Treatment using Prototype

Table 3.8.1 Raw/Untreated Wastewater

Parameter

(UNIT) Sample A Sample B Sample C

DO (mg/L) 1.37 ppm 1.79 ppm 1.15 ppm

pH Level 7.2 7.2 7.2

Table 3.8.2 Treated Wastewater

Parameter

(UNIT) Sample A Sample B Sample C

Voltage 7.5 V 6.5 V 6V

DO (mg/L) 14.99 ppm 8.96 ppm 8.44 ppm

pH Level 7.6 7.6 7.6

40
 To determine how close the result is to the accepted values, the researchers

used the Percentage Error formula. The accepted levels of electrochemical treated

water in terms of the dissolved oxygen levels according to the Bureau of Fisheries

and Aquatic Resources is greater than 5 ppm.

𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ( 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
) 𝑥 100%

Table 3.8.3 Percentage Error of the Treated Water

Sample DO Level Percentage Error
A 14.99 199.80%
B 8.96 79.20%
C 8.44 68.80%

CHAPTER 4

ANALYSIS

41
 Figure 4.1 Column Chart of the Treated Water

Table 3.8.1 shows the Dissolved Oxygen and pH levels for raw or untreated

wastewater. For the first sample, Sample A, the DO level is 1.37 ppm and pH level is 7.2.

Sample B has 1.79 ppm for DO level and 7.2 for pH level. Lastly, Sample C has 1.15

ppm for DO level and 7.2 for pH level. From our samples gathered, the raw/untreated

wastewater, all the Dissolved Oxygen levels were under the required level for safe water

which is 5 ppm regulated by the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR). The

low level of dissolved oxygen in water is a sign of contamination and pollution. When

dissolved oxygen becomes too low, fish and other aquatic organisms cannot survive. In

terms of the accepted levels of pH, different species flourish within different ranges of

pH, with the optima for most aquatic organisms falling between pH 6.5 - pH 8. The

acquired pH levels for raw or untreated indicates that it is a Base which is within the

acceptable level.

Table 3.8.2 shows the Dissolved Oxygen and pH levels for treated water using

varying voltage levels. 7.5 Volts was used in Sample A which resulted in 14.99 ppm of

42
DO level. Sample B used 6.5 Volts and garnered a DO level of 8.96 ppm. The third

sample, Sample C used 6 Volts and has 8.44ppm of DO level. All of the samples for the

treatment showed a pH level of 7.6. The dissolved oxygen levels for the treated water

were above the acceptable level. However, balance is key in aquatic environments. So,

while oxygen is essential, too much of a good thing can be detrimental. According to the

Government of Northwestern Territories [34], fish and aquatic organisms thrive best in

dissolved oxygen levels ranging from 6 to 8 mg/L. Using a 6.5V for a 500ml wastewater

resulted in dissolved oxygen higher than the recommended level.

Figure 4.2 Percentage Error of Samples

The cleaning of wastewater using electrochemical treatment showed a promising

result based on the Calculation of percentage error. It helps to determine how accurate a

measurement or an experiment is compared to a known or accepted value which is

essential for validating results. For Sample A showed that the researchers treatment result

43
is 199.80% acceptable as it is greater than 5 ppm. Sample B is also in the acceptable

dissolved oxygen level with the percentage error of 79.20%. Lastly, Sample C achieved a

percentage error of 68.8% . The Dissolved Oxygen levels for the treated wastewater

showed a proportional relationship with the voltage level. As the voltage level decreases,

the Dissolved Oxygen level also decreases. The mean DO level of the treatment is 10.80

ppm for the average voltage of 6.67 Volts. The pH levels from the treatment shows a

constant result of 7.6.

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

In this investigation, the researchers used electrolysis, which is a promising

method for treating blackwater. Significant benefits of electrolysis are its ease of use,

simple equipment, and operation and lack of chemical substance requirement for floc

44
production and sedimentation. It permits the organic material to be electrochemically

reduced or oxidized during wastewater treatment. The Electrochemical Treatment

appears to be the finest balance among the many electrolytic procedures because it is

chemical-free, simpler to execute technically, and inexpensive. The researchers

successfully evaluated the highest volume of wastewater that can be generated by a single

3
household with a 481.1136 𝑓𝑡 in flood-prone areas with a flow of one tank of 9.9733

gallons per minute that is divided to at least two tanks and the flow-through to each tank.

The flow-through velocity of the tank is 0.2895 ft/min with an Electrochemical Treatment

𝑓𝑡
Reactor Treatment Capacity of 0.2748 ℎ𝑟
. This assessment carefully accounted for the

residential capacity and relevant environmental factors, ensuring that the findings are

both accurate and applicable to real-world conditions.

The researchers successfully determined the dimensions of the Amphibious

House Repository and yields to a depth of 9.8671 ft and with a length and width of

19. 7504 𝑓𝑡 and 3. 4914 𝑓𝑡 respectively. This analysis ensures that the structure is

appropriately designed to meet the requirements of flood-prone areas and the optimal

detention time for sedimentation basins.

The researchers found that the critical aspects that need to be considered in

wastewater treatment like Dissolve Oxygen Levels and pH Levels were obtained within

the accepted levels. Though Current density is considered important in analyzing the

efficiency of the treatment process, it is dependent on several factors. Understanding and

controlling these factors is essential for optimizing the electrocoagulation process,

ensuring high efficiency while minimizing energy consumption and operational costs and

since all the required parameters were within the accepted range. The pH level was

45
maintained to be between 6.5 to 8.5 which is in an acceptable range throughout the study.

This help protect ecosystems, infrastructure, and public health while complying with

environmental regulations. Also the Dissolve Oxygen showed that all samples were well

within the acceptable level that is greater than 5 parts per million where low DO levels in

discharged water can promote anaerobic conditions, resulting in the release of toxic gases

like hydrogen sulfide and methane. This shows that the treated wastewater were

considered healthy to the ecosystem. The treatment showed a promising outcome that is

needed in safely discharging water out of the structure. In terms of the materials, the

high-density polyethylene chamber material is less heavy than made of concrete material

and durable enough for an amphibious house to stay buoyant.

In the future, a number of advancements may improve electrocoagulation's

efficiency and scalability. One area where advancements might be made to decrease the

frequency of replacements and increase the system's operating lifespan is the

investigation of more robust and affordable electrode materials. Power supply system

advancements may also help optimize energy use, improving the treatment's

sustainability and efficiency.

CHAPTER 6

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the study findings, the following recommendations are proposed to

enhance the application of electrochemical treatment in wastewater systems.

46
 First, for larger systems, higher voltage levels should be applied to accelerate the

treatment process and ensure effective results within a one-hour timeframe. Second,

researchers should use specialized testing equipment to analyze wastewater samples

promptly, ideally within an hour, to ensure accurate and efficient data collection. Third,

future studies should include more diverse sample collection locations to understand the

treatment's effectiveness across varying environmental conditions, leading to more robust

conclusions. Fourth, solid round bars made of high-purity aluminum and steel are

recommended for the treatment chamber, as they provide better surface area and

conductivity than tubular materials, enhancing treatment efficiency. Lastly, employing

multiple sample sets to determine average voltage levels and treatment durations is

crucial for establishing a reliable framework and addressing variability.

These recommendations aim to improve the scalability, efficiency, and reliability

of electrochemical wastewater treatment for future research and practical applications.

REFERENCES

[1] R. M. E. Rinen and N. Maki, “Flood Control Projects in the Philippines: A Historical

Overview,” MUHON: A Journal of Architecture, Landscape Architecture, and the

Designed Environment, vol. 8, no. 8, pp. 30–39, 2021, Available:

https://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/muhon/article/view/8565

47
[2] “Philippines Economic Update Development Dialogues: Safe Water and Sanitation

for All,” World Bank, 2023.

https://www.worldbank.org/en/events/2023/12/07/philippines-economic-update-develop

ment-dialogues-safe-water-and-sanitation-for-all

[3] “Electrochemical Engineering Principles,” Google Books, 2024.

https://books.google.com.ph/books/about/Electrochemical_Engineering_Principles.html?i

d=tLFzQgAACAAJ&redir_esc=y (accessed Nov. 13, 2024).

[4] “‘MICRO WATER SYSTEM®’: Electrolysis Type Wastewater Treatment Unit |

United Nations Industrial Development Organization,” United Nations Industrial

Development Organization, 2022. https://www.unido.or.jp/en/technology_db/10184/

(accessed Nov. 13, 2024).

[5] J. Lee et al., “Electrochemical Methods for Nutrient Removal in Wastewater: A

Review of Advanced Electrode Materials, Processes, and Applications,” Sustainability,

vol. 16, no. 22, pp. 9764–9764, Nov. 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/su16229764.

[6] “Sedimentation Tank Design Parameters,” theconstructor.org, Mar. 13, 2018.

https://theconstructor.org/environmental-engg/sedimentation-tank-design-parameters/212

77/#google_vignette (accessed Nov. 13, 2024).

[7] K. Khanam and S. K. Patidar, “Greywater characteristics in developed and developing

countries,” Materials Today: Proceedings, Dec. 2021, doi:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.12.022.

[8] O. US EPA, “How Septic Systems Work,” www.epa.gov, Jun. 16, 2015.

https://www.epa.gov/septic/how-septic-systems-work

48
[9] Proquest.com, 2024.

https://www.proquest.com/docview/2207429378?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=t

rue&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses (accessed Nov. 13, 2024).

[10] R. Rashid, I. Shafiq, P. Akhter, M. J. Iqbal, and M. Hussain, “A state-of-the-art

review on wastewater treatment techniques: the effectiveness of adsorption method,”

Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 28, no. 8, pp. 9050–9066, Jan. 2021,

doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12395-x.

[11] Prasaanth Ravi Anusuyadevi, D. Jaya, A. D. H. V. Omkaara Jyothi, N. S.

Patwardhan, V. Janani, and J. M. C. Mol, “Towards Viable Eco-Friendly Local Treatment

of Blackwater in Sparsely Populated Regions,” Water, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 542–542, Jan.

2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/w15030542.

[12] L. Granada, “RA1378_NATL PLUMBING CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES.pdf,”

www.academia.edu, Available:

https://www.academia.edu/34407201/RA1378_NATL_PLUMBING_CODE_OF_THE_P

HILIPPINES_pdf

[13] G. I. News, “70% of Naga’s residents affected by Kristine floods,” GMA News

Online, 2015.

https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/topstories/regions/924670/70-of-naga-s-residents-aff

ected-by-kristine-floods/story/

[14] Ri Industries, “Ri-Industries Septic and Rainwater Tanks,” Ri-Industries, Oct. 19,

2017. https://www.ri-industries.com.au/flooding-effects-septic-tank/ (accessed Nov. 13,

2024).

49
[15] J. A. Silva, “Wastewater Treatment and Reuse for Sustainable Water Resources

Management: A Systematic Literature Review,” Sustainability, vol. 15, no. 14, p. 10940,

Jan. 2023.

[16] B. Halwani, S. Net, B. Ouddane, and J. Halwani, “A review of the most popular

systems for greywater treatment,” DESALINATION AND WATER TREATMENT, vol.

135, pp. 124–132, 2018, doi: https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2018.22968.

[17] P. Lu, X. Zhang, and D. Zhang, “An integrated system for wastewater COD

characterization and a case study,” Water Science and Technology, vol. 62, no. 4, pp.

866–874, Aug. 2010, doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.338.

[18] J. S. Barroso-Martínez, A. I. B. Romo, S. Pudar, S. T. Putnam, E. Bustos, and J.

Rodríguez-López, “Real-Time Detection of Hydroxyl Radical Generated at Operating

Electrodes via Redox-Active Adduct Formation Using Scanning Electrochemical

Microscopy,” Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 144, no. 41, pp.

18896–18907, Oct. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.2c06278.

[19] X. Huang et al., “Electrochemical disinfection of toilet wastewater using wastewater

electrolysis cell,” Water Research, vol. 92, pp. 164–172, Apr. 2016, doi:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.01.040.

[20] J. S. Barroso-Martínez, A. I. B. Romo, S. Pudar, S. T. Putnam, E. Bustos, and J.

Rodríguez-López, “Real-Time Detection of Hydroxyl Radical Generated at Operating

Electrodes via Redox-Active Adduct Formation Using Scanning Electrochemical

Microscopy,” Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 144, no. 41, pp.

18896–18907, Oct. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.2c06278.

50
[21] A. W. Utari and H. Herdiansyah, “Using filtration as a technology to remove

pollutants in domestic wastewater,” IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and

Engineering, vol. 725, no. 1, p. 012025, Jan. 2020, doi:

https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/725/1/012025.‌

[22] Prasaanth Ravi Anusuyadevi, D. Jaya, A. D. H. V. Omkaara Jyothi, N. S.

Patwardhan, V. Janani, and J. M. C. Mol, “Towards Viable Eco-Friendly Local Treatment

of Blackwater in Sparsely Populated Regions,” Water, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 542–542, Jan.

2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/w15030542.

[23] R. Rashid, I. Shafiq, P. Akhter, M. J. Iqbal, and M. Hussain, “A state-of-the-art

review on wastewater treatment techniques: the effectiveness of adsorption method,”

Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 28, no. 8, pp. 9050–9066, Jan. 2021,

doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12395-x.

[24] Z. Xu et al., “Development of a Novel Mixed Titanium, Silver Oxide

Polyacrylonitrile Nanofiber as a Superior Adsorbent and its Application for MB Removal

in Wastewater Treatment,” Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society, Jan. 2017, doi:

https://doi.org/10.21577/0103-5053.20170168.

[25] admin, “Electrocoagulation Water Treatment,” VentilAQUA, Jan. 26, 2021.

https://ventilaqua.com/chemical-treatment/electrocoagulation-water-treatment/?gad_sour

ce=1&gclid=CjwKCAjwjeuyBhBuEiwAJ3vuoUt_9vXZD4vKpclpzct6X0YijGb6wEr2E

U1GiQ6yHg0FrpLGCInp6xoCqkEQAvD_BwE (accessed Nov. 13, 2024).

[26] K. F. Makris, J. Langeveld, and F. H. L. R. Clemens, “A review on the durability of

PVC sewer pipes: research vs. practice,” Structure and Infrastructure Engineering, vol.

16, no. 6, pp. 1–17, Oct. 2019, doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/15732479.2019.1673442.

51
[27] “Sedimentation Tank Design Parameters,” theconstructor.org, Mar. 13, 2018.

https://theconstructor.org/environmental-engg/sedimentation-tank-design-parameters/212

77/#google_vignette

[28] H. H. Sadz, “Design of Sedimentation Tank,” Scribd, 2024.

https://www.scribd.com/doc/45821608/Design-of-Sedimentation-Tank

[29] “UNIT 11 THEORY AND DESIGN OF SEDIMENTATION I Structure.” Available:

https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/30965/1/Unit-11.pdf

[30] Siva Varigala et al., “Optimal design of an electrochemical reactor for blackwater

treatment,” Water Environment Research, vol. 93, no. 1, pp. 148–158, Jul. 2020, doi:

https://doi.org/10.1002/wer.1374.

[31] X. Huang et al., “Electrochemical disinfection of toilet wastewater using wastewater

electrolysis cell,” Water Research, vol. 92, pp. 164–172, Apr. 2016, doi:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.01.040.

[32] S. N. Malik, P. C. Ghosh, A. N. Vaidya, and S. N. Mudliar, “Hybrid ozonation

process for industrial wastewater treatment: Principles and applications: A review,”

Journal of Water Process Engineering, vol. 35, p. 101193, Jun. 2020, doi:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2020.101193.

[33] Y. Zhang, M. D. Merrill, and B. E. Logan, “The use and optimization of stainless

steel mesh cathodes in microbial electrolysis cells,” International Journal of Hydrogen

Energy, vol. 35, no. 21, pp. 12020–12028, Nov. 2010, doi:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.08.064.

[34] Government of Northwest Territories, “Dissolved Oxygen (DO),” 2007. Available:

https://www.gov.nt.ca/sites/ecc/files/dissolved_oxygen.pdf

52
53