Table of Contents

Experiment Title 2
Introduction 2
Theory 2-6
Apparatus 6
Equipment pictures 7
Circuit Diagram 8
Data table 8
Simulation & Measurement 9-10
Results 11
Discussion 11
Conclusion & References 12
Title: Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT): Study of Single Stage Transistor
Common Emitter Amplifier.

Introduction:

The aim of the ac analysis is to determine the Q point of a common emitter

configuration which will ensure an undistorted amplification of a signal. In this
regard a Dc analysis will be performed to adjust Q at a suitable location on the
characteristic curve. After performing the dc analysis, the small signal parameters
will be calculated depending on the model being used. Gain dependency on the
load resistors will also be observed.

The main objectives of this experiment are to-

• Trace the circuit diagram of a single stage transistor Amplifier.

• Measure Beta (β) of the transistor with multimeter.
• Measure the Q – Point.
• Measure the maximum signal that can be amplified with the amplifier
without any distortion.
• Measure the voltage gain of the amplifier at 1KHz.
• Measure the voltage gain of the amplifier at different values of load
resistance.

Theory:
The most common circuit configuration for an NPN transistor is that of the
Common Emitter Amplifier and that a family of curves known commonly as the
Output Characteristics Curves, relates the Collector current (IC), to the output or
Collector voltage (VCE), for different values of Base current (IB). All types of
transistor amplifiers operate using AC signal inputs which alternate between a
positive value and a negative value. Presetting the amplifier circuit to operate
between these two maximum or peak values is achieved using a process known
as Biasing. Biasing is very important in amplifier design as it establishes the
correct operating point of the transistor amplifier ready to receive signals, thereby
reducing any distortion to the output signal.

The single stage common emitter amplifier circuit shown below uses what is
commonly called "Voltage Divider Biasing". The Base voltage (VB) can be easily
calculated using the simple voltage divider formula below:

𝑣 𝑅
𝑣𝐵 = 𝑅𝐶𝐶+𝑅2
1 2

Thus, the base voltage is fixed by biasing and independent of base current
provided the current in the divider circuit is large compared to the base current.
Thus, assuming IB ≈0, one can do the approximate analysis of the voltage divider
network without using the transistor gain, β, in the calculation. Note that the
approximate approach can be applied with a high degree of accuracy when the
following condition is satisfied: βRE ≥ 10R2.

Fig. 1: The Hybrid π-model

Load line and Q-Point:
A static or DC load line can be drawn onto the output characteristics curves of
the transistor to show all the possible operating points of the transistor from fully
𝑣𝑐𝑐
"ON” (𝐼𝑐 = (𝑅 ) to fully "OFF" (𝐼𝑐 = 0). The quiescent operating point or Q-
𝑐 +𝑅𝐸 )
point is a point on this load line which represents the values of IC and VCE that
exist in the circuit when no input signal is applied. Knowing VB, IC and VCE
can be calculated to locate the operating point of the circuit as follows:

𝑣𝐸
So, the emitter current, 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝑐 = and 𝑣𝐸 = 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐵𝐸
𝑅𝐸

𝑣𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝑐⋅𝑐 − 𝐼𝑐 (𝑅𝑐̇ + 𝑅𝐸 )

It can be noted here that the sequence of calculation does not need the knowledge
of β and IB is not calculated. So, the Q-point is stable against any replacement of
the transistor. Since the aim of any small signal amplifier is to generate an
amplified input signal at the output with minimum distortion possible, the best
position for this Q-point is as close to the center position of the load line as
reasonably possible, thereby producing a Class A type amplifier operation,

1
i. e. 𝑣𝐶𝐸 = 𝑣𝑐𝑐 .
2

Coupling and Bypass Capacitors:

In CE amplifier circuits, capacitors C1 and C2 are used as Coupling Capacitors

to separate the AC signals from the DC biasing voltage. The capacitors will only
pass AC signals and block any DC component. Thus, they allow coupling of the
AC signal into an amplifier stage without disturbing its Q point. The output AC
signal is then superimposed on the biasing of the following stages. Also, a bypass
capacitor, CE, is included in the Emitter leg circuit. This capacitor is an open
circuit component for DC bias, meaning that the biasing currents and voltages are
not affected by the addition of the capacitor maintaining a good Q-point stability.
However, this bypass capacitor acts as a short circuit path across the emitter
resistor at high frequency signals increasing the voltage gain to its maximum.
Generally, the value of the bypass capacitor, CE is chosen to provide a reactance
of at most, 1/10th the value of RE at the lowest operating signal frequency.

Amplifier Operation:
Once the Q-point is fixed through DC bias, an AC signal is applied at the input
using coupling capacitor C1. During positive half cycle of the signal VBE
increases leading to increased IB. Therefore, IC increases by β times leading to
decrease in the output voltage, VCE. Thus, the CE amplifier produces an
amplified output with a phase reversal. The voltage Gain of the common emitter
amplifier is equal to the ratio of the change in the output voltage to the change in
the input voltage. Thus,

𝑣0 𝛥𝑣𝐶𝐸
𝐴𝑣 = =
𝑣𝑖 𝛥𝑣𝐵𝐸

The input (Zi) and output (Zo) impedances of the circuit can be computed for
the case when the emitter resistor RE is completely bypassed by the capacitor,
CE:

𝑧𝑖 = 𝑅1 ‖𝑅2 ‖𝛽𝑟𝑒 and 𝑍0 = 𝑅𝐶 || r0

Where, re (26mV/IE) and ro are the emitter diode resistance and output
dynamic resistance (can be determined from output characteristics of
transistor). Usually ro≥10 RC, thus the gain can be approximated as
 The negative sign accounts for the phase reversal at the output. In the circuit
diagram provided below, the emitter resistor is split into two in order to
reduce the gain to avoid distortion. So, the expression for gain is modified as,

Apparatus:

No. Apparatus Quantity

1 Transistor (C828) 1

2 33k, 10k, 4.7k, 1k, 3.3k, 1.5k, 330Ω Resistance 1 for each

3 Project Board 1

4 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 1

5 Multimeter 1

6 Signal Generator 1

7 100μF Capacitor 1

8 Probes 2

9 Power Supply Cable 2

Equipment picture:
Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 3: Single Stage CE Amplifier

Data Table:
Q – Point of the amplifier:

Vcc Vc Vcc-Vc Ic = (Vcc-Vc)/Rc Vce

10 V 3.032 V 6.968 V 4.645 mA 3.032 V

Voltage Gain of the amplifier:

Load resistor Input Output voltage Gain

voltage
1K 707.782 mV 2.827 V 3.994 V
4.7K 707.825 mV 2.819 V 3.983 V
10K 707.982 mV 2.937 V 4.148 V
148K 708.063 mV 3.032 V 4.282 V
Simulations and Measurements:

For 1k

For 4.7k
For 10k

For 100k
Result And Calculation:

We know,

Ic = (Vcc-Vc)/Rc

= (10 - 3.032) / 1.5 kΩ

= 4.645 mA

Gain = V0 / Vi

= 707.782/2.2827

= 3.302 V

Similarly, All Calculations

Discussions:

Experimental results are based on real experimental results, which is the primary
distinction between experimental and theoretical outcomes. Conversely, the
theoretical result is predicated on plausible, assumption-based outcomes. The
formula has also been modified. Additionally, an experiment is conducted to learn
from the experimental outcome; however, the theoretical result does not reflect
this. The transistor amplifier's DC signal is turned off via capacitors. The purpose
of resistors is to limit the current flow.
Conclusion:

The primary distinction between experimental and theoretical results is

that experimental results are based on actual experimental results. The
theoretical result, on the other hand, is based on conceivable outcomes
based on assumptions. The formula has also changed. Additionally, an
experiment is conducted to learn from the experimental outcome;
however, the theoretical result does not reflect this. Capacitors are used
to cut off the DC signal in the transistor amplifier. Resistors are used to
limit the flow of current.

References:

• American International University–Bangladesh (AIUB)

Electronic Devices Lab Manual.

• A.S. Sedra, K.C. Smith, “Microelectronic Circuits,” Oxford

University Press (1998).

• J. Keown, ORCAD PSpice and Circuit Analysis, Prentice Hall Press (2001)

• P. Horowitz, W. Hill, “The Art of Electronics,” Cambridge

University Press (1989).