An executive summary for manager and executive readers can be found at the end of this article

The importance of service quality determinants in advertising a professional service: an exploratory study
Kenneth E. Clow, Carolyn Tripp and James T. Kenny
Introduction

A recent review of the services marketing literature revealed that a significant amount of research has examined the service quality construct (Fisk et al., 1993). With the growth of the service sector in the US economy, service quality has merited extensive research since a service firms ability to actualize the marketing concept is tied directly to the provision of customer satisfaction. However, as noted by Parasuraman et al. (1991, p. 445), SERVQUAL is a useful starting point, but not the final answer, for assessing and improving service quality. Beyond identification and validation, the core dimensions of SERVQUAL can be used to develop useful services marketing strategy. Advertising of professional services One important strategic domain is the content of advertising messages for professional services. As noted by Bush et al. (1987), since its inception in 1971, professional services advertising has been researched heavily. Yet, only recently has the informational content of service advertisements been assessed (Abernethy and Butler, 1992; LaBand et al., 1995). These studies have content analyzed the number of informational cues in services advertisements appearing in newspapers and television commercials (LaBand, et al. 1995). While assessment of actual services advertisements informs us concerning what informational content has been used, there is still a paucity of research examining empirically the effects of SERVQUAL cues when encoded into advertisements. To date, advertising and promotional strategies recommended for use in services marketing have focused on the features of intangibility, inseparability, variability and perishability (Murray, 1991; Zeithaml et al., 1985) and not on the service quality dimensions of reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy and tangibles. Given that service quality is so important, it seems critical to assess the implications of the service quality dimensions in an advertising context. For example, since services tend to evoke heightened risk (Murray and Schlacter, 1990), of interest to the service provider is whether or not the inclusion of SERVQUAL dimensions in advertising copy serves to reduce perceptions of risk. Similarly, since research consistently has shown message source effects to be a persuasive agent (McGuire, 1985), it is important for service providers to know to what extent the visual and verbal content of its advertisements affects the firms perceived expertise. Since service providers are concerned ultimately with consumers purchase intentions and choice, the influence of perceived risk and perceived expertise on behavioral intentions are also of interest. The purpose of this exploratory research is to assess empirically, in a professional services advertising context, the direct and indirect relationship between the core dimensions of service quality as they affect perceived risk,
THE JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 10 NO. 2 1996 pp. 57-72 MCB UNIVERSITY PRESS 0887-6045 57

Informational cues

perceived expertise and purchase intentions. The findings of this research will aid practitioners in the development of strategies for advertising services that rely on service quality dimensions.
Theory and hypotheses

Determinants of service quality

Service quality Parasuraman et al. (1988) identified five determinants of service quality: tangible cues, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy. Conceptually, these constructs address physical elements of the facility, performance standards, employees willingness to assist in a timely manner; plus, their knowledge, expertise and sensitivity. Research indicates that consumers evaluate the level of perceived service quality based on their perceptions of each of these five factors. Preceding a service experience, potential customers may be influenced by services advertising, but little is known about the role of the five determinants when they are used as cues in a services advertisement. In a review of services promotion literature, Abernethy and Butler (1992) note that most studies have focused on the service providers and physical environments impact on service quality. Unfortunately, these elements can be effective only when the customer is physically present at the service location. Noting this problem, Abernethy and Butler (1992) investigated the impact of service features (e.g. intangibility, simultaneous production and consumption, heterogeneity and intangibility) on services advertising strategy.

Previous research

Abernethy and Butler (1992) hypothesized that more quality cues would be found in services advertisements than product advertisements. However, these authors used a broad, product-oriented definition derived from Resnik and Stern (1977). Resnik and Sterns definition of quality focusses on the objective evaluation of workmanship, engineering, quality of materials and detail in construction. The components of service quality mentioned in the definition are superior personnel and special services, neither of which matches the components in SERVQUAL. LaBand et al. (1995) examined the factual information content of services advertisements. Information cues investigated were price, guarantees/ warranties, evidence of excellence and availability. This study supports the contention that services advertisements should contain different elements than physical goods advertisements. For example, it is argued that advertisements for services should convey service quality cues indicating what level of service consumers can expect (Milliman and Fugate, 1993) and risk-reducing cues (Murray and Schlacter, 1990). Perceived risk Services are perceived to be riskier than products (Guseman, 1981; Murray, 1991; Murray and Schlacter, 1990). Thus, in persuading consumers to purchase a professional service, one goal of the service firm should be to reduce the level of perceived risk. Perceived risk has been conceptualized on two dimensions: uncertainty and consequences (Cox, 1967). Regardless of the type of risk (social, financial, physical, temporal, or performance), the level of perceived risk is a function of the consumers perception of what is at stake and his or her certainty that the consequences will be (un)favorable.
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Uncertainty and consequences

58

Theoretically, if service quality cues in an advertisement indicate the service will be performed at a high level, the risk associated with patronizing should be reduced. That is, if consumers feel a service firm will be reliable (e.g. adequate and up-to-date equipment), responsive to their particular requests, reassuring and empathic in caring for them as individuals, then the risk of patronizing should be reduced. Hypotheses addressing this issue are: H1: There is an inverse relationship between the presence of tangible cues, reliability cues, responsiveness cues, assurance cues and empathy cues in a professional service advertisement and consumers perceptions of perceived risk. Service provider expertise In choosing a professional service firm, the perceived expertise of the individual or firm performing the service is important because of the inseparable and intangible nature of the professional service (Burton, 1990; Cox, 1963; Crane, 1989; Grnroos, 1990; Zeithaml et al., 1985). Expertise refers to the extent to which a communicator is perceived as a source of valid assertions (Hovland et al., 1953). In other words, while the service provider may have the educational background, the appropriate professional license and sufficient years of experience, these traits must be conveyed in a convincing manner to potential clients. A goal of a professional services advertisement, therefore, should be to create a message that conveys to the potential consumer that the professional service provider is sufficiently skilled to perform the service. Again, the service quality cues of tangibility, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy should have a direct impact on the perceived level of expertise. In addition, higher levels of perceived expertise should reduce perceived risk (Burton, 1990; Murray, 1991). The following hypotheses address this issue: H2: There is a direct and positive relationship between the presence of tangible cues, reliability cues, responsiveness cues, assurance cues and empathy cues in a professional service advertisement and consumers perceptions of the perceived expertise of the service provider. H3: The perceived expertise of the service provider will have an inverse impact on perceived risk. Purchase intention When perceptions of risk decline, the likelihood of purchasing a service from a professional firm should increase (Murray, 1991). In terms of expertise, one would expect purchase intentions to increase as the expertise associated with the service provider increases (Burton, 1990; Zeithaml et al., 1985). Thus, the final hypotheses are: H4: Perceived risk will have an inverse impact on consumers purchase intentions. H5: Perceived expertise will have a direct and positive impact on consumers purchase intentions.
The study

A convincing manner

Perceived level of expertise

Increase in purchase intention

Subjects were 800 individuals selected via a stratified convenience sampling technique. The data were collected through a self-administered questionnaire using an intercept approach. Four different locations were used to help randomize the possible respondents. The sample was stratified in terms of age, gender and educational level. Prior to data analysis, respondents who
THE JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 10 NO. 2 1996 59

did not complete the entire questionnaire were removed from the study, leaving a final sample of 735. Subjects were given an advertising booklet Subjects were assigned to one of four treatment conditions using block randomized procedures. Each subject was given one four-page advertising booklet. The first page of the advertising booklet thanked respondents for their participation and informed them that they would be asked to evaluate a newspaper advertisement placed by an optometrist in another city. Prior to viewing the advertisement, three measures were presented (e.g. current usage status for contacts, glasses, both or neither; length of time glasses or contacts have been used; recency of last visit to an optometrist). Page two of the booklet asked subjects to evaluate one reproduced black and white advertisement. Subjects were asked to assume that they had just moved into a new community and needed to establish a relationship with an eye care professional. They were told to assume they needed an eye examination, but that it was not an emergency situation. The remaining two pages of the booklet contained the dependent measures (discussed shortly) and demographic queries. Test advertisements In order to test the effects of service quality cues on the endogenous measures of interest, four black and white advertisements promoting four different optometrists were taken from the newspaper of a Midwestern town located approximately 400 miles from the study site. The professional service of optometry was selected since the majority of the population requires vision correction (according to 1994 American Optometric Association statistics, 54 percent of US citizens over the age of 18 require corrective lenses). The advertisements used in the study are provided in Figures 1-4.

Advertisements for optometry services

VISION CENTER
WELCOMES
DR.
Licensed Optometrist
Graduate of Southern College of Optometry.
[Photo of optometrist located here]

Specializing in Total Eye Care for the entire family including eye exams & contact lenses.
Office Hours: Mon., Wed., & Fri. 9.00 A.M. - 5.30 P .M. Tues. & Thurs. 11.30 - 8.00 P .M. Sat. 9.00 A.M. - 5.00 P .M. Call For An Appointment At

836-3373

Figure 1. Advertisement one

60 THE JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 10 NO. 2 1996

Modern Eye Surgery

Old-Fashioned Caring
At Professional Eyecare Center, Dr. Ralph Harold is at the forefront of state-of-the-art surgery. Bringing you fasthealing one-stitch cataract surgery, painless laser treatment, and many other advance techniques. But at Professional Eyecare Center, we don't stop there. We explain every procedure thoroughly, so you know what to expect. We take time to answer all of your questions. And we make sure you not only receive the modern care your eyes deserve, but also the personal care you deserve. Call today for more information.
w w w w w

State-of-the-Art Vision and Eye Health Testing Detailed Tests and Treatment of Diseases One-Stitch Cataract Surgery Pediatric Eye Surgery Modern Laser Treatment

u DAILY, EVENING AND WEEKEND HOURS u MEDICARE AND INSURANCE WELCOME

EYECARE CENTER
Professional Attention Your Eyes Deserve

Figure 2. Advertisement two

Pretest assessment

To ensure the four advertisements used in the study were significantly different, a pretest using 167 collegiate students was conducted. The pretest assessed the extent to which the five service quality determinants, expertise, and risk were evident in the four test ads. Using a seven-point semantic differential scale, pretest subjects were asked to indicate their perception of the degree to which each variable was portrayed in each of the ads (results appear in Table I). Risk was reverse coded for analysis purposes. Thus, a higher mean indicates a lower level of risk. ANOVA tests indicated there were significant differences in all the measures across the four advertisements. Measures The postexposure measures tapped service quality perceptions, perceived risk, perceived expertise and purchase intentions. Purchase intentions were measured using four seven-point Likert statements such as I would

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SHOPPING FOR EYEGLASSES .the amount you can spend for your eyeglasses is your businesseveryone has a sensible price limitation on any purchasebut remember whether you spend fifty dollars or fifty times that muchyou are entitled to the truth when eyeglasses are honestly priced originallyhigh pressure sellinggive-a-ways deceptive price reduction claimsare hardly necessary! andwhile youre shopping..why not let our qualified eyeglass experts give you the truth.. about eyeglass frames and lenses! you certainly have a right to know! Theres no obligation..! just bring us your optical prescription dont expect to find misleading price discounts or deceptive fantastic claimsOUR eyeglasses were honestly priced originally! Shop where truthand your wishesare respected!
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Figure 4. Advertisement four
62 THE JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 10 NO. 2 1996

Variable Tangibility Reliability Responsiveness Assurance Empathy Risk Expertise

1 4.93 3.61 3.41 3.49 3.05 3.78 4.51

Advertisement 2 3 4.31 5.12 5.45 5.26 5.14 4.45 5.52 3.33 3.40 3.38 2.79 2.88 3.19 2.86

4 1.74 3.38 3.64 3.83 3.38 3.12 2.21

F-ratio 28.603 10.366 14.460 18.600 18.801 6.773 36.030

P-value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Table I. Pre-test results means

patronize this optometrist. Perceived risk was measured using four sevenpoint Likert questions. Typical statements were I believe buying services from this optometrist is very risky and I think transactions with this optometrist will be safe. Perceived expertise was measured using five seven-point Likert statements. Sample statements include this optometrist appears to be knowledgeable and this optometrist appears to be qualified. Service quality dimensions The service quality dimensions were adapted from SERVQUAL (Parasuraman et al., 1988). Instead of the original XYZ company, the word optometrist was used. Respondents were asked to evaluate their perceived level of service quality based on the advertisement in their booklet. Each of the five dimensions was measured using seven-point Likert scales. Tangible cues were measured using statements such as the physical facility of this optometrist appears to be visually appealing. Although none of the advertisements had a picture of the actual facility, the purpose of the question was to see if the respondents transferred the advertisements copy and content to perceived service quality attributes. Reliability was measured using statements such as this optometrist appears to be dependable. Responsiveness was measured using statements like I do not think this optometrist will always be willing to help me. Assurance was measured with statements similar to I believe I can trust this optometrist. Empathy was measured using statements such as I do not think this optometrist will understand my particular needs. Cronbach alpha scores for each construct are presented in Table II. The Cronbach alpha scores indicate reliable measurement of each construct.

Construct Purchase intentions Risk Expertise Tangibles Reliability Responsiveness Assurance Empathy

Number of questions 4 4 5 4 4 5 4 4

Alpha 0.8199 0.8138 0.8974 0.7317 0.8778 0.7870 0.8374 0.8079

Table II. Cronbach alpha results

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Results

Demographic profile

The demographic profile of the sample indicates approximately balanced representation by age and gender (see Table III). Of the respondents, 55 percent were 35 years or under while the remaining 45 percent were over 35. In terms of gender, 54.6 percent were female while 45.4 percent were male. Consistent with the advertisements originating from a different market, only 1.6 percent of the subjects indicated they had seen the stimulus advertisement before. In addition, 58 percent indicated they had visited an optometrist within the past year. Corresponding with national norms in terms of vision correction, 44 percent of the sample wore glasses, 12 percent wore contacts, 31 percent used both contacts and glasses, while 11 percent required no corrective eye wear.

Percentage Age 18-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56+ Gender Male Female Income ($) 0-19,999 20-29,999 30-39,999 40-49,999 50-59,999 70,000+ Education Some high school High school diploma Some college Vocational/technical degree College degree Graduate degree Post-graduate degree Glasses/contact wear Glasses Contacts Both Neither Average number of years wear glasses or contacts Last visit to optometrist 0-1 month 1-3 months 3-6 months 6-12 months Over 1 year Previous exposure to advertisement Yes No Not sure

29.7 25.2 17.1 14.2 13.8 45.4 54.6 43.7 27.8 15.5 5.0 6.3 1.7 4.3 14.1 34.9 3.6 30.4 9.5 3.3 44.2 12.1 31.9 11.7 14.57 7.2 10.1 15.7 24.0 43.9 1.7 87.6 10.8

Table III. Statistics of sample

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Confirmatory factor analysis generated via LISREL 7 (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1983, 1989) was used to construct a measurement model. The indicants were assigned to their respective constructs a priori, according to the original SERVQUAL scale (Parasuraman et al., 1988). The maximum likelihood coefficients and t-values for the measurement model are presented in Table IV. Testing the hypotheses The proposed hypotheses were tested using LISREL 7. The 2 statistic for the structural model was 101.34 with five degrees of freedom. The
Construct Purchase intentions y12 y22 y22 y42 Risk y12 y22 y32 y42 Tangibles y93 y103 y113 y123 Reliability y144 y154 y164 y174 Expertise y185 y195 y205 y215 Responsiveness y226 y236 y246 y256 Empathy y287 y297 y307 y317 Assurance y328 y338 y348 y358 LISREL estimate T-value

1.000 0.775 0.996 0.801 1.000 0.749 0.799 0.760 1.000 0.866 0.778 0.972 1.000 0.855 0.902 0.907 1.000 0.997 0.951 0.978 1.000 0.792 0.983 0.949 1.000 0.900 0.954 0.886 1.000 0.804 0.744 0.988

a 19.347 26.000 19.162 a 20.208 23.683 19.529 a 15.154 12.218 16.384 a 19.513 19.896 22.687 a 34.289 30.447 28.105 a 15.443 20.737 17.577 a 18.405 18.569 15.236 a 20.436 18.716 23.183

Table IV. Measurement model

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goodness-of-fit index was 0.970 with an adjusted goodness-of-fit of 0.784 and a root mean square residual of 0.033, indicating an adequate model fit for exploratory research. Table V provides the and coefficients for the structural model with the significant structural paths and maximum likelihood coefficients. It was hypothesized that, as respondents viewed the service quality cues in the advertisement, purchase risk would be reduced. This result occurred for all five dimensions of service quality, supporting hypothesis H1. In terms of perceived expertise, four of the five service quality dimensions increased perceived expertise. Tangible, reliability, assurance and empathy cues all had a direct significant impact on perceived expertise, thus supporting hypothesis H2 except in the dimension of responsiveness which was not significant. Perceived expertise did not have a significant impact on perceived risk. Hypothesis H3 was not supported. Perceived risk had an inverse impact on purchase intentions, while perceived expertise had a direct impact on purchase intentions. Hypotheses H4 and H5 were both supported. A summary of all results is provided in Table VI. Table VII provides the means of the four advertisments for the research sample. Significant differences occurred across all variables examined. In terms of purchase intentions, advertisments one and two were viewed as being superior to advertisments three and four.
Managerial implications

Risk reduction increases purchasing intentions

Although exploratory, this research indicates the use of the five determinants of service quality in professional services advertising increases the probability of patronage by reducing perceived risks associated with the
Maximum likelihood estimate 0.439 0.365 0.033 0.166 0.283 0.291 0.275 0.109 0.036 0.340 0.307 0.152 0.135

Parameter

Path Risk --> Intent Expert --> Intent Expert --> Risk Tangibles --> Risk Tangibles --> Expert Reliab --> Risk Reliab --> Expert Respons --> Risk Respons --> Expert Assur --> Risk Assur --> Expert Empathy --> Risk Empathy --> Expert

T-value 13.415** 11.156** 0.992 6.351** 10.752** 10.250** 9.517* 4.427** 1.353 11.649** 10.452* 5.892** 4.929*

12 13 23 g21 g31 g22 g32 g23 g33 24 34 25 35

Notes: * p < 0.01; ** p < 0.05 2 = 101.34 with 5 df Goodness-of-fit index = 0.970 Adjusted goodness-of-fit index = 0.784 Root mean square residual = 0.033

Table V. Structural model

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Hypothesis H1

Hypothesized outcome Presence of ___________cues reduces perceived risk: Tangibility Reliability Responsiveness Assurance Empathy

Outcome

Supported Supported Supported Supported Supported

H2

Presence of ____________cues enhances perceived expertise: Tangibility Reliability Responsiveness Assurance Empathy Supported Supported Not supported Supported Supported

H3

Significant negative relationship between perceived expertise and perceived risk Significant negative relationship between perceived risk and purchase intention Significant positive relationship between perceived expertise and purchase intention

Supported

H4

Supported

H5

Supported

Table VI. Summary of results of hypotheses

Means Advertisement 2 3 5.23 4.98 5.51 5.13 5.25 5.07 4.88 5.15 5.16 4.02 3.79 4.17 4.26 4.47 4.15 4.21 4.17 4.14

Constructs Intentions Risk Expertise SQ cuesa Tangibles Reliability Responsiveness Assurance Empathy

1 4.88 4.49 5.10 4.94 5.03 4.82 4.84 4.86 4.95

4 4.03 3.91 4.20 4.30 4.09 4.40 4.23 4.42 4.20

F-value 41.096 40.502 56.418 48.321 49.754 26.333 20.397 31.196 46.061

P-value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Note: a SQ cues is the sum of the five service quality determinants

Table VII. Differences in advertisements test results

purchase. The research also indicates that service quality cues increase the perceived expertise of the service provider. However, risk reduction appears to be slightly more effective in increasing purchase intentions than does increasing perceived professional expertise. In terms of risk reduction, cues which convey feelings of assurance and reliability are the most effective. Examples of businesses that would benefit
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from more assurance and reliability in their advertising are medical services and trust banking. Assurance is the knowledge and courtesy of the professional and his or her staff. It is their ability to inspire trust and confidence in the service staff. Reliability is the ability of the professional to deliver the service promised dependably and accurately. Of lesser importance are the service quality determinants of tangible cues, empathy and responsiveness. Knowledge may be expressed by indicating combined years of experience among the staff, stating the institution where the professionals education was received, and noting specialized qualifications. Reliability could be inferred from a statement of guarantee (e.g. satisfaction guaranteed). Perceived expertise of the professional To increase perceived expertise of the professional, cues conveying assurance, reliability and tangibles are the most effective. Tangibles include the physical facility, equipment and personal appearance of the staff. For example, advertisements that mention a professional service providers membership of a professional organization, certification, or use of high-tech equipment. This research indicates that the type of facility and equipment used by a professional affects consumers perceived expertise of the service. Professional services using modern, up-to-date equipment will be seen as more professional than services using older equipment. The same is true for the appearance of the physical facility. Advertisements announcing remodeled facilities or picturing the arrival of new computerized equipment in use may be quite effective in conveying expertise. Table VII indicates that advertisements one (Figure 1) and two (Figure 2) are superior to advertisements three (Figure 3) and four (Figure 4). Respondents indicated the lowest purchase risk and highest perceived expertise for the optometrist in advertisement two. Advertisment two had the highest score for all five service quality determinants. In terms of effectiveness, advertisment two appears to be superior to the others. A study of advertisement two reveals that all of the service quality cues are embedded in the advertisement in some manner. For example, empathy is conveyed by the cue old-fashioned caring and the personal care you deserve. Tangible cues indicating high quality equipment are conveyed by the picture, the headline modern eye surgery and the words state-of-theart. Advertisement one was second in terms of purchase intentions. The photo of the optometrist appears to convey many of the service quality determinants. Prior research using dental services indicates that, in general, when placing an advertisement with a photograph, the professional should select an image in which he or she is smiling and looking directly at the camera (Nelson et al., 1988). Risk was only slightly higher for this optometrist than the one featured in advertisement two and expertise was only slightly lower than conveyed by advertisement two. The contrast between advertisements one and two indicates there are numerous ways of encoding the service quality cues in an advertisement for professional services. Future research should investigate the effects of execution style, written and visual cues. Advertisements three and four both scored low. Both were seen as possessing higher risk and having less expertise. Neither of these advertisements convey empathy (e.g. old-fashioned caring) or tangible
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cues (e.g. the use of high-tech equipment) which would help reduce risk and enhance professional expertise. It appears that professional services advertisements emphasizing price may reduce the perceived level of expertise and increase perceptions of risk. The inclusion of price may be inadvisable if enhanced quality perceptions are desired (Bloom and Krips, 1981).
Future research

This study examined the effect of service quality determinants in the context of advertising a professional service. Various experts (e.g. Berry and Parasuraman, 1991) have suggested that advertising for services should emphasize service quality determinants (e.g. tangible aspects of their service offerings), yet little empirical evidence examining the effect of such cues has been compiled. Our research has broken ground for continued research in this arena. Links advertising content and consumer decision processes We recognize that the analysis we have presented is not without limitation in terms of generalizability. Yet, the results provide support for the linkages between advertising content and consumers preconsumption decision processes. Our results may not be applicable to other advertisements or other professional services. Therefore, future research should utilize the advertising of other professional medical service providers (i.e. dentists, doctors, chiropractors) as a means of validating the present results. In addition, a laboratory experiment using mock advertisements would enhance control and help to isolate specific copy effects. Noting criticisms of SERVQUALs five dimensions (Carman, 1990; Clow et al., 1991), future research should examine whether consumers distinguish all five of the dimensions when exposed to a service advertisement. Because the five dimensions are highly correlated, fewer factors may be observed. The pretest of our advertisement stimuli provides preliminary support that consumers can differentiate the dimensions. However, our subjects responded to SERVQUAL scales and not open-ended questions designed to probe what free associations the advertisement elicited. Knowledge of whether the dimensions converge or not would be useful to services marketers and their advertising agencies, since a smaller number of dimensions would simplify copy generating procedures during advertisement development. Additionally, these results have managerial implications for a professional service firms strategic plan. The critical service quality variables in the advertisement must be reinforced by the service provider during the service encounter. In other words, care must be taken not to create expectations (through advertising) that are not met during the service encounter. Future research should investigate whether these variables found in the advertisements are actually reinforced during the service encounter.

Consumers can differentiate the dimensions

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Burton, S. (1990), The framing of purchase for services, The Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 4, Fall, pp. 55-67. Bush, A.J., Moncrief, W.C. and Zeithaml, V.A. (1987), Source effects in professional services advertising, Current Issues in Advertising, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 153-71. Carman, J.A. (1990), Consumer perceptions of service quality: an assessment of the SERVQUAL dimensions, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 66, Spring, pp. 33-55. Clow, K.E., Mason, K. and Ashton, D. (1991), An empirical analysis of the relevant importance of service quality dimensions, in King, R. (Ed.), Marketing: Toward the Twenty-first Century, Southern Marketing Association, Richmond, VA, pp. 394-9. Cox, D.F. (1963), The measurement of information value: a study in consumer decision making, in Decker, W.S. (Ed.), Emerging Concepts in Marketing, American Marketing Association, Chicago, IL, pp. 413-21. Cox, D.F. (Ed.) (1967), Risk-taking and information handling in behavior an intensive study of two cases, in Cox, D. (Ed.), Risk-Taking and Information Handling in Consumer Behavior, Harvard University, Boston, MA, pp. 34-81. Crane, F.G. (1989), Choice criteria and cue usage in selecting lawyers, Journal of Professional Services Marketing, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 113-21. Fisk, R.P., Brown, S.W. and Bitner, M.J. (1993), Tracking the evolution of the services marketing literature, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 69, Spring, pp. 61-103. Grnroos, C. (1990), Service Management and Marketing: Managing the Moments of Truth in Service Competition, Lexington Books, Lexington, MA. Guseman, D.S. (1981), Risk perceptions and risk reduction in consumer services, in Donnelly, J.H. and George, W.R. (Eds), Marketing of Services, American Marketing Association, Chicago, IL, pp. 200-4. Hovland, C.I., Janis, I.L. and Kelley, H.H. (1953), Communication and Persuasion: Psychological Studies of Opinion Change, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. Joreskog, K.G. and Sorbom, D. (1983), LISREL VI, An Analysis of Linear Structural Relations by the Method of Maximum Likelihood, Version VI, National Education Resources, Chicago, IL. Joreskog, K.G. and Sorbom, D. (1989), LISREL 7: A Guide to the Program and Applications, SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL. LaBand, D., Pickett, G.M. and Grove, S. (1995), An examination of factual information content among service advertisements, The Servcies Industry Journal, Vol. 15 No. 2, April, pp. 216-33. McGuire, W.J. (1985), Attitudes and attitude change, in Lindzey, G. and Aronson, E. (Eds), The Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 2, Random, New York, NY, pp. 233-346. Milliman, R.E. and Fugate, D.L. (1993), Advertising professional legal services: the effects of price inclusion on perceptions of quality and economic value, Journal of Professional Services Marketing, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 53-70. Murray, K.B. (1991), A test of services marketing theory: consumer information acquisition activities, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 55, January, pp. 10-25. Murray, K.B. and Schlacter, J.L. (1990), The impact of services versus goods on consumers assessment of perceived risk and variability, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 51-65. Nelson, T.D., Hammerle, G. and Beall, S. (1988), Effects of a photograph in a dentists advertisement, Journal of Health Care Marketing, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 82-5. Parasuraman, A., Berry, L.L. and Zeithaml, V.A. (1991), Refinement and reassessment of the SERVQUAL scale for measuring quality, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 67, Winter, pp. 420-50. Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A. and Berry, L.L. (1988), SERVQUAL: a multiple-item scale for measuring consumer perceptions of service quality, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 64, Spring, pp. 12-40. Resnik, A. and Stern, B.L. (1977), An analysis of information content in television advertising, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 41 No. 1, pp. 50-3. Zeithaml, V.A., Parasuraman, A. and Berry, L.L. (1985), Problems and strategies in services marketing, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 49, Spring, pp. 33-46.

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(Kenneth E. Clow is Assistant Professor of Marketing at Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas, USA. Carolyn Tripp is Associate Professor of Marketing at The University of Tennessee at Martin, Martin, Tennessee, USA. James T. Kenny is Assistant Professor of Marketing at Western Illinois University, Macomb, IL, USA.)

s
Executive summary and implications for managers and executives (Provided by Marketing Consultants for MCB University Press) This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of this article. Those with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full benefit of the material presented Do professional services have unprofessional advertising? The content of an advertisement is, after the selection of appropriate media, the most important element in determining its effectiveness. New advertising executives are told, from day one, that the copy reflects the image of the company and encapsulates the benefits to consumers of the product or service on offer. Almost any review of advertising, and especially one focussing on local newspapers, will reveal that these principles are more honored in the breach. More attention is given to describing the service or product than in demonstrating why the consumer will benefit. Too often the image is lost in listings of features or spurious illustration. Clow, Tripp and Kenny address the issue of service quality as shown in advertisements. They set out to demonstrate how focussing on the five elements of service quality that make up Parasuraman et al.s (1991) SERVQUAL model helps to create more effective advertising for professional services. In the main they confirm that this is the case (at least for opticians). Central to their findings, at least as I see it, is that professional services such as opticians are credence services. In other words, our assessment is not based on the outcome but on the process we take a great deal on trust, making confidence vital to business success for the provider. In this respect the SERVQUAL model is particularly appropriate since it focusses on elements of the service process rather than the outcome of the service relationship. Since we are unsure or confused about assessing credence services, we concentrate on reducing risk. The main benefit implied in the most attractive advertisements for this type of service is less risk. We take, from the advertisement, cues as to the type of service on offer are the practitioners appropriately qualified? Have they got the latest equipment? Will they explain the problem (assuming there is one)? Is it a caring and private environment and is it clean and well run? Self-evidently, an advertisment is a vicarious demonstration of these service factors. The reader is given an impression of the provider which is written by the provider. This perhaps explains why, for services such as opticians, dentists and solicitors, many of us rely on personal recommendation. We ask friends, family, colleagues and neighbors who they use and whether they are any good. In the UK, where there are a number of national eye care groups, the emphasis on advertisements is either on price or on the testimony of users (or actors purporting to be users). It is apparent that this use of testimony is seen as a way of accommodating recommendation through word of mouth in formal advertising. Advertisers in any field know the power of recommendation and testimony, and it is particularly important where other means of assessing the service prior to purchase do not exist.
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For professional services, advertising has become more important either because the easing of regulations has made it possible or because advertising is viewed as a way to establish knowledge about the firm in question. However, the impression is that, with few exceptions, advertising in this area is not of the highest quality. Marketing is not seen as a core part of the operation and often as a necessary evil. The main problem with such advertising takes me back to the initial point made confusion between features and benefits. Readers are left to infer the benefits so what if the optician has the latest equipment if it does not communicate a benefit but merely describes a feature of the service provider? If it went on to say that this meant the best possible diagnosis and correction of your sight then it would be a benefit. Looking at the advertisements used in the study, only the most favored advertisment contains clear benefits; indeed, the important words you or your appear seven times in the advertisement, demonstrating that the copywriter understood the principle noted earlier. The other advertisments either focus on price (advertisments three and four) or simply provide information about the optometrist (the first advertisement). These observations do not take away from the findings that the five service quality factors need communicating in advertisements. As Clow et al. demonstrate, the absence of service quality cues in the less popular advertisements does make them less effective. Moreover, we can see that price is less of an issue than most people think. In a service environment, and especially one so important to the buyer as eye care, price is a secondary factor to confidence in the service on offer. Services marketers spend too much time worrying about competitors who stress low prices the findings here reveal that offering good quality and stressing the benefits that a high quality service brings is a far more effective message than were cheaper than anyone else. I suspect that the relative unimportance of good marketing to many professional services firms is a significant factor in determining the image of their profession and the success of their businesses. Professional service companies are reluctant to use professional advertising agencies or designers, worry too much about price rather than service quality, often fail to present a clear message and forget that it is the benefits of, in this case, eye care that the customer is buying, not the eye care itself. If professionals pay attention to these issues and take note of the advantage that emphasizing service quality brings, they will improve their business image and performance considerably.

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