Turner, J., Roberts, R. M., Proeve, M., & Chen, J. (2023).

Supplemtrary information 1 for: Relationship between PERMA and children’s wellbeing, resilience and
mental health: A scoping review. International Journal of Wellbeing, 13(2), S1-S44. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v13i2.2515s1

SUPPLEMENT

Supplementary information 1 for:

Relationship between PERMA and children’s wellbeing, resilience and mental
health: A scoping review
Jasmine Turner · Rachel M. Roberts · Michael Proeve · Junwen Chen

Supplement 1. Demographic characteristics of the samples of each of the three studies

1. Models/Frameworks
Reference Country Context PERMA Outcomes Relevant Results Critical
Components appraisal
score
McLaughlin & US Theoretical R R Protective factors: High
Lambert (2017) • Caregiver Support
Noble & Australia Theoretical P, S R, MH Resilience: High
McGrath (2005) • Self-efficacy & success orientation
• Thinking optimistically
• Thinking helpfully & regulating emotions
Sege et al. US Theoretical P, R, S W, MH Themes: High
(2017) • Being in nurturing, supportive relationships
• Having opportunities for constructive social engagement and to develop a sense of
connectedness
• Learning social and emotional competencies.
Sege & US Theoretical P, R, S W, MH Themes: High
Harper Browne • Nurturing, supportive relationships
(2017) • Opportunities for constructive social engagement
• Develop a sense of connectedness
Learning social and emotional competencies.

Jasmine Turner S1
University of Adelaide
jasmine.c.turner@adelaide.edu.au
Copyright belongs to the author(s)
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 PERMA, children’s wellbeing, resilience, mental health
Turner, Roberts, Proeve, & Chen

Reference Country Context PERMA Outcomes Relevant Results Critical

Components Appraisal
Score
Bostic US Theoretical S W, MH Key points: Moderate
et al. (2019) • Music decreases behavioural issues & aggression
• Music can decrease anxiety (when undergoing medical procedures)
• Music can alter mood
• Suggests incorporating music into clinical treatment via PERMA
Schlechter et al. US Theoretical P, E, R, M, W, MH Key points: High
(2019) A, S • Suggests assessing patient’s strengths at the beginning of psychiatric interview in
order to elicit positive emotions, building relationship with the patient
• Positive emotions activate reward centre in brain increasing engagement
Konu & Theoretical R, M, S W Relevant parts of model: High
Rimpelä (2002) • Loving (social relationships)
• Being (means for self-fulfilment in school)
Phipps (2007) US Theoretical P W, R, MH Relevant aspects of framework for children with cancer: High
• Optimism
• Positive emotions
McCrea (2014) US Theoretical R, S R Psychotherapy for development of resilience for severely traumatised children (co- High
identified goals):
• a trustworthy, pleasurable alliance with the therapist
• regulating violence toward self and/or others
• developing friendship
• mastering the challenges of learning and athletics
• optimizing their caregiving relationships (with parents and therapist)
McCrea et al. US Theoretical S R Key points: High
(2016) • Hope provides children with resilience (believing they can achieve their goals in
the midst of adversity)
Newland (2014) US Theoretical R, S W, R Wellbeing model includes self-regulation, mental health and social competence. Moderate
Variables that support positive outcomes for at risk children:
• social competence
• self-esteem
• adaptability
• active coping skills
• autonomy
• secure attachment style,
• a sense of humour

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Zhang (2013) Singapore Theoretical S W, R Key points (for children with disability): High
• Spirituality is seen by the WHO as a means of supporting well-being
• Researchers found that personal empowerment, optimism, empathy,
understanding, intellectual confidence, academic performance, physical and
psychological health, and self-esteem are positively associated with spirituality.
• Benefits of good quality spiritual care include: improved relationships, with self,
others and with God/creation/nature; and a new sense of meaning, resulting in a
reawakening of hope and peace of mind, enabling people to accept and live with
problems not yet resolved
• Spiritual care can help one experience a feeling of belonging and being valued, a
sense of safety, respect, and dignity (for example, Swinton, 2001b; Vanier, 2000;
Zhang, 2010)
• Child’s spiritual life and psychological condition can help him or her discover
coping strategies and learn to resolve personal problems.
Greenberg US Theoretical R MH Outcomes of SEL programs in school Moderate
(2017) Short term includes:
• positive attitudes toward self and others
• positive social behaviours
• reduced emotional distress
• academic competence
Long term includes:
• healthy relationships
• mental health
Notes. P = Positive Emotions, E = Engagement, R = Relationships, M = Meaning, A = Achievement, W = Well-being, R = Resilience, MH = Mental Health

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2. Case studies
Author Country Context Participants PERMA Outcomes Relevant Results Critical
Age Sample Components Appraisal
Size Score
Anbar US Clinical 10 1 P, S W Key points for patient with cystic fibrosis: High
& • A hopeful attitude can strengthen a patient
Murthy (having a goal to look forward to)
(2010) • Patient became enthusiastic
• Reestablishment of hope appeared to
improve wellbeing
Holder US Clinical 12 1 R MH Relationship centred care approach includes: High
et al. • Relationships
(2015) • Emotional connection with others
• Patient family involved
In case study this approach rendered positive
results for George's MH.
Notes. P = Positive Emotions, E = Engagement, R = Relationships, M = Meaning, A = Achievement, W = Well-being, R = Resilience, MH = Mental Health

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3. Cross-sectional
Author Country Context Participants Sample PERMA Outcomes Type of data Relevant Results Critical
Age (Mean) Size Components Appraisal
Score
Butler et UK School 8-15 (10.4) 2,074 R W Chi-square Relationships between sources of support and High
al. (2022) low mental well-being were significant
between high and low family adult support (χ2
= 115.256, p < 0.001), between high and low
school adult support (χ2 = 171.205, p < 0.001)
and high and low peer adult support (χ2 =
228.800, p < 0.001). Low levels of support were
associated with lower mental well-being.
Bate et al. US Community Parents with 158 R MH Correlations Child-parent conflict was significantly High
(2021) (COVID-19 children associated with child internalising (r = .47, p <
focus) aged 6-12 .01) and externalising (r = .68, p < .01)
(8.73) symptoms. Child-parent positivity was
significantly associated with child
internalising (r = -.18, p < .05) and externalising
(r = -.19, p < .05) symptoms.
Casas et al. Internation 10-12 P W Confirmator Highest contribution to latent variable (life High
(2020) al (18 y factor satisfaction on positive affect) across different
countries) analysis countries was “happy” and “satisfied”
Ojala Sweden School 12 293 M W, MH Correlations Children who used meaning-focused coping Moderate
(2012) were less likely to experience negative affect (r
= -.12, p < .05) and more likely to experience
life satisfaction (r = .22, p < .01).
Guhn et al. Canada School (9.7) 2,792 R W, MH Correlations All correlations were significant at <.01 level. High
(2013) (population Adult connectedness and life satisfaction were
study) significantly correlated for girls (r = .40) and
boys (r = .42), as well as adult connectedness
and anxiety for girls (r = -.11) and boys (r = -
.07), and adult connectedness and depression
in girls (r = -.27) and boys (r = -.22).
Peer connectedness was also correlated with
life satisfaction in boys and girls (r = .42),
anxiety in girls (r = .22) and boys (r = -.10), and
depression in girls (r = -.34) and boys (r = -.27).

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Shoshani Israel School 9-12 (Sample 1957 P, M, S W, MH Correlations Life satisfaction was positively correlated to High
& 1: 10.48, creativity (r = .40, p < .001), meaning in life (r =
Russo- Sample 2: .53, p < .001) and positive emotions (r = .54, p <
Netzer 10.71) .001).
(2017) The SDQ was negatively correlated with
meaning in life (r = -.20, p < .001) and positive
emotions (r = -.35, p < .001), but was not
significantly related to creativity.
Wang et al. China School 9-14 (11.4) 653 P, S MH Correlations Validating Strengths measure. High
(2018) The measure (consisting of gratitude,
optimism and zest) was significantly
correlated to depression (r = -.32, p < .001).
Keyfitz et Canada School 9-14 (11.44) 172 P R, MH Correlations Optimism was related to depression (r = - .50, p High
al. (2013) < .001), anxiety (r = -.19, p < .05) and resilience
(r = .56, p <.001). (
Moilanen Finland & School 320 R, A MH t-tests Significant differences between the group No Low
& Sweden Disorder and Disorder were found for all
Myhrman achievement measures, including Mathematics
(1989) (t = 3.09, p = .0036) & Grammar (t = 4.34, p =
.0001).
Those with No Disorder more often had pen-
friends in Sweden after returning to Finland
(χ2 = 3.72, p = 0.0538).
Participants were migrants
Ey et al. US School Grades 3-6 Sample P, S MH Spearman’s Testing a new measure of optimism. High
(2005) 1: 204, correlations The optimism measure was associated with
Sample some of the variables including hope (ρ = .54, p
2: 156 < .0001), externalising (ρ = -.38, p < .0001) and
CDI (ρ = -.38, p < .0001) but not internalising (ρ
= -.14, ns) or anxiety (ρ = -.31, ns), however
anxiety was significant with total optimism
measure (ρ = -.36, p < .0001).
Ostberg Scotland School 7-11 13,932 R W, MH Logistic Higher peer status was associated with High
(2003) regression (reduced) malaise (p < .001).
Graham- US Family 7-12(9.63) 121 R MH Correlations For girlfriend/boyfriend relationships support High
Bermann & t-tests factor was higher for those in homeless
et al. (1996) families than for those in low-income families

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(t(32.5) = 3.06, p < .004).

Total CBCL score was negatively related to
Support from the father for children in both
homeless (r = -.42, p < .01) and housed (r = -.27,
p < .05) samples.
Felix et al. Puerto Post 4-10, 11-17 1886 R MH Correlation 4 to 10-year old’s included only High
(2013) Rico disaster dyads s Parent child relationship quality and
internalising psychopathology (r = −0.16, p
<0.01)
Nauli & Indonesia School 9-12 100 S R Chi-square 39% of participants had high spirituality and Moderate
Mulyono positive emotional resilience.
(2019) Significant relationship between the level of
spirituality and emotional resilience (p = 0.026)
-correlation coefficient not reported.
Stocker US Community (7y11m) 85 R MH Multiple Interactions of maternal and friendship Moderate
(1994) regression warmth were significant for depressive mood
(F(1, 75) = 4.12, p < .05).
Chai China Rural 9-16 (12.11) 1449 R W, R Correlations There was a significant positive relationship High
et al. (2019) community between relationships and resilience (r = 0.34, p
< .01), as well as relationships and wellbeing (r
= 0.37, p < .01) in left behind children.
Somchit & Thailand School 9-16 (11.85) 267 A R Correlations The relationship between resilience and High
Sriyaporn academic achievement was not significant (r =
(2004) 0.036).
Bang et al. Korea School Grade 4-5 343 R MH Correlations Significant negative relationship between Moderate
(2018) depression and peer relationships (r = −0.775, p
= 0.01).
Samara UK Community 6-16 269 R W, MH ANOVA & Total psychosomatic problems were predicted High
et al. (2020) regression by negative friendship quality (β = -0.148, p <
.05, 95% CI [0.753–0.988]) in refugee children.
Du China Rural 6-17 (12) 518 M R, MH Correlations Significant positive relationship between High
et al. (2017) community meaning in life and resilience (r = .71, p < .001),
and a significant negative relationship
between meaning in life and depression (r =
−.21, p < .001) in children whose parents have
HIV.

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Manfro Brazil School 6-14 (9.7) 2512 R MH Regression Higher SDQ was individually associated with Moderate
et al. (2017) & mediation lower overall friendship in 3 domains: emotion
(β = −0.385, p < 0.001), hyperkinetic (β = −0.311,
p < 0.001), and conduct (β = −0.516, p < 0.001).
Im & Korea Clinical 7-15 (9.51) 102 R, A R Correlation Significant relationships reported between High
Kim (2012) & regression resilience and the warmth-acceptance of
mothers (r = 0.384, p < 0.01) and fathers (r =
0.363, p < 0.01), as well as resilience and
relationship with friends (r = 0.343, p < 0.01)
and teachers (r = 0.349, p < 0.01). The
relationship between resilience and
achievement was not significant (r = 0.197).
Relationships with friends was a significant
variable affecting resilience (β = 0.300, p <
0.01).
Participants were children with atopic dermatitis
currently receiving treatment
Veronese Palestine Community 8-12 (10.8) 226 P, S W ANOVA & Subjective happiness scale correlated High
et al. (2012) (Tulkarem correlation positively with the optimism scale (YLOT) (r =
Region of 0.24; p < 0.01).
the West
Bank)
Lengua US Community 7.8-11.9(9.9) 101 P, S W, R Correlation Significant positive relationships were High
(2002) s reported for positive emotionality and positive
adjustment (resilience) (r = .33, p < .01). As well
as for self-regulation and positive adjustment
(resilience) (r = .43, p < .01).
Luthar & US School 6th grade 614 A MH Correlations Significant negative relationship between High
Latendress internalising problems and achievement in
e (2005) both low-income girls (r = -.34, p < .01) and
low-income boys (r = -.19, p < .01), this
relationship was not significant for affluent
girls or boys.
Achievement and externalising symptoms had
a significant relationship for low-income girls
(r = -.37, p < .01) but was not significant for
low-income boys, or affluent boys or girls.

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Saputra et Indonesia School 6-12 143 R, A MH Correlations Academic competence had a negative High
al. (2017) relationship with mental health problems (r = -
0.177, p < 0.05)
Family environment-relationship dimension
had a negative relationship with mental health
problems (r = -0.176, p < 0.05).
Fayed Canada Clinical 8-14 (11.41) 480 R W, MH Mediation Peer support had a significant direct effect High
et al. (2015) model mental health (.28, p < .001) and total effect on
quality of life (.35, p < .001), as did parental
support on mental health (.35, p < .001) and
quality of life (.19, p < .001)
Participants were children with epilepsy.
Cedeno et US School 5th grade 132 S MH Correlations Hope was negatively related to externalizing High
al. (2010) (10.2) behaviours for boys (r = -.27, p < .05), and to
internalizing symptoms for girls (r = -.31, p <
.05).
Lin et al. Taiwan School 7-12 (9.7) 157 R, A MH Correlations Child/parent relationship (close/not close) was Moderate
(2011) childre significantly associated with depression in
n native families (OR = 1.96, 95% CI [1.20–3.22], p
< .01) and immigrant families (OR = 2.46, 95%
CI [1.10–5.48], p < .05).
Peer relationships was also significantly
associated with depression in native (OR =
1.70, 95% CI [1.07–2.69], p < .05) and immigrant
families (OR = 3.25, 95% CI [1.36–7.79], p < .01).
Academic achievement was only significant in
immigrant families (OR = 3.03, 95% CI [1.34–
6.77], p < .01).
Lin et al. Taiwan Family (9.61) R MH ANOVA There was no significant difference in parent High
(2013) child relationship (close/not close) between
different types of households (both
parents/single mother/single father).
Parent-child relationship (close/not close) was
not significant with depression. However,
when both parents were not close with child
(OR = 2.15, 95% CI [1.41–3.29], p < .01) or a
single father was not close with child (OR =

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4.49, 95% CI [2.01–10.03], p < .01) this was

associated with depression, single mother was
not significant.
Bergeron Canada General 6-14 139 R MH Correlations Testing new measure of child mental health. High
et al. (1992) population 6–11-year-old data:
Parent caring showed highest correlation with
MH on Parent DISC-2 scale (r = -.34, p < .05)
and Dominic scale (r = -.25, p < .001).
Bergeron Canada Family 6-14 2400 R MH Logistic Results for 6 to 11-year-olds only. High
et al. (2007) regression Unadjusted ORs were significant for two
variables: single-parent versus two-parent
family with depression (OR = 2.57, 95% CI
[1.29, 4.14]).
A weak association was found for low
frequency of parent’s caring behaviours with
depression (OR = 1.45 , 95% CI [1.08, 1.96])
Mathijsse Netherlan Community 9-16 137 R MH Pillais’ Effects of relationship components on High
n ds families multivariate internalising & externalising:
et al. (1998) test & effect Restrictiveness of mothers to children (F = 6.35,
sizes p < .01, ES = .09) and fathers to children (F =
3.54, p < .05, ES = .05) were significant.
Justice was significant in mothers to children
only (F = 12.50, p < .01, ES = .16).
Recognition was also significant in mothers to
children (F = 4.58, p < .01, ES = .07) but not
fathers to children.
Trust was significant in both mothers to
children (F = 3.91, p < .05, ES: .06) and fathers
to children (F = 1.08, p < .01, ES = .02).
Pedersen Norway School 8-12 750 A MH Correlations There was a significant relationship between High
et al. (2019) & Linear achievement and internalising problems (r =
regression −0.189, p < 0.001), however there was no
significant relationships between achievement
and anxiety symptoms (r = 0.015, ns) or
depressive symptoms (r = −0.068, ns).
Elvin Australia Community 9-11 (9.96) 93 P, R, S W, MH Correlations Significant relationships were reported High
et al. (2021) between self-regulation and flourishing (r =

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.680, p < .001), anxiety (r = - .333, p < .01) and

depression (r = -.447, p < .001).
Between prosocial behaviours and flourishing
(r = .614, p < .001), anxiety (r = -.221, p < .05)
and depression (r = -.400, p < .001).
Between hope and flourishing (r = .697, p <
.001), anxiety (r = -.618, p < .001) and
depression (r = -.639, p < .001).
Finch et al. Australia School 9-14 (11.54) 456 P, S W, R, MH Correlations Significant relationships between hope and Moderate
(2020) resilience (r = .71, p < .01), flourishing (r = .69, p
< .01), anxiety (r = -.36, p < .01) and depression
(r = -.51, p < .01).
Significant relationships between optimism
and resilience (r = .65, p < .01), flourishing (r =
.65, p < .01), anxiety (r = -.39, p < .01) and
depression (r = -.55, p < .01).
O'Connor Australia School 8-9 3790 A MH There were significant associations between Moderate
et al. (2019) (from other mental health competence (MHC) and
studies) Numeracy (β = 0.21, p < .05), Persuasive
Writing (β = 0.19, p < .05), Reading (β = 0.18, p
< .05), and Spelling (β = 0.18, p < .05), but not
with Punctuation (β = 0.14, ns).
Children in the high MHC group scored
significantly higher on all NAPLAN tests than
those with low–moderate MHC.
Liu US School 8-12 1060 R, S W Correlation Significant positive relationship between life Moderate
et al. (2020) satisfaction and school connectedness (r =
0.439, p < .01), as well as life satisfaction and
hope (r = 0.589, p <.01)
Choi et al. South School 10-12 4705 P, A W Correlations Significant relationships between achievement High
(2019) Korea and life satisfaction (r = .352, p < .01), as well as
positive affect and life satisfaction (r = .799, p <
.01).
Chai et al. China School 8-10(10.06) 439 S W, MH Correlations Significant relationships between hope and High
(2018) depression (r = −.30, p < .001), and hope and
life satisfaction (r = .57, p < .001).

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Van South School 9-13(10.41) 120 R MH Structured Internalizing problem scores for children with High
Heerden & Africa interviews a grandparent in their inner circle (M = 4.24,
Wild SD = 3.32) was not significantly different from
(2018) those of children without a grandparent in the
inner circle (M = 4.83, SD = 3.53) (t(118) = 2.90,
p = .37).
Similarly, there were no significant differences
in externalizing problem scores for children
with a grandparent in the inner circle (M =
5.41, SD = 4.50) and those without (M = 5.83,
SD = 3.39), t(118) = 2.53, p = .60.
Out of the different support systems (parent,
grandparent, sibling, other relative, friend,
professional) only parent support was
significant and only with externalising (r = -.25,
p < .01)
Sahranc et Turkey School 9-13(10.39) 289 S MH Correlation Social anxiety was negatively correlated with Moderate
al. (2018) & social support (r = -.51, p < .01), and with hope
Regression (r = -.42, p < .01).
Regression analysis showed that social anxiety
significantly predicted hope (Coeff. = -.10, 95%
CI [-.15 to -.04], p < .01).
Yan et al. China Community 6-12(8.54) 150 R MH Correlation Correlation between attachment & child High
(2017) dyads depression (r = -.38, p <.01)
Holder et Zambia School 7-12 391 S W Correlation Life satisfaction correlated with different Moderate
al. (2016) s aspects of spirituality including Spiritual
person (r = .367, p < .0167), connected to nature
(r = .389, p < .0167) , connected to plants &
animals (r = .192, p < .0167) and enjoy outdoors
(r = .319, p < .0167).
Kroesberg Netherlan School 233 A, S W, MH Means High-creative children had higher scores on High
en ds internalizing (M = 2.60, SD = 2.29) and
et al. (2016) externalizing problems (M = 4.60, SD = 3.16)
than low-creative children internalising (M =
1.00, SD = 1.21) and externalising (M = 3.05, SD
= 2.87).

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High-performing children had fewer

internalizing (M = 1.25, SD = 1.29) problems
compared with underachieving children (M =
1.91, SD = 2.15) and externalizing problems (M
= 2.67, SD = 2.67) than underachieving children
(M = 4.26, SD = 3.15).
van der Netherlan School 9-13 (10.41) 265 R, S W Regression There was a positive association between High
Wal ds psychological wellbeing and self-reported
et al. (2016) forgiveness (β = .19, t(271) = 2.86, p = .005),
Forgiveness toward nonfriends was not
associated with psychological well-being.
More behavioural forgiveness toward friends
was associated with more psychological well-
being (β = .30, t(132) = 3.66, p < .001), whereas
this was not significant for forgiveness toward
nonfriends.
Gaderman Canada School (9.7) 5026 R W Correlations All relationship variables correlated with life High
n satisfaction including home (r = .42, p <.01),
et al. (2016) neighbourhood (r = .24, p <.01) school (r = .33, p
<.01) and peer belonging (r = .41, p <.01).
John- Ireland School 9-13 231 R W Logistic Teacher relationship (OR = 1.20, 95 % CI [1.10- High
Akinola & regression 1.32], p < .001) were more likely to be
Gabhainn significantly associated with health and
(2015) wellbeing in non-health promoting schools.
Class relationships (OR = 1.13, 95 % [CI 1.06-
1.21], p < .001) and relationship with teacher
(OR = 1.20, 95 % CI [1.11-1.29], p < .001) were
both significantly associated with health and
wellbeing outcomes for all groups of pupils.
Drugli Norway School 6-13 825 R MH Correlation There were significant relationships between High
(2013) teacher-student relationship closeness and
internalising (r = -.20, p < .001),
closeness and externalising (r = -.26, p < .001),
conflict and internalising (r = .31, p < .001) and
conflict and externalising (r = .80, p < .001).
Palsdottir Iceland School 10-12 11,387 R W Correlations Correlation between liking teacher at school Moderate
et al. (2012) and wellbeing during school lessons was

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significant (r = .36, p < .001). The relationship

between friends and wellbeing was significant
for boys (r = .29, p < .001) and girls (r = .35, p <
.001).
Chun & South School 207 R R, MH Path Children of immigrants: Ego resiliency had a High
Chung Korea (105 analysis significant direct effect (β =.37, p < .001) on the
(2011) from teacher–student relationship, (higher ego
childre resiliency leading to a more positive teacher–
n of student relationship). Higher ego resiliency
immigr had significant levels of direct (β =.37, p < .001)
ant and indirect (β =.11, p < .01) effect on peer
women relationship. Peer relationship (β = −.20, p < .05)
and 102 had direct effect on depression. Korean
from children: Ego resiliency had a direct effect
Korean (β=.42, p < .001) on the teacher–student
childre relationship, Ego resiliency had no significant
n) direct effect but a significant indirect effect (β =
.19, p < .05). Peer relationship (β = −.23, p < .01)
had a significant direct effect on depression.
Holder et Canada School 8-12 (10.25) 320 S W Correlations Child rated subjective happiness scale was High
al. (2010) positively correlated with most aspects of
spiritual wellbeing questionnaire, including
Personal (r = .38, p < .05), Communal (r = .34, p
< .05), and Environmental (r = .14, p < .05), but
was not significantly correlated to
Transcendental aspect (r = .10, ns). For other
happiness measures (Faces Scale & Oxford
Happiness Questionnaire) all aspects were
correlated to spirituality.
Hakvoort Netherlan Family 8-12 (10.86) 87 R MH Multiple Relationship between child & mothers: Wilks’s High
et al. (2011) ds regression criterion showed no significant main effects of
family structure (Wilks’s λ = .97, F(1, 80) = 1.10,
p > .05).
Child psychosocial adjustment: No significant
main effects of family structure (Wilks’s λ =
.98, F(1, 86) = .62, p > .05).

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Earhart US School 3rd-4th 89 S W Correlations Significant positive correlation between hope Moderate
(2009) grade and LS (r = .557, p < .01)
Hilton et US Family 6-10 90 R MH Means Group comparisons revealed that single High
al. (2001) families mothers reported more child internalizing (M
= 8.0, SD = 6.74) and externalizing behaviour
(M = 10.14, SD = 7.78) than married parents
(Internalising M = 4.9, SD = 3.18; Externalising
M = 4.79, SD = 3.57). Single fathers reported
more externalizing behaviour (M = 9.60, SD =
8.85) than married mothers (M = 4.79, SD =
3.57).
Terry & Netherlan School Grades 3- 183 R W Correlations Relationship variables and LS were High
Huebner ds 5(9.07) Multiple significantly correlated, including parent
(1995) regression aspect (r = .53, p < .005), peers (r = .40, p < .005)
and general school (r = .32, p < .005)
Multiple regression with global LS predicted
by self-concept domains: Parent (F = 72.8, p <
0.001, R2 increment = 0.29, cumulative R2 =
0.29) and Peer (F = 40.6, p < 0.001 R2 increment
= 0.02, R2 cumulative = 0.31).
Corominas Spain School Years 5-6 R W Relevant domain-based contributions to High
et al. (2020) (10.74) children’s SWB were heard by adults (β = .104,
p < .001, R2 = .271), classmates (β = .067, p < .001,
R2 = .510), people live with (β = .099, p < .001, R2
= .533) and friends (β = .062, p < .001, R2 = .547)
Affective SWB contributions included happy
(β = .461, p < .001, R2 = .387) and calm (β = .048,
p < .001, R2 = .424)
Mínguez Germany, Internation 9-12 R W Correlations Relationship with friends was significantly High
(2020) the al survey related to subjective wellbeing (r = .28, p <
United 0.001), as was attention of parents and
Kingdom, subjective wellbeing (r = .43, p < 0.001).
Norway
and Spain
Damm et Denmark Community (10.6) 197 R MH, R Regression A relationship with an adult mentor had a High
al. (2022) significant impact on SDQ factors internalising
(F = 8.28, SE = 2.71, p < .01) and externalising (F

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 PERMA, children’s wellbeing, resilience, mental health
Turner, Roberts, Proeve, & Chen

= 13.51 SE = 2.53, p < .01) and on Child and

Youth Resilience Measure (F = 26.82, SE = 2.28,
p < .01).
Steinbach Germany Family 0-14 (7.8) 1,233 R MH Regression Mother-child relationship quality predicted High
& families mental health problems (β = -.29, SE = .01, p <
Augustijn .001), as did father-child relationship quality (β
(2022) = -.18, SE = .08, p < .001).
Participants were in separated families
van Breda South School 6-15 (10.22) 116 A R Correlations Measures of academic achievement and Moderate
(2022) Africa resilience were significantly positively
correlated when measured by parent report
with Pearson’s correlations ranging from .18 to
.28, but were not significantly correlated when
resilience was measured by self-report.
Notes. P = Positive Emotions, E = Engagement, R = Relationships, M = Meaning, A = Achievement, W = Well-being, R = Resilience, MH = Mental Health, SDQ =
Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, CBCL = Child Behaviour Checklist, SWB = subjective well-being, ES = effect size

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4. Longitudinal
Author Country Context Participants PERMA Outcome/s Relevant Results Critical
Component/s Appraisal
Age Range Sample Score
(Mean) Size
Essler et al. Germany Family 3-10 T1: 2,921 R W Child well-being and negative parent-child High
(2021) (COVID-19 T2: 890 relationship quality (r = -.10, p < .01) were significantly
focus) correlated at Time 1. Child well-being and both
positive (r = .09, p < .05) and negative (r = -.11, p < .01)
parent-child relationship quality was significantly
correlated at Time 2. Time 1 parent-child relationship
quality (positive and negative) were not associated
with Time 2 child well-being.
McArthur et Canada Cohort data Birth to 11 846 R MH Birth to 8-year-old data was pre-pandemic, 9 to 11-year-old High
al. (2021) (focus on mother/ data was post COVID-19.
COVID-19) child Connectedness to caregivers (B = − 0.16, 95% CI [−
dyads 0.22, − 0.09]) predicted COVID-19 anxiety, controlling
for pre-pandemic anxiety. Connectedness to
caregivers also predicted COVID-19 depression (B = −
0.26, 95% CI [− 0.32 to − 0.21]), controlling for pre-
pandemic depression. Connectedness to caregivers
also predicted happiness post COVID-19 (B = 0.36,
95% CI [0.28–,0.39]). Pre-pandemic peer relationships
did not predict mental health symptoms.
Goetschius et US School Data 4,898 R MH 9-year-old data used only High
al. (2021) collected at Correlations between school connectedness and
3, 5, 9 and 15 internalising symptoms (r = -.12, p < .01) and
externalising symptoms (r = -.15, p < .01) were
significant.
Mishra et al. US National 8-17 (10.28) 2151 R MH Children with greater increases in peer relationship High
(2018) survey quality over time had greater declines in post-
traumatic stress symptoms over time (β=−0.68, p <
.001). Better quality peer relationships at baseline did
not significantly predict decrease in PTS symptoms.
Harper & Fine US Family 3-12 129 R W Father warmth was significantly related to father- High
(2006) reported child well-being (r = .19, p < .05).

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Schottenbauer US School 1st to 3rd 7,515 A, S MH Family attendance at religious or spiritual programs Moderate
et al. (2007) grade was significantly associated with child mental health
problems (r = 0.027, p < .05), as well as internalising (r
= -.50, p < .001) but not externalising (ns).
Parent religious coping (prayer/meditation and trust
in higher power) was not associated with mental
health problems; however, prayer/meditation was
associated with internalising behaviours (r = -.070, p <
.05) and trust in higher power with externalising
behaviours (r = .062, p < .05).
Liew et al. US School (6.57) 784 R, A R Resiliency and teacher-student relationships (warmth) High
(2018) were associated at Time 1 (r = .73, p < .05), Time 2 (r =
.73, p < .05) and Time 3 (r = .72, p < .05). Resiliency and
teacher-student relationships (conflict) were
associated at Time 1 (r = .67, p < .05), Time 2 (r = .68, p <
.05) and Time 3 (r = .67, p < .05).
Resiliency and peer relationships were associated at
Time 1 (r = .46, p < .05), Time 2 (r = .42, p < .05) and
Time 3 (r = .35, p < .05).
Bayer et al. Australia School 8-9 1221 R MH Friendship acts as a protective buffer against Moderate
(2018) internalising problems in children who are bullied,
compared to children with no friends (F(3,349) = 3.9, p
= .009). There was no significant effect of friendship on
externalising symptoms.
Kaspar (2013) Canada National 6-14 (10.1) 12,366 R MH Peer relationship quality significant predicted Moderate
survey psychological/nervous problems in regression model
(β = -.66, p < .001, ES = -.015). Parent-child relationship
quality was also a significant predictor (β = -.35, p <
.001, ES = -.008).
Participants were Aboriginal children.
Lengua (2003) US Community Grades 3-5 89 S W, MH Smiling/laughter was related concurrently and High
(9.9) longitudinally to higher levels of well-being (r = .25, p
< .05) but not to internalising 3or externalising.
The Stroop interference score (self-regulation) was not
significantly related to any outcomes.

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Guzman Chile School 4th grade 7903 A MH Mentally healthy in 1st grade predicted academic High
et al. (2011) achievement test score in 4th grade (F = 241.56, p <
.001).
Murphy Chile School 1st to 3rd (n = A MH Mental health risk in 1st grade and academic Moderate
et al. (2015) grade 61,807 in performance in 1st grade had significant negative
first relationship as reported by teacher (r = -0.36, p = .01)
grade and and by parent (r = -0.27, p = .01).
n = 56,476 Mental health risk in 1st grade & academic
in third performance in 3rd grade reported by teacher (r = -0.25,
grade p = .01) and by parent (r = -0.22, p = .01)
Skinner US School 4th-6th 880 E R Engagement & coping were significantly related in fall High
et al. (2016) grade (r = .57, p < .001) and in spring: (r = .59, p < .001).
Sabato & Israel School Study 1: 2nd Study 1: R W SWB was associated with greater sharing in 5 th grade Moderate
Kogut (2019) grade & 5th 41; Study (t = 1.53, β = .14, p = .12) but not in 2nd grade (t = -0.49,
grade; Study 2: 225 β = -.05, p = .62)
2: 7-11 (7.8 Some weak correlations between amount of candy
and 10.58) shared & specific well-being scales, e.g., satisfaction
with family (r = .138, p = .041) and satisfaction with
possessions (r = .163, p = .016), however friends scale
was not significant.
Wang Australia Cohort 6-7, 8-9 and 3,153 R MH Peer problems at 4-5 years old was significantly Moderate
et al. (2018) 10-11 correlated to internalising problems at 6-7 years (r =
.18, p < .01), 8-9 years (r = .19, p < .01) and 10-11 years (r
= .18, p < .01). Relationships were also significant
between peer problems at 6-7 and internalising
problems at 6-7 years (r = .13, p < .01), 8-9 years (r = .16,
p < .01) and 10-11 years (r = .17, p < .01).
Peer problems at 4-5 years was also significantly
associated with externalising problems at 4-5 (r = .15, p
< .01) and at 6-7 (r = .18, p < .01). Peer problems at 6-7
were also related to externalising problems at 6-7 (r =
.22, p < .01)
Wang et al. Australia Cohort 6-7, 8-9 2857 R W Teacher/Child closeness had a significant negative Moderate
(2016) relationship with peer problems (r = -0.23, p < .01), but
not emotional symptoms (r = -0.02, ns).

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Turner, Roberts, Proeve, & Chen

Teacher/Child conflict had a significant positive

relationship with peer problems (r = 0.39, p < .01), as
well as emotional symptom’s (r = 0.15, p < .01).
Yang China School Grades 3-5 807 A W Academic achievement and subjective well-being in High
et al. (2019) (9.43) school measured at 3 time points 6 months apart.
Academic achievement at Time 1 was positively
associated with subjective well-being at Time 1 (r =
.15, p < .001), Time 2 (r = .18, p < .001) and Time 3 (r =
.24, p < .001).
Achievement at Time 2 was also associated with well-
being at Time 1 (r = .12, p < .01), Time 2 (r = .18, p <
.001) and Time 3 (r = .23, p < .001).
Achievement at Time 3 was correlated with well-being
at Time 1 (r = .15, p < .001), Time 2 (r = .19, p < .001) and
Time 3 (r = .24, p < .001).
Flouri et al. UK Cohort 3, 5 & 7 16,916 S MH Self-regulation at age 5 significantly correlated with High
(2014) internalising at age 5 (r = -.25, p < .001) and 7 (r = -.22, p
< .001), as well as externalising at age 5 (r = -.40, p <
.001) and 7 (r = -.32, p < .001).
Self-regulation at age 7 is also significantly correlated
with internalising at age 5 (r = -.23, p < .001) and 7 (r = -
.31, p < .001), as well as externalising at age 5 (r = -.34, p
< .001) and 7 (r = -.46, p < .001).
Barbarin et al. South Cohort 5 625 R, S MH Family spirituality and anxious/depressed outcome High
(2001) Africa was not significant (r = .016), nor was family
satisfaction and anxious/depressed (r = .026).
Degoy & Argentina School 9-13 (9.5) 533 A W Autoregressive model with academic performance High
Olmos (2020) (AP) 2 regressed on AP1 for psychological wellbeing
was significant (p < .01, β = 0.807), as was AP2 to AP3
(p < .01, β = 0.797).
Toseeb UK Cohort 2-11 6,531 R MH Friendships predicted externalising problems in High
et al. (2020) (friendships children without developmental language disorder
measured at (DLD) (β = –0.082, 95% CI [–0.116, –0.048], p < .001) but
7 years, MH not with DLD (β = 0.036 [–0.075, 0.146], ns).
measured at Friendships predicted internalising problems in
11) children without DLD (β = –0.294 [–0.333, –0.254], p <

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 PERMA, children’s wellbeing, resilience, mental health
Turner, Roberts, Proeve, & Chen

.001) and with DLD (β = –0.255 [–0.409, –0.101], p <

.01).
Mekonnen Ethiopia Community 6.5-9.3 2090 R, A MH High SDQ significantly predicted lower academic High
et al. (2020) achievement (β = − 2.89, 95% CI [− 5.73, − 0.06], p < .05),
as did the conduct problems sub-scale of the SDQ (β =
− 0.57; 95% CI [− 1.02, − 0.12], p < .05), other subscales
were not significant.
Flouri et al. UK Cohort 3-7 16,916 R MH Parent-child relationship predicted internalising High
(2015) problems (t = -0.075, 95% CI [-0.08, -0.07], p < .001) and
externalising problems (t = -0.135, 95% CI [-0.014, -
0.13], p < .001).
Li et al. (2021) China School (Sample 1: 897 (cross A MH There was a significant relational between High
10.36; validation achievement (T2) and depression (T1) in sample 1
Sample 2: sample of only (r = -0.12, p < .01). As well as achievement (T2) &
10.42) 821) depression (T3) in both sample 1 (r = -0.12, p < .01) and
Samples from sample 2 (r = -0.18, p < .001).
two different Significant negative relationships were observed for
school achievement (T4) and depression (T3) in sample 1 (r =
districts -0.16, p <.001) and sample 2 (r = -0.17, p <.001).
(measured at As well as for achievement (T4) and depression (T1) in
4 time points both sample 1 (r = -0.13, p <.001) and sample 2 (r = -
across two 0.09, p <.05)
semesters).
Panayiotou UK School 9-12 (9.17, 1626 R, A MH There is a significant relationship between High
(2019) 10.17, 11.17) achievement & mental health difficulties (r = -.41, p <
.001), as well as school connectedness & mental health
difficulties (r = -.40, p < .001).
Gubbels Netherlands School (10.333) 150 S W Wellbeing and creative abilities correlated at Moderate
(2017) beginning of 5th grade (r = .321, p < .01), end of 5th
grade (r = .245, p < .01) and end of 6th grade (r = .367, p
< .01).
Marques Portugal School 11-12 (11.61) 592 E, S W, MH Only including T1 data (participants 16 at T2). Moderate
(2016) Significant positive relationships between hope and
life satisfaction (r = .55, p <.01), hope and mental health
(r = .42, p <.01), engagement and life satisfaction (r =
.39, p <.01) and engagement and mental health (r = .36,
p <.01).

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Ng (2014) Hong Kong Community 7-12(8.84) 150 S W Both facets of the Hope scale (hope-agency and hope- Moderate
pathway) were related to life satisfaction. Some
children in the study had been a part of a mentoring
program and some were in a control group.
Life satisfaction had a significant positive relationship
with hope-agency at both baseline (r = .20, p < .05) and
follow-up (r = .55, p < .01).
Life satisfaction had a significant positive relationship
with hope-pathway at both baseline (r = .23, p < .01)
and follow-up (r = .51, p < .01).
Marques et al. Portugal School T1: 10- 367 A, S W, MH Correlations between variables in the two-year study High
(2011) 15(11.78) (predictors used were not relevant). Only T1 used
only as participants are >12 at T2.
There was a significant positive relationship between
hope and life satisfaction (r = .58, p < .01), as well as
hope and mental health (r = .46, p < .01).
Achievement had a significant relationship with life
satisfaction (r = .25, p < .01), but not with mental health
(r = .10, ns).
Froh (2010) US School 10-14(11.74) 700 S W Gratitude (T1) and life satisfaction (T2) had a High
significant positive relationship (r = .30, p <.001)
Kwok et al. US School 1st grade 445 A R Correlations between achievement measures and ego- High
(2007) (6.57) resiliency were all significant. Ego-resiliency and
maths 1 (r = .15, p < .01), maths 2 (r = .21, p < .01),
reading 1 (r = .33, p < .01) and reading 2 (r = .32, p <
.01).
Mok et al. UK Cohort 7-16 171 R MH Subscales of SDQ predicted group membership High
(2014) (groups – low/no peer problems, childhood-limited
problems, childhood-onset persistent problems &
adolescent-onset problems).
Children in the childhood-onset persistent problems
group were less prosocial than those with low/no peer
problems (OR = 0.44, 95% CI [0.30, 0.64], p < .001).
They showed higher levels of emotional symptoms
than low/no problems group (OR = 1.59, 95% CI [1.13,
2.24], p = .008). Children with childhood-limited

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Turner, Roberts, Proeve, & Chen

problems were less prosocial than those with low/no

problems (OR =0.53, 95% CI [0.36, 0.77], p = .001).
García-Moya UK International 11-15 9,444 R W Only included 11-year-old data. High
et al. (2015) survey Teacher connectedness on well-being was significant
(F(1) = 319.811, p = .000, partial η2 = .117).
Chen et al. China School 9-12 1,162 R MH A significant direct effect was reported for peer High
(2012) relationships (PR) in Grade 3 on depression in Grade 4
(-.12, p < .05). Significant indirect effects were reported
for PR in Grade 3 on depression in Grade 5 (-.11, p <
.05), PR Grade 3 on depression Grade 6 (-.09, p < .05),
but was not significant for PR Grade 4 on depression
Grade 6.
Notes. P = Positive Emotions, E = Engagement, R = Relationships, M = Meaning, A = Achievement, W = Well-being, R = Resilience, MH = Mental Health, SDQ =
Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, ES = effect size.

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5. Interventions
Author Country Context Participants PERMA Outcomes Intervention Relevant Results Critical
Components appraisal
Age Range Sample score
(Mean) Size
Kirby UK School 8-13 127 P, S R, MH Hopeful Minds No significant change in positive Moderate
et al. Programme emotions from time 1 to 2 (t(47) = 1.39,
(2021) (based on hope- p = .17).
theory) Significant decrease in anxiety
between time 1 and 2 (t(45) = 3.30, p <
.01) with a medium effect size
(Cohen’s D = 0.48).
Resilience scores also increased
significantly from time 1 to time 2
(t(20) = -2.06, p < .05) with a medium
effect size (Cohen’s D = 0.44)
Themes from focus groups on
experience of programme:
• Gaining hope - positive thinking
• Sharing hope - helping others
• Learning new skills - resilience &
breaking down communication
barriers
Burt et al. US School 9-11 32 S MH Leadership Participants' perceived anger Low
(2013) Implementation decreased (t(28) = 7.42, p = .003, ES =
Training .62), and leadership ability increased
(t(25) = -8.20, p = .002, ES = .65).

Armstrong Canada School 6-12 (7.53) 45 M MH D.R.E.A.M. Significant differences between the High
(2019) (gifted (Developing total pre-test & post Ch.I.P. (meaning)
children) Resilience scores (t(33) = −4.20, p < .001, d = −.738).
through Significant differences between the
Emotions, total pre- and post-test ISA (mental
Attitudes, and health) surveys (t(33) = −3.94, p < .001, d
Meaning) = −.689).

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Turner, Roberts, Proeve, & Chen

Regression yielded R2 change of .32, a

third of the variability in mental health
scores was explained by a change in
meaning scores.

Schonert- Canada School 9-11 (10.24) 100 P, R, A, S MH MindUP & Intervention effect (F(7, 88) = 2.14, p = High
Reichl et Social .04), optimism (F(1, 97) = 5.40, p = .02, d
al. (2015) responsibility = .48) significantly decreased
programs depressive symptoms (F(1, 97) = 4.14, p
(BAU) = .04, d = –0.45). Analysis showed a
trend toward higher year-end math
grades for children in the MindUP
program (M = 6.12, SD = 2.17) than for
BAU children (M = 5.25, SD = 2.46,
t(87) = 1.76, p = .07, d = .38. multivariate
effect for intervention (F(8, 87) = 10.41,
p = .001)
Tunariu UK School 11-12 354 R, A, S W iNEAR Programme Subjective wellbeing increased over High
et al. (positive psychology time in the experimental condition
(2017) intervention for (F(1, 224) = 12.54, p < 0.001, partial η² =
resilience and 0.05) and also in the control condition
emotional (F(1, 224) = 2.18, p = 0.14, partial η² =
wellbeing) 0.01).
Positive relationships with others
increased between baseline and post-
intervention time-points (F(1, 208) =
4.89, p = 0.028, partial η² = 0.02) but not
in control group.
Ohl et al. UK School 7-8 375 R MH Pyramid project Total Difficulties decreased in Pyramid High
(2013) (strengthen group significantly (p < .01) but not in
friendship skills, comparison group.
build emotional Significant main effect for Prosocial
resilience, and social behaviour scores over time (F(1, 370) =
skills) 4.48, p < .05, Emotional symptoms (F(1,
371) = 14.81, p < .001), but not for Peer
problems (F(1, 371) = 0.88, p > .05). Peer
problems did, however, slightly

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Turner, Roberts, Proeve, & Chen

decrease in Pyramid group (t(1,102) =

2.77, p <. 01).
Foka et al. Greece Refugee 7-14 (10.76) 72 P, R, S W, MH Strengths for the Intervention group reported High
(2021) camps Journey program significant improvements in well-
being (F(1, 46) = 42.99, partial η² = .48,
p < .001, optimism (F(1, 53) = 27.16,
partial η² =.34, p < .001 and depressive
symptoms (F(1, 31) = 62.14, partial η² =
.67, p < .001).
Shoshani Israel Clinical 5-12 66 P, S MH Make a Wish There were significant increase in hope Moderate
(2016) in intervention group from (Cohen's d
= 0.71, p = .004).
Positive emotions significantly
increased in both intervention (d = 0.80,
p = .0003) and control (d = .24, p = .000).
Depression (d =0.7, p = .000) and
Anxiety (d =.41, p = .000) both
significantly decreased in intervention
group, but Optimism did not change
significantly.
Kiviruusu Finland School (8.1) 3704 R MH Together at School No significant effects of the Moderate
et al. (Cluster-RCT) intervention in social-emotional skills
(2016) or psychological problems. The
intervention was effective in reducing
psychological problems among third
grade boys (regression estimate =
−0.994, p = 0.025), while among first
grade boys the effect was close to zero
and non-significant.
Layous Canada School 9-11 (10.6) 415 P, S W Kindness Counts Both groups increased in life High
et al. (Intervention group: satisfaction & positive affect, no
(2012) performed 3 kinds significant differences between groups.
acts; Whereabouts Students increased in the raw number
group: visited 3 of peer nominations they received
places) from classmates (γ00 = 0.68, S.E. = 0.27,
t(17) = 2.37, p = .02), but those who
performed kind acts (M = +1.57, SD =

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Turner, Roberts, Proeve, & Chen

1.90) increased significantly more than

those who visited places (M = +0.71,
SD = 2.17; γ01 = 0.83, S.E. = 0.39, t(17) =
2.10, p = .05), gaining an average of 1.5
friends.
Healy & Australia School 6-12 (8.72) 111 R MH Resilience Triple P Depression (T1) and friendedness (T2) High
Sanders (bullied) were not significantly correlated (r =
(2018) .01).
Internalising response (T1) &
friendedness (T2) were however (r = -
.30, p < .01).
Child depression (T3) & Friendedness
T2: were not significantly related (r = -
.15), as opposed to internalising
response (T3) and friendedness (T2) (r
= -.42, p < .001).
Shum Hong Kong School 8-12 (9.53) 459 S MH The Adventures of No significant intervention effects High
et al. DoReMiFa (digital were found in measures of anxiety,
(2019) and school-based positive and negative automatic
intervention) thoughts the participants immediately
and 6 months after completion of the
program. There was a significant effect
for mental health knowledge (β = .46, p
= .01).
Sim (2015) Korea Clinical 9-12(11) 33 P, R, S R Humour The average resilience score in the High
intervention experimental group increased by 9.88
(96.41 to 106.29), while the scores of the
control group increased by 0.25 (98.88
to 99.13). The experimental group
scores were significantly higher than
the control group scores (t = 2.999, p =
0.005).
Participants were diagnosed with atopic
dermatitis and diabetes.
Rousseau Canada School 7-13 (9.8) 138 S MH Creative expression Effect of creative expression High
et al. workshops for workshops on MH:
(2005)

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Turner, Roberts, Proeve, & Chen

immigrant & Self-report externalising (β = -4.15, t = -

refugee children 4.44, p <.000)
Self-report internalising (β = -3.13, t = -
3.52, p = .001).
Teacher report externalising (β = -1.41,
t = -1.24, p = .217).
Teacher report internalising (β = -2.22,
t = -2.34, p = .021).
Modi et al. India School 10-14 100 R, M, S W Mindfulness Difference between High
(2018) intervention experimental/control group post-
intervention mean in: self-regulation
(t(98) = 6.983, p < .001), well-being
(t(98) = 17.487, p < .001), positive
relationships with others (t(98) = 5.733,
p < .001), purpose in life (t(98) = 9.411, p
< .001).
Tol Indonesia School 7-15 (9.9) 403 R, S MH Cognitive- No significant relationship between Moderate
et al. behavioural & social supports & PTSD. No significant
(2010) creative-expressive impact of Hope on PTSD.
intervention
Carter UK School 9-11 (9.82) 606 P, S W, MH Happy Thoughts Study 1: Intervention significantly High
et al. (positive events decreased depression scores from pre-
(2018) diary) intervention to post-intervention (F(1,
615) = 24.69, p < .01, η² = .04) and from
pre-intervention to follow-up (F(1, 615)
= 26.72, p < .01, η² = .04).
Study 2: Significant increase in
happiness in the experimental group
across the study: between baseline and
post-test (F(1, 31) = 10.54, p = .003) and
between baseline and follow-up (F(1,
31) = 9.27, p = .005). There were no
significant differences in the control
group.
Vuorinen Finland School 10-13 253 P, S W Character Strengths Quantitative: grit (F(2, 250) = 5.202, p = High
et al. (Special intervention 0.006, partial η² = .040) and
(2019) engagement (F(2, 241) = 4.192, p =

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 PERMA, children’s wellbeing, resilience, mental health
Turner, Roberts, Proeve, & Chen

educational 0.016, partial η² = .034). increased in

needs) intervention; effect disappeared when
controlling for gender.
Qualitative (themes):
• Praise
• Well-being
• Good interaction
• The significance of encounters
Pandya International Residential 8-13 1689 S W, R, MH The Chinmaya Psychological wellbeing (t = 45.12, p = High
(2018) homes Mission programme .02) and resilience (t = 79.12, p = .01)
(spirituality were significantly higher post
intervention) program, and depressive symptoms (t
= −57.24, p = .00) decreased.
Participants were bereaved children.
Elfrink Netherlands School 4-12 184 E, R W, MH Positive Education Significant increase in self-reported Moderate
et al. Programme well-being and health-related quality
(2017) of life (d = 3.46, p = 0.00). Significant
decrease between pre- and post-
intervention in total difficulties score
and reveal a medium- to large-sized
overall effect (d = −0.58, p = 0.02). None
of the SDQ subscales were found to
change significantly.
Foster et Australia Family 8-17 (11.69) 64 P, R, S W, R, MH ON FIRE peer Changes in hope were significant High
al. (2016) support program between baseline (M = 21.73, SD = 6.66)
and follow up (M = 24.41, SD = 6.40) (p
< 0.05, d = -.32). Positive affect and
connections were not significant
overall.
No statistically significant changes in
the SDQ total difficulties, emotional
symptoms, conduct problems,
hyperactivity, peer problems or
prosocial behaviour were found.
Powell & US Post- 8-12 102 R MH Journey of Hope Significant Treatment x Time effect on High
Thompson disaster prosocial behaviour subscale (F(95) =
(2016)

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 PERMA, children’s wellbeing, resilience, mental health
Turner, Roberts, Proeve, & Chen

4.286, p < .05) with a medium effect

size (d = 0.41).
No significant changes in other SDQ
subscales.
Allen US Community 5-19 74 S MH Resilience and The HQ score (hope) was negatively Moderate
et al. Coping Intervention correlated with the self-reported CSDQ
(2016) for Children (strengths & difficulties) score (r = -0.35
p = 0.0045).
Suldo US School 9-10 12 P, R, S W Positive Psychology Statistically significant increases from High
et al. Intervention time 1 to time 2 for positive affect (t(11)
(2015) = −2.25, p = .023, d = .52), global life
satisfaction, (t(11) = −1.59, p = .070, d =
.40) and satisfaction with friends, (t(11)
= −1.52, p = .079, d = .43).
No significant changes at follow up.
Quinlan et Australia School 9-12 193 P, E, R, S W Awesome Us At baseline, life satisfaction was High
al. (2015) Programme positively correlated with positive
(classroom-based affect (r = .173, p < .01) and engagement
strengths program) (r = .359, p < .001)
At follow up life satisfaction had a
positive relationship with positive
affect (r = .195, p < .001) and
engagement (r = .383, p < .001).
Suldo et US School 10-12(11.43) 55 P, S W, MH Positive Psychology Life satisfaction scores of students in High
al. (2014) Group Intervention the intervention group significantly
increased from pre- to post-
intervention (F(1, 19) = 4.81, p = .041, η²
= .20), while LS scores in wait-list
control group declined, but not to a
statistically significant degree.
LS from post-intervention to follow-up
for the intervention group were not
statistically significant. Intervention
(F(1, 19) = 6.37, p = .021, η² = .25) and
control (F(1, 19) = 4.61, p = .045, η² =
.20) had significant decreases in
internalising symptoms, but no

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significant change in externalising

symptoms from pre- to post-
intervention.
Froh US School 8-11 122 S W Nice Thinking! Study 1: treatment group reported High
et al. (S1:9.03, (Sample (Gratitude stronger benefit appraisals than
(2014) S2:9.5) 2:82) intervention) control (F(1, 98) = 5.88, p < .05, η² =
0.06).
Study 2: Benefit appraisal increased
linearly for whole sample (γ00 = 39.798,
p < .001).
Gratitude was significantly different
between at the two groups at 12 weeks
(t(80) = 1.82, p = .04, d = 0.41) and at 20
weeks (t(80) = 2.14, p = .02, d = 0.48).
Life satisfaction did not differ between
the two groups significantly.
Feinberg US School 8.59-10.8 174 R MH Siblings Are Special Children in the intervention condition, High
et al. families Program compared to control, had significantly
(2013) lower levels of internalizing problems
at post-test (β = -.55, ES = 0.31)
(controlling for pre-test levels). There
were no significant intervention effects
on child externalizing behaviour or
father- or teacher-reported
internalizing behaviour.
Coholic Canada Community 8-14 36 A, S R Holistic Arts-Based Significant change in reactivity scale of High
(2012) Group Program resilience (F(6,54) = 3.29, p < .01, η² =
.27), but not mastery or relatedness
scales.
Participants were referred by child
protection agency or mental health centre.
Goodkind US Community 7-17(11.1) 18 R W, MH Teen Health Quality of life had significant linear Moderate
(2012) Resiliency growth (t(17) = 2.76, p = .015).
Intervention for Children’s social adjustment improved
Violence Exposure linearly over time during and after the
(THRIVE) intervention (t(84) = 2.24, p = .03).
Qualitative:

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Youth described improvements in all

three areas of quality of life measured:
family, friends, and school.
Participants were Native American Youth.
Ashdown Australia School Prep to 99 S W You Can Do It! Early Significant effect on Positive Social- High
& Year 1 Childhood Emotional Wellbeing (F(1,95) = 18.52, p
Bernard Education Program < 0.01, partial η2 = 0.16).
(2012)
Marques Portugal School 10-12(10.96) 62 A, S W, MH Building Hope for Correlation analyses reveal that at High
et al. the Future Time 1, hope had significant
(2011) correlations with life satisfaction (r =
.55, p <.01) and mental health (r = .47, p
<.01). The intervention group showed a
significant increase in life satisfaction
from pre- to post-assessment (t(60) =-
4.49, p < .001) and to 6-month (t(52) =-
3.83, p = .001) 18-month follow-up
(t(49) =-3.81, p < .001). The comparison
group showed no significant change
over time. ANOVA showed no
significant interaction between group
and time on the MHI, (Wilks’ λ = .77,
F(3,120) = 1.51, p = .21, partial η² = .03).
Hui & Hong Kong School 11-12(11.8) 56 S W, MH Forgiveness Non-significant difference between the High
Chau intervention two groups, except the one-item
(2009) forgiveness scale (F (55) = 21.66, p <
0.01, ES = .30), experimental group
showed more forgiveness to offenders
than control group.
Experimental group had a significant
increase in hope (t = 2.13, p < .05, ES =
.14) at post-test one. Significant
decrease in depression (t = 2.97, p <
0.01, ES = .25) at post-test one, and was
maintained at post-test two. No
statistically significant differences
between the pre-test and post-test

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scores of the control group hope or

depression.
Qualitative: Forgiveness was
considered good for ‘self-
development’, for ‘having a close
relationship with others’, and good to
both the forgiver and the offender.
Participants saw forgiveness bringing
“peace and happiness in human
society”.
Merrell et US School S1: 10-11 S1: 120 P, R MH Strong Kids and Differences in emotional symptoms Moderate
al. (2008) Study 2 & 3 Strong Teens checklist scores between pre-test (M =
not included 12.39, SD = 4.84) and post-test (M =
12.14, SD = 4.23) were not statistically
significant.
Other two studies excluded due to age.
Arora & India Clinical 9-12 6 P MH Positive affect Depression scores were significantly Moderate
Sharma intervention different between pre (M = 15.83, SD =
(2018) 4.40) and post (M = 6.67, SD = 3.20)
intervention (t = 4.12, p = 002).
Participants were children with
depression.
Beaumont Australia Community 7-12 (9.8) 27 R MH The Secret Agent SAS led to significant improvements in High
et al. Society (SAS) children’s social skills reported by
(2019) parents (F(2, 25) = 21.91, p < 0.0001,
partial ɳ2 = 0.46), children’s social
competence reported by parents (F(2,
25) = 17.12, p < 0.001, partial ɳ2 = 0.58),
children’s overall anxiety reported by
parents (F(2, 25) = 8.57, p = 0.001,
partial ɳ2 = 0.41), and children’s social
anxiety reported by themselves (F(2,
25) = 7.14, p = 0.004, partial ɳ2 = 0.36)
Seale et al. Zambia School 10-13(11.39) 643 S R GROW (resilience Outcomes Moderate
(2021) curriculum) • Confidence & resilience (e.g.,
speaking out more in class,

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 PERMA, children’s wellbeing, resilience, mental health
Turner, Roberts, Proeve, & Chen

showing initiative, and leading

others)
• Spiritual impact was a recurring
theme
• Significant increase in psychological
resilience from Time 1 to 2 in the
initial-start group (t = 2.86, p < .001)
and Time 1 to 3 (t = 2.82, p < .001),
but no significant changes in
delayed-start group
Kevers et Belgium School 8-12 120 S MH Creative arts-based No significant difference in SDQ Moderate
al. (2022) expression program between intervention and control
group.
Participants were immigrant and refugee
children.
Moula et UK School 7-10 62 S MH Art therapy, music Qualitative Moderate
al. (2022) therapy, • Art therapies assisted in the
dramatherapy or development of coping
dance movement mechanisms and stress relief
therapy
Rich et al. US School 9-12 (10.82) 169 P, S MH, R Resilience Builder There was a significant interaction Moderate
(2022) Program (Relevant between time and
aspects of the intervention for children’s sense of
intervention 2
mastery (F(1,146) = 12.42, p = .001, ηp
included leadership,
= .08) and sense of relatedness (F(1,148)
solving friendship
2
problems, empathy = 7.55, p = .007, ηp = .07). There was a
and optimistic significant interaction between time
thinking) and intervention for parent report of
2
resilience (F(1,94) = 14.06, p < .001, ηp
= .13) or teacher’s report of resilience
2
(F(1,117) = 9.05, p = .003, ηp = .08).
Notes. P = Positive Emotions, E = Engagement, R = Relationships, M = Meaning, A = Achievement, W = Well-being, R = Resilience, MH = Mental Health, SDQ =
Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, ES = effect size.

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6. Qualitative
Author Country Context Participants PERMA Outcomes Type of Relevant Results Critical
Age Range Sample Components data appraisal
(Mean) Size score
Linh et al. Vietnam School 8-12 (9.51) 228 E, R, A W Thematic Themes relating to when children as High
(2021) analysis satisfied with life:
• Quality of family relationships
• Quality of social relationships
• Engagement in interesting and fun
leisure and activities
• Achieving desired goals
Mitchell US Community - - R, S R Qualitative Resilience factors: Moderate
(2011) (Hope Meadows • Community relations: the site facilitates
shared site) interaction between neighbours and
celebrates children’s milestone with
whole community
• Special relationships with seniors:
planned and unplanned activities
develop this relationship
Benninger South Community 9-12 54 R, M W, MH Photovoice Themes: High
& Africa & • Social connectedness
Savahl community
(2016) mapping
Pienaar South Residential care 9-13 8 P, R, A, S R Interviews Themes of protective factors: High
et al. Africa (Lebone Land) • Family
(2011) • Community/Neighbourhood
• External supports or support networks
• Inner strengths (optimism and positive
identity (n = 8), achievement motivation
(n = 8), emotional management, (n = 7),
trust (n = 7), religion and faith (n = 4),
and humour (n = 3).
• Interpersonal & problem-solving skills
Braband South Children’s 10-17 66 R, S R Thematic Themes of resilience: High
et al. Africa homes • Relationship
(2018) • Hope

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Boström Sweden Clinical 8-15 (11.4) 7 R W Interviews Themes: High

& • Attuned parent–child relationship
Strand associated with child well‐being
(2021) Participants were children of parents with
psychosis.
Cefai Malta School 6-9 9 E, R, A, S R Qualitative Themes: High
(2007) classrooms • Sense of classroom belonging and
connectedness
• Active engagement and collaboration
• Positive beliefs and expectations
• Recognition
Sabolova Wales & School 9-12 (10.2) 53 R W Thematic Protective factors included: High
et al. Czech analysis • Positive Child-parent
(2020) Republic • Relationships
• Meaningful Friendships
• Coping strategies
Forrest- US Community 9-15(11.9) 20 R,S R Thematic Themes: High
Bank et (public housing • Spiritual coping: Calling on spiritual
al. (2014) neighbourhoods) beliefs or behaviours in response to
challenges
• Connection (relationships that provide
companionship, esteem, information,
and instrumental support)
• Aspirations (hope)
Coholic et Canada Residential care S R Qualitative Key points: Moderate
al. (2012) • A sense of cohesion with others is vital
to development of resilience
• Arts based methods lead to enjoyment
& making friends
• They were an avenue for feelings and
thoughts to emerge in a safer way as
thoughts and feelings could be
externalized in the art creation or
activity
Mohangi South Residential care 11-15 (12) 9 P, S R Thematic Themes: High
et al. Africa • A sense of spiritual connectedness
(2011) • Embracing God

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 PERMA, children’s wellbeing, resilience, mental health
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• Sense of optimism
• Positive personal characteristics
Pérez- Sweden Community 1-17(9.5) 9 mothers R, S W Thematic Themes: High
Aronsson • The importance of supportive
et al. relationships
(2019) • Promoting children’s well-being
• Focusing on the Present and Hoping for
the Future
Participants were refugees.
Ninomiya Japan, School 9-13 (11.01) 842 P, R W Qualitative All countries were connected with “friend”, High
et al. Mongolia “family,” and “together,” as well as
(2021) & “school,” like,” and “go.” The result of
Finland related word analysis demonstrated that
“friend,” family,” and “together” were
related to each other.
Key themes:
• Interpersonal relationships
• Achievement
• Positive (and negative) emotions
Buchanan UK School 10-11 23 P, E, R, M, A W Interviews In the context of lower-attaining children High
et al. during school closures due to COVID-19
(2022) • Some children had increase positive
emotions being at home, others
reported being sad due to missing play
• Engagement decreased due to
boredom/not having toys at home.
Digital work did increase engagement
for some.
• Children missed teachers and friends,
but had good relationships with family
• Meaning given to schooling shifted after
school closure
• Enjoyed more relaxed academic
expectations and more creative activities
Notes. P = Positive Emotions, E = Engagement, R = Relationships, M = Meaning, A = Achievement, W = Well-being, R = Resilience, MH = Mental Health

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7. Mixed-methods
Author Country Context Participants PERMA Outcomes Type of Relevant Results Critical
Components data appraisal
Age Range Sample score
(Mean) Size
Kirby et al. UK School 8-13 88 S R, MH T-tests Quantitative (primary school participants only) High
(2021) and group Evaluation of the Hopeful Minds Programme using
interviews pre/post measures showed a significant change in
anxiety (t(45) = 3.30, p < .01, Cohen’s D = .48).
Qualitative
Relevant themes from group interviews:
• Gaining hope – positive thinking
• Learning new skills – resilience
Barfield & US Clinical 7-11 20 R W Interviews Connections was one of three themes revealed in content High
Driessnack (draw and analysis that made children with ADHD’s life ‘really
(2018) tell) – good’
focused
on
qualitative
Boniwell UK School 11-12 164 P, E, R, S W Non-randomised personal well-being lessons: No Moderate
(2016) significant main or interaction effects were found for the
general life satisfaction
Gervais Canada Refugees 6-14 43 M R, MH Support received High
et al. (2021) & • Receiving and providing family support.
Migrants • Receiving informal support (sometimes)

Feelings related to immigration

• Experiencing positive feelings.
• The excitement of discovering new things.

Adaptation - refugee status seems to be a protective

factor for children in the study, as does the attribution of
meaning to immigration
Notes. P = Positive Emotions, E = Engagement, R = Relationships, M = Meaning, A = Achievement, W = Well-being, R = Resilience, MH = Mental Health

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8. Reviews & Meta-analyses

Author Country Participants Type of PERMA Outcomes Relevant Results Critical
study Components appraisal
Age Range Sample score
(Mean) Size
Romano et Canada 0-18 20 Review A MH Key findings: Moderate
al. (2015) studies • Internalising problems predict lower reading levels
• Externalising problems associated with underachievement
• Students with emotional & behavioural impairments
perform lower on reading, writing and maths
• Emotional/behavioural impairments lead to lower test
scores, lower grades & school drop out
Robson et al. Australia 3.00-12.99 150 Meta- S MH A negative association was observed between self-regulation High
(2020) studies analysis and externalizing problems (k = 40, r = –.34, 95% CI [–.38, –
(n = .31]).
215,
212)
Sleijpen et Netherlands 10-20 26 Review R, S R Relevant sources of resilience: High
al. (2016) studies • Social support
• Religion
• Hope
Mullin (2019) Canada Literature S R Key points: Moderate
review • Positive future expectations and self-confidence are key to
children’s resilience, especially in response to
maltreatment
• Youth higher in hope are better able to apply coping
strategies when faced with significant life stress
• People with high hope levels respond better to stressors to
those low in hope
van der Wal Netherlands Literature R, S W Key points: Moderate
et al. (2017) review • Ability to forgive (as opposed to retaliate) benefits
interpersonal relationships & well-being in adults
• Self-reported levels of forgiveness in children corresponds
with prosocial behaviour toward offending peer
• Forgiveness positively associated with self-esteem and
negatively with social anxiety

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• Forgiveness positively related to well-being (only when

forgiving a friend, not when forgiving someone who was
not a friend)
Pieloch et al. US Literature R, A R To promote resilience: Moderate
(2016) review • Social support (from friends and community)
• Positive outlook
• Family connectedness
Sullivan & US 1,433 13 Systematic S MH Creative expression therapy: Moderate
Simonson studies review Each of these studies tested interventions shown to be
(2016) effective with populations of children with mental health
difficulties, including exposure to trauma
Layous & US Literature S W, MH Key points: Moderate
Lyubomirsky review • Gratitude associated with wellbeing & causes increases in
(2014) wellbeing
• Gratitude negatively related to depression, substance
abuse & externalising behaviours
• Can mitigate risk factors for psychopathology and predict
prosocial behaviour
Beauregard Canada 19 Review S W, R, MH Key points: High
(2014) studies Effects of creative expression programmes on children’s well-
being
• Programmes were beneficial on children’s mental health.
• Programmes seemed to significantly increase children’s
well-being by lowering impairment in adolescents
(Plurality), improving hope scores and facilitating the
construction of meaning in immigrant and refugee
children
• Mixed results were found in the literature regarding
prosocial behaviours, self-esteem, coping and resiliency
• Significant decreases of PTSD and PTSD-related symptoms
for three programmes (CBI, ES-SL and OTT)
by decreasing emotional and behavioural problems.
• Participation in Art and Storytelling programme led to
decrease of internalizing and externalizing symptoms.
Marriott et UK 50 Narrative P, R, A, S R Relevant factors associated with resilience: High
al. (2014) studies review • Childhood family relationships and environment
(Connected, supportive family)

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• Interpersonal/emotional competencies:
- Social relationships
- Friendships/ relationships into adulthood
• Church/spirituality
• Positive school and education:
- Positive relationship with teacher
- Academic achievement
- Development of positive future orientation)
Zolkoski & US Literature P, R, A, S R Protective factors: Moderate
Bullock review Individual characteristics
(2012) • a close bond with a caregiver during the first year of life,
• sociability combined with a strong sense of independence,
• an optimistic view of their experiences in life even
amongst suffering, and
• an active engagement in act of required helpfulness
(Werner, 1984).
• Self-regulation
Family conditions
• family cohesion,
• supportive parent–child interactions,
• social support,
Community supports
• religious and spiritual organizations
Boynton & Canada Literature M, S R Reconstruction of meaning is critical for grieving process. Moderate
Vis (2011) review Integrative model:
• the context of the loss
• the continuum of subjective meanings associated with the
loss
• the changing representations of the lost relationship over
time and,
• the role of coping and emotion-regulation processes.
Positive reappraisal and spirituality significant factors
contributing to positive outcomes in grief
Suldo et al. US Literature R, A W Academic correlates of life satisfaction: Moderate
(2006) review • teacher support
• achievement
• perceived academic competence

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Park (2004) US Literature S W, R Character strengths: Moderate

review • Buffer against effects of stress & trauma (mitigating
disorder)
• Assist youth to thrive in a variety of ways (e.g. learning,
positive values, social competence, and sense of purpose)
• Associated with positive outcomes & reduced problem
behaviours
• For example, optimism decreases depression & anxiety
and hope mediates recovery from depression
Park (2004) US Literature P W Relevant points: Moderate
review • Experiencing more positive emotions, leads to more open-
minded thinking (tend to think and act in more flexible
and efficient ways) – related to higher life satisfaction
Rohner & US Literature R W, MH Summary of studies looking at mother/father relationships: Moderate
Veneziano review • Some conclude that father love is equally as important as
(2001) mother love in predicting specific child outcomes
• Others that father love predicts better than mother love
• That father love is the sole significant predictor after
removing the influence of mother love
• That father love moderates the influence of mother love
• Some conclude that paternal versus maternal parenting
may be associated with a single outcome or with different
outcomes in sons and daughters
Child outcomes: personality and psychological adjustment
problems; conduct problems; delinquency; mental illness;
substance abuse; psychological health and wellbeing
Holaday & US Literature R, M R Factors influencing resiliency: Moderate
McPhearson review • social support
(1997) • cognitive skills (e.g., assignment of meaning)
• psychological resources
Neiman US Literature R, A, S R Relevant factors associated with resilience: Moderate
(1988) review • Environmental Bonding, Mother-Child Interaction, and
Family Relationships
• Extrafamilial Factors - hobbies, talents, experience of
success & achievement
Barry et al. UK 6-18 22 Systematic R, S W, R, MH Mental health promotion interventions: High
(2013) studies review

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Turner, Roberts, Proeve, & Chen

• Of 11 relevant studies there were improvements in:

interpersonal strength, anxiety & depression, emotional
symptoms & conduct problems, well-being, PTSD
symptoms, and internalising & externalising scores
• No significant change reported for: depression scores in
some cases or not maintained at follow-up, and social
emotional well-being
Cheng et al. China Literature S R Key points: Moderate
(2015) eview • In China creativity is more about social value, achievement
attained with limited resources, and the influence of
individual morality on creativity – in summary resilience
(adaptation in hardship) is viewed as a form of creativity
itself
Gorell UK Review of R, M R Key points (resilience after divorce): Low
Barnes (1999) qualitative • Finding meaning
work • A good relationship with one parent when there is a bad
relationship with the other parent
• Good sibling relationships
• Support from their wider families
• Social support from adults outside family & children’s
friends
• School experiences (e.g., attention and warmth from
teachers)
Moula et al. UK 5-12 7 Systematic S R, MH Arts therapies lead to improvements in: High
(2020) studies review • Mood, communication and resilience.
• Small changes in depression & anxiety
Notes. P = Positive Emotions, E = Engagement, R = Relationships, M = Meaning, A = Achievement, W = Well-being, R = Resilience, MH = Mental Health.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors report no conflicts of interest.

Data availability statement

N/A.

Author contributions statement

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Jasmine Turner. The first draft
of the manuscript was written by Jasmine Turner and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.

Authors
Jasmine Turner
The University of Adelaide
jasmine.c.turner@adelaide.edu.au

Rachel M. Roberts
The University of Adelaide

Michael Proeve
The University of Adelaide

Junwen Chen
Australian National University

Acknowledgments
With thanks to David Rimmington for performing the pilot screening of studies and Vikki Langton for her contributions as a research librarian.

Publishing Timeline
Received 18 August 2022
Revised version received 20 April 2023
Accepted 21 April 2023
Published 13 June 2023

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