Lecture No.

9
Solar space heating and cooling- solar energy gadgets, solar cookers, solar water
heatin systems.

9.0 Solar space heating

Space heating is of particular relevance in colder countries where a
significant amount of energy is required for the heating. In India, it is of
importance mainly in the northern and north eastern regions in winter. Space
heating can be done by two methods: (i) Passive methods and (ii) Active
methods.
9.1 Passive method of space heating
Space heating gives a fair degree of comfort by adopting passive
method. A passive method is one in which thermal energy flows through a
living space by natural means without the help of a mechanical device like a
pump or blower. A schematic diagram is shown in fig.12. It was designed by
Prof.Trombe. The south face of the house is to be heated by proving a single
or double glazing. Behind it is a thick, black concrete wall absorbs the solar
radiation and serves as a thennal storage. Vents (A and B) are to be provided
near the top and bottom of the storage wall. The whole unit consisting of the
storage wall with vents and the glazing is referred to as a "Trombe wall".
During the day, both vents A and B are kept open. The air between the inner
glazing and the wall gets heated and flows into the living space through the
top vent. Simultaneously, the cooler air from the room is pulled out of the
living space through the bottom vent. Thus, a natural circulation path is set
up. Some energy transfer to the living space also takes place by convection
and radiation from the inner surface of the storage wall. During the night,

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both vents are closed and energy transfer takes place only by convection and
radiation from the inner surface.
The Trombe wall design can also provide summer ventilation by using
vents C and D near the top of the glazing and on the south and north facing
wall respectively. On a hot summer day, vents B, C and D have to be kept
open, while vent A has to be kept closed. The heated air between the glazing
and the wall would then flow out through vent C, drawing air from the living
space to replace it. This in tum would cause air to be pulled in from outside
through vent D. Vent D should be located in a such away that the air pulled
in through it comes from a shaded and cool area, for which the presence of
overhang on the roof of the house is required. This prevents falling of direct
radiation on the glazing during summer and makes ventilation more
effective.

9.2 Active method of space heating

Space heating system mainly consists of an array of collectors arranged on
the roof of a building, insulted storage tank, auxiliary heater, pump/blower
and heat exchanger (Fig. 12). Liquid/air gets heated up in the flat plate
collectors. The hot fluid passes to storage tank. The fluid from storage tank
is transmitted by pump/blower to heat exchanger. The beat exchanger blows
out hot air and heats up the surrounding living space in the building. Again
the cool air/water passes to the storage tank, which supplied to flat plate
collectors for heating. In the absence of solar energy, an auxiliary heater is
used for space heating.

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 A-Collector systen
B-Storagc tank
C-Pumps
D-Auxiliary hcalct
E-Hcat exchanger

air

Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of a space heating system

(Passive and Active method)

9.3 Solar cooker

The solar rays penetrate through the glass covers and absorbed by
blackened metal trays (Boxes) kept inside the cooker(Fig.13 ). The upper
cover has two glass sheets each 3 mm thick fixed in the wooden frame with
20 mm distance between them. This prevents the loss of heat due to re
radiation from blackened surface. The loss due to convection is minimized
by making the box air-light by providing a rubber strap alJ round between
the upper lid and the box. Insulating material like glass wool saw dust or any
other material is filled in the space which minimizes heat loss due to
conduction. When this type of cooker is placed in the sun, the blackened
surface starts absorbing sunrays and temperature rises. The food in the trays
is cooked. The temperature of cooking depends upon the intensity of
radiation. The size of a box type cooker is 50x50xt2 cm. Overall
dimensions of the latest model are 60x60x20 cm. This type of cooker is
termed as family solar cooker as it cooks sufficient dry food materials for a

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48

family of 5 to 7 people. The temperature attained is about 100°C. With the

addition of single glass reflector, I 5-20°C more temperature is obtained and
the cooking time is reduced.

.____ lnsulatfd bOlr

'-.. Cooki"4J pots

Fig. 13. Schematic diagram of box type solar cooker

Merits of solar cooker

l . No orientation to sun is needed.
2. No attention is needed during cooking.
3. No fuel, maintenance and recurring cost.
4. Simple to use and fabricate.
5. No pollution.

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Page 49
6. No loss of vitamins in the food.

Demerits of solar cooker

I . Cooking can be done only when there is sunshine.
2. Quick cooking is not possible.
3. Comparatively it takes more time.
4. All types of foods can't be cooked.

9.4 Solar water heating

ations
Solar water heating is one of the most attractive solar thermal applic
been
from an economic standpoint. In India, a large number of systems have
atively
installed. Most of the systems use flat-plate collectors. It is cumul
s
estimated that the total area of the flat-plate collectors in the system
6 2
t for
installed in India till june 2006 is about J.5 x J0 m . In India, the marke
of the
domestic solar water heating systems has been growing steadily. Most
one or
systems have capacities in the range of 100 to 200 litres per day, use
2
deliver
two flat-plate collectors having a face area of about 2 m each, and
hot water in the temperature range of 50 to 70°C. The installed cost in
2006
tic
was about Rs. 180 per liter/ day capacity The hot water is used for domes
ercial
purposes or for meeting the needs of industries and comm
estabIishments.

9.5 Solar water heater

r
Small capacity domes tic solar water heaters are also available in simple
ned
design, in which the functions of the collector and storage tank are combi
in one unit (Fig.14).

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The hot water is used for domestic purposes or meeting the needs of
industries and commercial establishments. Solar water heating systems can
be classified into two categories: (i) Natural circulation (thermo-syphon)
system and (ii) Forced circulation system.

- - - Transpartd
Covtr
Wattr in lhcllow
bole
~io n

COsing

---St and

Fig. 14. Schematic diagram of solar water heater

9.6 Natural circulation water heating system

Basic elements of a solar water heating system are: (i) flat plate collector,
(ii) storage tank, (iii) circulation system (iv) auxiliary heating system and (v)
control of the system is shown in Fig.15.
A natural circulation system consists of a tilted collector, with
transparent cover plates, a separate, highly insulated water storage tank, and
well-insulated pipes connecting the collector and storage tank. The bottom
of the storage tank is at least a foot higher than the top of the collector, and

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no auxiliary energy is required to circulate water through it. Circulation
occurs through natural convection, or thermo-siphoning.
When water in the collector is heated by the sun, it expands (becomes
less dense) and rises up the collector, through a pipe and into the top of the
storage tank. This forces cooler water at the bottom of the tank and flow out
from storage tank by gravity, enter into the bottom of the collector through
pipe provided at the bottom of the storage tank. This water, in turn, is heated
and rises up into the tank. As long as the sun shines the water will quietly
circulate, getting warmer. After sunset, a thermo-siphon system can reverse
its flow direction and loss heat to the environment during the night. To avoid
reverse flow, the top heater of the absorber should be at least l foot below
the bottom of the storage tank.
To provide heat during long, cloudy periods, an electrical immersion
heater can be used as a back up for the solar system.

I I

.1 I UH
I
'I
Ii I Insulau,d storage hlnk

\I I - Cold-a-in

Fig. 15. Schematic diagram of natural circulation water heating system

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9.7 Forced circulation water heating system

The forced circulation water heating system is suitable for supplying
hot water to community centers such as hostels, hotels etc., and industries.
Large array of flat-plate collectors are then used and forced circulation is
maintained with a water pump. The restriction to keep storage tank at a
higher level is not required, as done in the case of natural circulation water
heating system. Depending on the size of storage tank, a group of flat plate
collectors are selected and connected together. The storage tank is
maintained with cold water fully by connecting to a make-up water tank
which is provided with ball-float control mechanism. The pump for
maintaining the forced circulation is operated by an on-off controller which
senses the difference between the temperature of water at the exit of
collectors and a suitable location inside the storage tank. When the
temperature in the storage tank is reduced, the thermal controlling system
operates the pump and cold water is pumped to the collectors. The cold
water gets heated up in the collector and the flow to the storage tank. If the
temperature of water in the storage tank reaches to a predetermined value,
the pump automatically stop the pumping water from the tank to collector. If
the temperature of hot water falls, the pump starts working and water flows
to collector. In the absence of solar energy, the auxiliary heater operated by
electrical power is used. The auxiliary heater has to be kept in the storage
tank is shown in fig. I 6.

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 Lecture No.1 0
Solar grain d,yers, solar refi-igeration system, solar ponds.

10.0 Dry ing

g of agricultural
One of the traditional uses of solar energy has been for dryin
in preservation of
products. The drying process removes moisture and helps
The disadvantages
the product. Traditionally drying is done on open ground.
are slow process,
associated with the traditional system of drying
to birds, rodents
uncontrolled drying, quality deterioration, and losses due
s can be done
and insects. Drying under solar cabinet or convective dryer
faster and in a controlled condition .

10.1 Cabinet dryer

(Fig.17). The
A cabinet type solar dryer is suitable for small scale use
The material to be
dryer consists of an enclosure with a transparent cover.
tion entering the
dried is placed on the perforated trays . The solar radia
unding internal
enclosure is absorbed in the product itself and the surro
from the product
surfaces of the enclosure. As a result, moisture is removed
m and top ensure a
and the air inside is heated. Suitable openings at the botto
ed and drying time
natural circulation. Temperature from 50-80°C is attain
s, chillies, turmeric
ranges from 2-4 days . Products like dates , apricots, grape
etc., can be dried in a cabinet dryer.

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55

Sharda Wo rld Sch ool

Nu rs er y To Class 10 OPEN
, Ad m iss io n
 55

-
\ ~v'vu' 1u1a0 {
\ :• Cobilltl

,... :, -· Produd on
/ i ptrloroltd lfoys
' ~
·..

Fig. 17. Schematic diagram of cabinet dryer.

10.2 Convective dryer

For large scale drying, convective dryer is used (Fig.18). In this dryer, the
solar radiation does not fall on the product to be dried. Air is heated
separately in a solar air heater and then forced into the chamber in which the
product to be dried is placed. A blower circulates the air from the heater to
the grain hopper. These dryers are suitable for food grains, tea, tobacco,
spices etc. In India about 10,000m2 of collector area for drying various kinds
of crops and food products and for drying timber has been installed in about
50 industries.

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Sharda World School

Nursery To Class 10 OPEN

1
Admission
 Dry
product

Fig. 18. Schematic diagram of convective dryer

10.3 Space cooling and refrigeration system

Space cooling is one of the promising applications of solar energy to provide
comfortable living conditions (air-conditioning) or of keeping a food product
at low temperature to increase its shelf life. Since the energy of the sun is
being received as heat, the obvious choice is absorption refrigeration system,
which requires most of its energy input as heat.
A diagram of a simple solar operated absorption refrigeration system
is shown in fig.19. The water heated in a flat plate collector array, is passed
through a heat exchanger called the generator where transfer of heat takes
place to a solution (absorbent + Refrigerant), which is rich in refrigerant.
Refrigerant vapour boiled off at a high pressure and goes to the condenser

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where it is conden sed into a high pressure liquid. The high pressure liquid is
throttled to a low pressure and temperature in an expansion value and passes
through an evaporator coil. Hence, the refrigerant vapour absorbs heat and
cooling is obtained in the space surrounding this coil. The refrigerant vapour
is now absorbed back into a solution mixture withdrawn from the generator.
The refrigerant concentration is weak in this solution and pumped back into
the generator, there by completing the cycle. The common refrigerant
absorbent liquids are ammonia-water, water-lithium bromide. The later is
used in air conditioning.

Flat-
plate Cooling
collector water
array

Hot
water
4

I. Generator
2. Condenser Cooled space
3. Expansion valve
4. Evaporator
S. Absorber Cooling
6. Liquid pump water
7. Heat exchanger
Fig. 19. Schematic diagram of solar absorption refrigeration system

10.4 Distillation of water

In many small communities, the natural supply of fresh water is inadequate
in comparison to the availability of brackish or saline water. Solar
,oF EtNGG-2a ... iliES.gdfi

distillation can prove to be an effective way of supplying drinking water to

such communities.
Basin type solar stills are adopted for distillation of water. A solar still of
basin type is shown in fig.20., essentially consists of a basin coated with
black paint. The basin stores brackish water, which is used for distillation.
The basin is closed with transparent cover. In the top of basin walls,
condensate channels are provided. When the still is exposed to solar
radiation, the absorber plate absorbs radiation and water inside is heated up.
After sometime, evaporation starts and evaporated water gets condensed
below the transparent cover and water condensate travel to the channel. The
channels are provided gradient to one side where the condensed water is
collected. A well designed still capacity is 3 lit/m2 on a good sunny day.

Condensate Transparent Pool of saline

dammel cover or
brackish water

Insulation Basin with black liner

Fig. 20 . Schematic diagram of a solar still

10.5 Solar ponds

The solar pond is a simple device for collecting and storing solar heat. The
solar pond combines solar energy collection and sensible heat storage.
Solar ponds are also called solar salt ponds. Natural ponds convert solar

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radiation into heat, but the heat is quickly lost through convection in the
pond and evaporation from its surface. A solar pond, on the other hand, is
designed to reduce convective and evaporative heat losses so that useful
amounts of heat can be collected and stored. A greater salt concentration at
the bottom than at top causes bottom water to have greater density and
remains at the bottom and is also hotter. The solar energy is absorbed in
deep layers and is usually trapped.

The solar ponds are useful in two ways:

(i) The conversion of solar energy to useful work as a result of the
temperature difference between bottom and top layers of the pond.
(ii)The use of pond as a thermal storage medium.
10.5.1 The main applications solar ponds are
(a) heating and cooling of buildings
(b) power generation
(c) agricultural crop drying
(d) desalination
(e) industrial process heat
(f) production of renewable liquid fuels
10.5.2 The main limitations of solar ponds are
(a) Need for large land area
(b) Require sunny climate
(c)Availability of brackish water
Solar ponds may be classified as (i) convecting and (ii) non-convecting

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10.6 Convective solar ponds

Convective solar pond reduces heat loss by being covered a transparent
membrane or glazing as shown in fig. 21. Glazing materials for the solar
pond are polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film and clear acrylic panels.

Solar radiation
Clear plastic
film

Fig. 21 . Schematic diagram of convective solar pond

One type of solar pond use a plastic tube filled with water as shown in fig.
22.

Acrylic panel top

Plastic tub• (1,5mm)

Fig. 22. Schematic diagram of shallow solar pond

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Each pond module includes a long, narrow plastic bag measuring 5x 60 cm

containing water 5 -10 cm deep. The bag has a transparent top to allow
transmission of sunlight and to prevent evaporation losses. The bottom of
the bag is black to absorb sunlight. A layer of insulation beneath the plastic
bag minimizes heat losses to the ground. One or two layers may be arched
over the bag of water to suppress convective and radiative losses. In this
type of solar pond, the hot water is removed late in the afternoon and stored
in insulated reservoirs.

10.7 Non-convective solar ponds

Non-convective solar ponds prevent heat losses by inhibiting the convective
forces caused by thermal buoyancy. In convective solar ponds, solar radation
is transmitted through the water to the bottom, where it is absorbed; in turn,
the water adjacent to the bottom is heated. Natural buoyancy forces cause
the heated water to rise, and the heat is ultimately released to the
atmosphere. In a non-convective solar ponds, the warm water is prevented
from rising to he surface. Non-convective ponds may be stabilized by
viscosity, a gel or a salt. The salt gradient pond is the most common type of
non-convective solar pond.

10.8 Salt gradient ponds

A solar pond is mass of shallow water about 1 - 1.5 m deep with a large
collection area, which acts as a heat trap. It contains dissolved salts to
generate a stable density gradient. Salts have been dissolved in high
concentrations near the bottom, with decreasing concentration towards the
surface. The salts most commonly used for salt gradient ponds are sodium
chloride and magnesium chloride.

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Part of the incident solar radiation entering the pond surface is

absorbed throughout the depth and the remainder which penetrates the pond
is absorbed at the black bottom. Convective losses can be eliminated by
initially creating a sufficient strong salt concentration gradient With
convection suppressed, the heat is lost from the lower layers only by
conduction. Because of its relatively low thermal conductivity, the water
acts as an insulator and permits high temperatures (over 90°C) to develop in
the bottom layers.The solar gradient pond consists of three layers as shown
in fig.23.

Surface convection
layer

Non convective
layer

SIii concentration
incnuesQbdq>lh
lower conv•cting
storage layer
( constant salt concentration)

Fig. 23. Schematic diagram of salt gradient solar pond

In the top layer, vertical convection takes place due to effects of wind
evaporation. There is no membrane or glazing covering this pond. The next
layer, which may be as much as about one meter thick, contains an
increasing concentration of salt with increasing depth. This layer is non-
convective. The bottom layer is a convective layer of essentially salt
concentration, which provides thermal storage. Non-convective pond of this
type have been known to heat water to the boiling point.

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 Lecture No .II
r fenc ing , solar water
r lantern, solar street ligh ts, sola
Solar photovoltaic system-sola
um in~ s 'Stem.

ly con verting it
sing solar energy is by direct
The most useful way of harnes
y conversion
DC electri city by me ans of sol ar photo-voltaic cells. En erg
into
use of photo-
t sun light to electricity by the
devices which are used to conver
actured from
taic effe ct are cal led sol ar cells. Solar cells can be manuf
vol
Th e voltage
als and their combinations.
different semiconductor materi
iation and the
erated by a sol ar cel l dep end s on the intensity of sol ar rad
gen
ievable pow er is
radiations. The maximum ach
cell surface area receiving the
of sol ar cells are
ut I 00 W /m 2
of sol ar cel l surface area. The main types
abo
cells, (iii)
ls, (ii) Poly crystalline silicon
(i) monocrystalline silicon cel
(v) Coppe r
hou s siL icon cel ls (iv) Ga llium arsenide (GaAs), and
Amorp
occ upy 60% of
At presen t, silicon solar cells
indium diselenide (CID) cells.
no crystalline
of silicon solar cells are: (i) Mo
the world market. Basic types
(iii) thin film or
stalline sili con solar cells,and
silicon solar cells, (ii) poly cry
Amorphous silicon solar cells.

ar cells
I 1.0 Mono crystalline silicon sol
e of 0.5 V and
0cm x 10cm produces a voltag
A silicon solar cell of size I
m2 . The solar
radiation intensity of 1000 W/
power output of I Wa t a solar
casing with a
by enclosing in an air tigh t
cells are formed into modulus
high efficiency
glass. These modul us posses
transparent cover of synthetic
nts.
d in mediu m and large siz e pla
between 15 and 18% and are use
iency of sol ar
Pol y cry sta llin e sili con solar cells: Th e hig her e ffic
11.1
module is 12 to 14%.
and energy
2 Th in-f ilm sol ar cell s: The crystalline solar cells are lab our
11.
duc ed from
The thin film cells are pro
intensi ve in manufacturing.
iation due to
hou s sili con . It bas the cap acity to absorb more sol ar rad
amorp
very che ap
efficiency is 5 to 8%. These are
irregular atom arrangement. The
to manufacture.
of the
ratio of electric pow er output
Cell efficie ncy is defined as the
total exposed
mo dul e, or arr ay to the pow er content of sunlight over its
cell,
und 47 percent.
l efficiency of sol ar cells is aro
area. The max imum theoretica

Shar da W or ld Sc ho ol

N u rs e ry To Class 1 0 OPEN
· Admission
11.3 The advantages of photovoltaic solar energy conversion

a) Absence of moving parts.

b) Direct conversion of light to electricity at room temperature.
c) Can function unattended for long time.
d) Low maintenance cost.
e) No environmental pollution.
f) Very long life.
g) Highly reliable.
h) Solar energy is free and no fuel required.
i) Can be started easily as no starting time is involved.
j) Easy to fabricate.
k) These have high power-to-weight ratio, therefore very useful for space
application.
I) Decentralized or dispersed power generation at the point of power
consumption can save power transmission and distribution costs.
m) These can be used with or without sun tracking.

11.4 The limitations of photovoltaic solar energy conversion

a) Manufacture of silicon crystals is labour and energy intensive.

b) The principle limitation is high cost.
c) The insolation is unreliable and therefore storage batteries are needed.
d) Solar power plants require very large land areas.
e) Electrical generation cost is very high.
f) The energy spent in the manufacture of solar cells is very high.
g) The initial cost of the plant is very high and still requires a long
gasification period.

11.5 Solar lantern

UMP

SPV Y>OOU

SMFBA1TD.T

Fig.24. Schematic diagram of a solar lantern

65
A Solar lantern is a simple application of solar photovoltaic technology,
which bas found good acceptance in rural regions where the power supply is
irregular and scarce. Even in the urban areas people prefer a solar lantern as
an alternative during power cuts because of its simple mechanism. Solar
Lantern (Fig.24) is made of three main components - the solar PV panel, the
storage battery and the lamp. The lamp, battery and electronics all placed in
a suitable housing made of metal, plastic or fiber glass. The operation is very
simple. The solar energy is converted to electrical energy by the SPY panel
and stored in a sealed maintenance-free battery for later use during the night
hours. A single charge can operate the lamp for about 4-5 hours. The lantern
is basically a portable lighting device suitable for either indoor or outdoor
lighting, covering a full range of 360 degrees.

Applications and uses

Emergency and/or house lighting, table lamp, camping, patrolling (streets,
farms), Hawker / Vendor Stalls, non-electrified remote places: Adult
education, mass communication. Easy and convenient alternative to
kerosene / petromax / gas.

Benefits
It is easy to install, no electrical connection is required and no electricity
charges.
Safety Features
System is completely shock proof due to low voltage circuitry and short
circuit protection.

11.6 Solar street light

This system is designed for outdoor application in un-electrified remote rural
areas (Fig.25). This system is an ideal application for campus and village
street lighting. The system is provided with battery storage backup sufficient
to operate the light for 10- 11 hours daily. The system is provided with
automatic ON/OFF time switch for dusk to down operation and overcharge
/deep discharge prevention cut-off with LED indicators.

66
The solar street light system comprise of

a) 74 Wp Solar PY Module
b) 12 V, 75 Ah Tubular plate battery with battery box
c) Charge Controller cum inverter (20-35 kHz)
d) 11 Watt CFL Lamp with fixtures
e) 4 metre mild steel lamp post above ground level with weather proof
paint and mounting hardware.

1. SPV Module

2. Battery Box
3
3. Lamp with charge controller
:,1
4. Lamp Post

- - - ---+2

Fig.25. Schematic diagram of a solar street light

11.7 Solar fencing system

Solar Fencing (Fig.26) is the modern day's alternative to the conventional
type of perimeter protection. These are active fences and punish the
unwelcome intruder the moment they touches the fence or try to tamper the
fence. The conventional types of fences are only passive fences and cannot
resist the intruder if they try to forcibly intrude into the protected area. The
Solar Fence gives a sharp, short but a safe shock and creates psychological
fear. Against any tampering the alarm incorporated in the system gets
activated and alerts the inmates of the protected area, which facilitates them
to counter the unwelcome intruders. The solar fence is scientific fence and
works on Solar Energy with backup facility to run uninterruptedly during the
nights as well as cloudy days.

Working principle

The Solar module generates the DC energy and charges the Battery. The
output of the battery is connected to Energizer or Controller or Charger or

67
Fencer. The energizer will produce a short, high voltage pulse at regular rate
of one pulse per second. The live wire of the energizer is connected to the
fence wire and the earth terminal to the Earth system. Animal / Intruder
touching the live wire creates a path for the current through its body to the
ground and back to the energizer via the earth system and completes the
circuit. Thus the intruder will receive a shock, the greater the shock the
intruder receives the more lasting the memory will be avoided in future.

0 0 0 QQ 4Solar Module
Fence wire
00000
Energizer

Battery

Fig. 26. Schematic diagram of a solar fence system

The Energizer bas to be set up with its earth terminal coupled to an adequate
earthing or grounding system. The live terminal is coupled to the live
insulated wires of the fence. Energizer will send an electric current along an
insulated steel wire. An animal or intruder touching the live wire creates a
path for the electrical current through its body to the ground and back to the
Energizer via the earth or ground system, thus completing the circuit. The
greater the shock the animal receives the more lasting the memory wi II be
and the more the fence will be avoided in the future. The shock felt is a
combination of fence voltage and pulses time or energy. The higher the joule
rating of the energizer the greater the shock and the greater the fence
performance.

Features of solar fencing system

a) Easy Construction.
b) Power fence can be erected to target species only.
c) Low maintenance.
d) Long lasting because of minimal physical pressure.
e) All domestic and wild animals can be controlled economically.

68
t) Makes strip grazing and back fencing easy.
g) Encourages additional subdivision, giving increased production.
h) Modification of system to control a variety of animals is very easy.
i) Aesthetically pleasing.
j) Discourages trespassers and predators.
k) Not hannful. It gives a short, sharp but safe shock to the intruder.
1) Perimeter protection

The basic building blocks of a power fence are:

1. Energizer
2. Earthing (Grounding System) and
3. Fence sys.tern

Energizer
The heart of the power fence is the Energizer. The energizer is selected
depending on the animals to be controls, length of the fence and number of
strands. Main function of the energizer is to produce short and sharp pulses
of about 8000 volts at regular intervals. The power input is from the DC
energy from battery. The energizer should be protected from children,
should be enclosed, free from mechanical damage and away from
inflammable.

Earthing system
The earth or ground system of the Energizer is like the antenna or aerial of a
radio. A large radio requires a large antenna to effectively collect sound
waves and a high powered Energizer requires a large number of electrons
from the soil. The earth or ground system must be perfect to enable the pulse
to complete its circuit and give the animal an effective shock. Soil is not a
good conductor so the electrons spread out and travel over a wide area,
inclining towards moist mineral soils. If possible, select an area for the
energizer earth site which is damp all the year.

Fence wire systems

They are of two types: (i) All live wire system and (ii) Earth or ground wire
return system.

69
(i) All Live Wire System
The all live wire system should be used where there is relatively even rainfall
and where there is some green vegetation most of the year, or in areas with
highly conductive soils. The all live wire system should be used as much as
possible.
(ii) Earth or ground wire return system
The earth or ground wires return system should be used where there is low
rainfall stony and dry soil condition most of the year. The system overcomes
the problem of dry, non-conductive, or frozen soils not allowing sufficient
current to flow through the animaJ's feet back to the energizer. The fence
should have both live and ground wires. By touching the live and ground
wires on the fence, the animal gets the full shock..

11.8 Solar water pumping system

The solar water pumping system (Fig.27) is a stand-alone system operating
on power generated using solar PV (photovoltaic) system. The power
generated by solar cells is used for operating DC surface centrifugal mono-
block pumpset for lifting water from bore/ open well or water reservoir for
minor irrigation and drinking water purpose. The system schematic is shown
in the figure below. The system requires a shadow-free area for installation
of the Solar Panel.

••••
••••••

Fig. 27. Schematic diagram ofa solar water pumping system

The system is provided with 1800 W solar PV panel (24 nos. X 75 Wp) and
2 HP centrifugal DC mono-block / AC submersible with inverter. The
average water delivery of 2 HP solar pump will be around 1.38 to 1.40 lakh
litre per day, for a suction head of 6 metres and dynamic head of IO metres.
The size of suction & delivery lines is 2.5 inches (62.5 mm).

70
 Advantages of solar pump sets

a) No fuel cost-uses abundantly available free sun light

b) No conventional grid electricity required
c) Long operating life
d) Highly reliable and durable- free performance
e) Easy to operate and maintain
t) Eco-friendly
g) Saving of conventional diesel fuel

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 60 1680)
Lecture No.12
Wind energy-advantages, disadvantages, wind mills and types.

Wind is the world's fastest growing energy source today and it has been
retaining this position consecutively for the last five years. The global wind
power capacity has increased by a factor of 4.2 during the last five years.
The total global installed capacity is 39434 MW in 2004. Installed capacity
in different regions is shown in Table I:
Country Installed capacity, MW
Germany 14609
United states of America 6352
Spain 6202
Denmark 3115
India 2120

Air in motion is called wind. The winds on the earth surface are
caused primarily by the unequal heating of the land and water by the sun.
The differences in temperature gradients induce the circulation of air from
one zone to another.

Winds are caused on earth due to:

I. The absorption of solar energy on earth surface and its atmosphere. The
pressure and temperature gradients causes winds or wind flow.
2. Also the rotation of earth about its axis and its movement around the sun
causes the flow of wind.
Energy derived from wind velocity is wind energy. It is a non-conventional
type of energy, which is renewable with suitable devices. This energy can be
used as a perennial source of energy. Wind energy is obtained with the help
of wind mill. The minimum wind speed of I0kmph is considered to be
useful for working wind mills for agricultural purpose. Along the sea coast
and hilly areas, wind mills are likely to be most successful in Karnataka,
Maharastra and Gujarat.

The wind energy over earth is estimated to be l.6x I0 7 M.W, which is

equivalent to the energy consumed. But, the wind energy is available in
dilute fonn. The conversion machines are large. The wind energy varies
from time to time and place to place. Due to this reason some storage facility

72
is required. The kinetic energy of wind is converted into useful shaft power
by wind mills. General applications of wind mills are pumping water, fodder
cutting, grain grinding, generation of power etc. In India, wind speed lies
between 5 kmph-20 kmph. The high wind velocity is seasonal. The wind
energy, if used for power generation, it will be uncertain to generate power.
In India, wind power can be used for lifting water in rural areas for drinking
and for irrigation purpose.

12.0 Factors affecting the wind

1. Latitude of the place
2. Altitude of the place.
3. Topography of the place
4. Scale of the hour, month or year.

12.1 Suitable places for the erection of wind mills

1.Off-shore and on the sea coast: An average value on the coast is 2400
2
kWH/m /year.
2
2.Mountains: An average value is 1600 KWH/m /year.
3.Plains: An average value is 750 KWH/m2/year.

12.2 Places unsuitable for wind mills

I .Humid equatorial region- there is virtually no wind energy.
2.Warm, windy countries, wind energy may not be usual because of the
frequency of cyclones.

12.3 Advantages of wind energy

I .It is a renewable source of energy.
2.lt is non-polluting and no adverse influence on the environment.
3.No fuel and transportation is required.
4.The cost of electricity under low production is comparatively low.

12.4 Disadvantages
I .The available wind energy is dilute and fluctuating in nature.
2.Unlike water energy, wind energy reqmres storage capacity
because of its irregularity.
3.Wind energy operating machines are noisy in operation.

73
 4.Wind power systems have a relatively high overall weight. For large
systems, a weight of 110 kg/kW has been estimated.
5.Large areas are required for wind mill.
6.The present wind mills are neither maintenance free nor
practically reliable.

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 Lecture No.13
Constructional details ofwind mills, apµlications ofwind mills.

13.0 Types of wind mills

Wind mi11 is a machine for wind energy conversion. A wind turbine

converts the kinetic energy of the wind's motion to mechanical energy
transmitted by the shaft. A generator further converts it to electrical
energy, thereby generating electricity.

I. Vertical axis wind mills: Ex.tavonius or S type wind mill

fr low wind velocity)
Darrius wind mill (high wind velocity)
2. Horizontal axis wind mills: Ex. Single blade wind mills
Double blade wind mills
Multi blade wind mills
Bicycle multi blade type i.e., Sail type.
13. 1 Vertical axis type wind mills

Vertical axis machines (Fig.28) are of simple design as compared to the

horizontal axis. The axis of rotation of vertical axis wind turbine is
vertical to the ground and almost perpendicular to the wind direction.
These turbines can receive wind from any direction. Hence complicated
yaw devices can be eliminated. The generator and the gearbox of such
systems can be housed at the ground level , which makes the tower design
simple and more economical. Moreover, the maintenance of these
turbines can be done at the ground level. The major disadvantage of
vertical axis machines are that, these turbines usually not self starting.
Additional mechanism may be required to push and start the turbine,
once it is stopped.

75
 Horizontal axis Vertical axis

Fig. 28. Schematic diagram horizontal and vertical axis wind mill

13.l.1 Savooius wind mill

It works on the principle of cup anemometer. This was invented
by S.J.Savonius in the year 1920. This machine has become popular,
since it requires low wind velocity for operation. It consists of two half
cylinders, which are mounted on a vertical axis perpendicular to the
direction of wind, with a gap at the ax.is between the two cylinders
(Fig.29). Two half cylinders facing each other forming an 's' shaped
cross-section. Irrespective of the wind direction, the rotor rotates such
as to make the convex sides of the buckets head into the wind. From the
rotor shaft, we can tap power for our use like water pumping, battery
charging, grain winnowing etc. The main action of the wind is very
simple, the force of the wind is greater on the cupped face than on
rounded face. A low pressure is created on the convex sides of drums.
Torque is produced by the pressure difference between the two sides of
the half cylinders facing the wind. This design is efficient but requires a
large surface area.
A savonius wind energy conversion system has a vertical axis which
eliminate the expensive power transmission system from the rotor to the
axis. Since it is a vertical axis machine it does not matters much about the
wind direction. The machine performs even at lower wind velocity
ranges (i.e., 8 kmph).

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 ,/
i

fig. 29. Schematic diagram of savonius wind mill

13.1.2 Darrieus wind mill

This machine was invented and patented in 1925 by G.J.M.
Darrieus, a French Engineer. Added advantage with this mill is that it
supports its blades in such a way that minimizes bending stresses in
normal operation. It requires less surface area as compared to Savonius
type. Lo this machine, the blades are curved and attached to the hubs on
the vertical shaft at both ends to form a cage-like structure. The blades
look like an egg beater (Fig.30). Darrieus rotors have three symmetrical
aerofoil blades, both ends of which are attached to a vertical shaft. Thus,
the force in the blade due to rotation is pure tension. This provides a
stiffness to withstand the wind forces it experiences.

The blades are made lighter than in the propeller type. When
rotating, these aerofoil blades provide a torque about the central shaft in
response to a wind direction. This shaft torque is transmitted to a
generator at the base of the central shaft for power generation. Both
Savonius and darrieus type rotors run independently of the direction of
wind because they rotate about a vertical axis.
Major advantage of darrieus wind mill is that the rotor blades can
accept the wind from any point of the compass. The machine can be
mounted on the ground eliminating the tower structures. Disadvantage is
that, it may experience lower velocity wind when compared to tower
mounted conventional wind energy conversion system.

77
 AEROFOIL BLADES
(CATENARY SHAPED)

&·Sm

GENERATOR -

Fig.30. Schematic diagram of darrieus wind mill

13.2 Horizontal axis type wind mi11s

Horizontal axis wind turbines (Fig.31) have their axis of rotation
horizontal to the ground and almost parallel to the wind stream. Most of
the commercial wind turbines fall under this category. Horizontal ax.is
machines have some distinct disadvantages such as low cut-in speed and
easy furling. In general, they show relatively high power coefficient.
However, the generator and gearbox of these machines are to be placed
over the tower which makes its design more complex and expensive.
Depending on the number of blades, horizontal axis wind turbines are
further classified as single bladed, two bladed, three bladed and multi
bladed. Single blade turbines are cheaper due to savings on blade
materials. The drag losses are also minimum for these turbines. However,
to balance the blade, a counter weight has to be placed opposite to the
hub. Single bladed designs are not very popular due to problems in
balancing and visual acceptability. Two bladed rotors also have these
drawbacks, but to lesser extent. Most of the present commercial turbines
used for electricity generation have three blades.

78
 ontal axis wind mill
Fig. 3 1. Sche matic diagram of horiz

cient
e thin cross-section or more effi
The horizontal type wind mills hav
the
e. The blade is designed such that
thick cross-section of aerofoil blad
a nd
ang le with the plane of rotation
tip of the blades makes a sma ll
ine,
n of wind. Jn a mod em wind turb
almost at right angles to the directio
blade
s the wind velocity. Ideally, the
the velocity of blades is six time
is not
of construction difficulties this
should be twisted, but because
bett er
axis wind mills generally have
always achieved . The horizontal
and
used for electric power generation
performance. These are mai nly
pumping water.

e
typ e wind mill with single blad
13.2. 1 Horizontal axis propeller
e is mounted on a rigid hub.
In this type of mac hine, a long blad
If
are arranged as shown in fig.32.
Induction generator and gea r box
root
mounted on the hub, large blade
extremely long blades (60 m) are
den
to tower shadow, gravity and sud
bending moments may occur due
nter
ce rotor cost, use of low cost cou
shifts in the win d directions. To redu
g long blade centrifugally.
weight is reco mmended for balancin

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 OIJTl/1 ~16,t'I PITCH ACTUATOR
NIM
/ ,.,Ou(TJ()N f,fNEIIATOR
ANO °t ANETAR'I'
6 f Ali 80JI

( OMPOSJ7f .
&AO{

Fig. 32. Schematic diagram of horizontal axis single blade wind mm

13.2.2 Horizontal axis - two blade wind mill

ln this type of design, rotor drives a generator through a step-up
gear box. The blade rotor is designed to be oriented downwind of the
tower. The components are mounted on a bedplate, which is attached on
a pintle at the top of the tower. The arrangement is shown in fig.33.
The rotor blades are continuously flexed by unsteady
aerodynamic, gravitational and inertial loads, when the machine is in
operation. If the blades are made of metal, flexing reduces their life due
to fatigue loading. With rotor, the tower is also subjected to above loads,
which may cause serious damage. If the vibrational modes of the rotor
happen to coincide with one of the natural mode of vibration of the
tower, then the mill may get damaged. Due to high cost of blades, the
rotor with more than two blades is not recommended. Rotors more than
two, say 3 or 4 blades would have slightly higher coefficient.
 f ig. 33. Schematic diagram of horizontal axis two blade wind mill

13.2.3 Horizon tal axis-multi blade type wind mill

This type of design for multi blades is shown in fig.34., made
from sheet metal or aluminum. The rotors have high strength to weight
ratios and are strong enough to with stand a wind speed of 60 Kmph.
This type of wind mills have good power coefficient, high starting
torque, simple and are low in cost.

Fig. 34. Schematic diagram of horizontal a.xis multi blade wind mill

13.2.4 Sail type wind mill

It is recent development in w ind mills. The blades are made by
stretching out triangular pieces of canvas cloth or nylon or plastics
(Fig.35) . There is also variation in the number of sails used. It runs at
60

to 80 rpm.

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 IJO IIIJRO>
Lecture No.14
I Biofuels - characteristics ofvarious biofuels, differenl parameters and calorific values.

"Biofuels" are transportation fuels like ethanol and biodiesel that are made
from biomass materials. These fuels are usually blended with petroleum
fuels namely with gasoline and diesel fuel, but they can also be used on their
own. Ethanol and biodiesel are also cleaner burning fuels, producing fewer
air pollutants. It has drawn significant attention due to increasing
environmental concern and diminishing petroleum reserves. Bio-diesel fuel
can be made from renewable vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled cooking
oils by transesterification process. Biodiesel is the fastest growing
alternative fuel in the world. Ethanol is a alcohol fuel made from the sugars
found in grains such as com, sorghum, and wheat, as well as potato skins,
rice, sugarcane, sugar beets and yard clippings by fermentation.

14.0 Characteristics of bio-fuels

The following are some of the characters for the efficient bio-diesel:
a) Kinematic viscosity
b) Density
c) Calorific value
d) Melt or pour point
e) Cloud point
t) Flash point
g) Acid value
h) Iodine value
i) Cetane number
j) Stability - oxidative, storage and thermal
k) Carbon residue
I) Ash percentage
m) Sulphur percentage

83
 Flash point (FP)
The flash point temperature of diesel fuel is the minimum temperature at
which the fuel will ignite (flash) on application of an ignition source. Flash
point varies inversely with the fuel's volatility. Minimum flash point
temperatures are required for proper safety and handling of diesel fuel. The
flash point detennines the flammability of the material. Neat biodiesel has a
flash point ( l 50°C) well above the flash point of petroleum based diesel fuel
(±70°C).

Acid value
The total acid number is an indication of the presence of free fatty acids
fonned due to oil degradation and combustion. It can also result from
improper manufacturing, through remalillDg catalyst or excessive
neutralization.

Iodine value

It is an index of the number of double bonds in biodiesel, and therefore is a

parameter that quantifies the degree of unsaturation of biodiesel. It is
reported in terms of the grams of iodine that will react with 100 grams of a
fat or oil under specified condition . It is a value of the amount of iodine,
measured in grams, absorbed by I00 grams ofgiven oil. It is commonly used
as a measure of the chemical stability properties of different biodiesel fuels
against such oxidation.

Aniline point/Cetane number (CN)

It is a relative measure of the interval between the beginning of injection and
autoignition of the fuel. The higher the cetane number, the shorter the delay
interval and the greater its combustibility. Fuels with low Cetane Numbers
wiJI result in difficult starting, noise and exhaust smoke. In general, diesel
engines will operate better on fuels with Cetane Numbers above 50. Cetane
number is usually measured directly using a test engine.
Cetane tests provide information on the ignition quality of a diesel fuel. No.2
diesel fuel usually has a cetane rating between 45 and 50 while vegetable oil
is 35 to 45. Biodiesel is usually have in between 50 to 60.

Sharda World School

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Stab ility
diesel fuel due to the chemical
Biodiesel ages more quickly than petroleum
present in biodiesel. Typically there
structure of fatty acids and methyl esters
r in the biodiesel. The individual
are fourteen types of fatty acid methyl este
the fuel effects the final properties
proportion of presence of these esters in
of biodiesel.
ening, formation of gums
Poo r oxidation stability can cause fuel thick
r clogging and injector fouling.
and sediments which intu m can cause filte
erature and degrades hyper
Thermal degradation occu rs at high temp
ative degradation. Biodicsel and
peroxide in the fuel more rapidly than oxid
stable than diesel.
biodiesel blends are muc h more thermally
stored in a storage tank or
Biodiesel and its blends should not be
ng upon the storage temperature
vehicle tank mor e than 6 months. Dependi
opriate antioxidants.
and othe r condition s suggest the use of appr

Carbon residue
carbon deposits in an engine. An
This indicates the tendency of fuel to form
iesel is the carbon residue, which
important indicator of the qual ity of biod
free fatty acids, soaps, polymers
corresponds to the content of glycerides,
and remaining catalyst.

Ash Percentage
ls contained in the fuel. High
Ash is a mea sure of the amount of meta
e injector tip plugging, combustion
concentrations of these materials can caus
ash content is important for the
deposits and injection system wea r. The
with increasing ash content.
heating value, as heating value decreases
r than for most coals, and sulphur
Ash content for bio-fuels is typically lowe
i l fuels .
content is much lower than for many foss

Sulf ur percentage
fuel sulfur content is limited by
The percentage by weight, o f sulfur in the
fuel used in on-road applications.
law to very small percentages for diesel
d biodiesel has less than 15 ppm
First use vegetable oil and animal fat base
biodiesel is essentially sulphur
suJphur. Man y rese archers claim that pure
sulphur fuel.
free and therefore biod iesel is an ultra-low

86
The properties of a few bio-diesel fuels made from edible and non-edible
oils are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Properties of edible and non-edible oils

Bio-diesel Kinematic Cetane Lower Cloud Pour Flash Density
viscosity at number heating point point point (kg/litre)
40°c value (OC) (OC) (OC)
(MJ/kg)
Edible oils
Palm 5.7 62 33.5 13 164 0.880
Peanut 4.9 54 33.6 176 0.883
Soyabean 4.5 45 33.5 1 -7 178 0.885
Sunflower 4.6 49 33.5 1 183 0.860
Non-edible oils
Jatropha 5.2 38 39.2 13 175 0.865
Karania 4.7 55 37.1 7 4 183 0.876
Diesel 3.06 50 43.8 9 -16 76 0.855
20% 32 51 43 .2 -16 128 0.859
biodiesel
blend

The Table 2 shows the properties of conventional diesel and a 20% bio-
diesel blend. It shows that the properties of the bio-diesel fuels compare well
with the properties of diesel, while the properties of the blend are very close
to the properties of diesel. Therefore, bio-diesel fuels and blends are rated as
good alternatives to diesel.
 Lecture No.15
Bio diesel production -applications. exrracrionfromjatropha.

15.0 Bio fuels

Bio-diesel is a fuel, made from natural (biological) renewable resources
which can be used directly in conventional diesel engines. Unlike fossil
diesel, pure bio-diesel is biodegradable, non-toxic, essentially free of
sulphur and aromatics and releases less emissions during combustion.
Bio-diesel some times called FAME (fatty acid methyl ester) or FAEE
(fatty acid ethyl ester). It can be produced from edible oils such as palm
oil, soyabean oil, rape seed oil, sunflower oil and some other vegetable
oils; animal fats and non-edible oils like jatropha, castor beans, pongamia
pinnata. In Europe, rapeseed oil is the major feed stock used to make bio-
diesel, with some sunflower oil is also used. Soyabean oil is the major
feed stock to make the bio-diesel in USA. In tropical and subtropical
countries, there are wider feed stocks have been considered including
edible and non-edible oils. However, using edible oils to produce bio-
diesel is not encouraged in China because China imports more than 400
million tones edible oils annually to satisfy its consumption needs. They
tried to make biodisel from recycled waste oils but the scale of production
is limited due to higher operating cost. One negative aspect ofbiodiesel is
that, the purity of biodiesel changes during storage due to oxidative and
hydrolytic reactions and availability of feed stock (raw material) for

production.

15.1 Advantages of biodiesel

I. Produced from sustainable / renewable biological sources
2 . Eco-friendly and oxygenated fuel
3. Sulphur free, less CO, HC, particulate matter and aromatic compounds

emissions
4. Income to rural community
5. Fuel properties similar to the conventional fuel
6. Used in existing unmodified diesel engines

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7. Reduce expenditure on oil imports

8. Non toxic, biodegradable and safety to handle
Biodiesel is produced by transesterification of large, branched
triglycerides in to smaller, straight chain molecules of methyl esters, using
an alkali or acid or enzyme as catalyst. Alcohols such as methanol,
ethanol, propanol, butanol and amyl alcohol are used in the
transesterification process. Methanol and ethanol are used most
frequently, especially methanol because of its low cost, and physical and
chemical advantages. They can quickly react with triglycerides and
sodium hydroxide is easily dissolved in these alcohols. The most common
form uses methanol to produce methyl esters (commonly referred to as
Fatty Acid Methyl Ester - FAME) as it is the cheapest alcohol available,
though ethanol can be used to produce an ethyl ester (commonly referred
to as Fatty Acid Ethyl Ester - FAEE) biodiesel and higher alcohols such
as isopropanol and butanol have also been used.

J5.2 Chemistry of biodiesel production

Transesterification

Biodiesel is commonly produced by the transesterification of the

vegetable oil or animal fat feedstock. The process involves reacting
vegetable oils or animal fats catalytically with a short-chain aliphatic
alcohols (typically methanol or ethanol). There are several methods for
carrying out this transesterification reaction including the common batch
process, supercritical processes, ultrasonic methods, and even microwave
methods. A by-product of the transesterification process is the production
of glycerol. For every 1 tonne of biodiesel that is manufactured, I 00 kg of
glycerol are produced.

15.3 Production methods

15.3.1 Batch process

I) Preparation: care must be taken to monitor the amount of water and
free fatty acids in the incoming biolipid (oil or fat). If the free fatty acid

89
level or water level is too high it may cause problems with soap fonnation
and the separation of the glycerin by-product downstream.
2) Catalyst is dissolved in the alcohol using a standard agitator or mixer.
3) The alcohol/catalyst mix is then charged into a closed reaction vessel
and the biolipid (vegetable or animal oil or fat) is added. The system from
here on is totally closed to the atmosphere to prevent the loss of alcohol.
4) The reaction mix is kept just above the boiling point of the alcohol
(around 70 °C) to speed up the reaction. Some systems recommend the
reaction take place anywhere from room temperature to 55 °C for safety
reasons. Recommended reaction time varies from I to 8 hours; under
normal conditions the reaction rate will double with every IO °C increase
in reaction temperature. Excess alcohol is normally used to ensure total
conversion of the fat or oil to its esters.
5) The glycerin phase is much denser than biodiesel phase and the two
can be gravity separated with glycerin simply drawn off the bottom of the
settling vessel. In some cases, a centrifuge is used to separate the two
materials faster.
6) Once the glycerin and biodiesel phases have been separated, the excess
alcohol in each phase is removed with a flash evaporation process or by
distillation. Care must be taken to ensure no water accumulates in the
recovered .alcohol stream.
7) The by-product (i.e., glycerin) contains unused catalyst and soaps, that
are neutralized with an acid and sent to storage as crude glycerin.
8) Once separated from the glycerin, the biodiesel is sometimes purified
by washing gently with wann water to remove residual catalyst or soaps,
dried, and sent to storage.

15.3.2 Supercritical process

It is a catalyst-free method and continuous process. In this method,
transesterification process uses supercritical methanol at high
temperatures and pressures. In the supercritical state, the oil and methanol
are in a single phase, and reaction occurs spontaneously and rapidly. The
process can tolerate water in the feedstock. Also the catalyst removal step

90
 is eliminated. High temperatures and pressures are required, but energy
costs of production are similar or less than catalytic production routes.

15.3.3 Ultra- and high-shear in-line and batch reactors

Ultra- and High Shear in-line or batch reactors allow production of
biodiesel continuously, semi- continuously, and in batch-mode. This
method drastically reduces production time and increases production
volume. The reaction takes place in the high-energetic shear zone of the
ultra- and high Shear mixer by reducing the droplet size of the immiscible
liquids such as oil or fats and methanol. Therefore, the smaller the droplet
size, the larger the surface area the faster the catalyst can react.

15.3.4 Ultrasonic-reactor method

In the ultrasonic reactor method, the ultrasonic waves cause the reaction
mixture to produce and collapse bubbles constantly. This cavitation
provides simultaneously the mixing and heating required to carry out the
transesterification process. The ultrasonic reactor method for biodiesel
production drastically reduces the reaction time, reaction temperatures,
and energy input. Industrial scale ultrasonic devices allow for the
industrial scale processing of several thousand barrels per day.

15.3.5 Microwave method

Current research is being directed into usmg commercial nucrowave
ovens to provide the heat needed in the transesterification process. The
microwaves provide intense localized heating that may be higher than the
recorded temperature of the reaction vessel. A continuous flow process
producing 6 liters/minute at a 99% conversion rate has been developed
and shown to consume only one-fourth of the energy required in the batch
process. Although it is still in the lab-scale, development stage, the
microwave method holds great potential to be an efficient and cost-
competitive method for commercial-scale biodiesel production.

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 15.4 Preparation of bio diesel from jatropha curcas
In most of the developed countries, biodiesel is produced from soybean,
rapeseed, sunflower, peanut, etc., which are essentially edible in Indian
context. Among the various vegetable oil sources, non-edible oils are
suitable for biodiesel production. Because edible oils are already in
demand and too expensive than diesel fuel. Among the non-edible oil
sources, Jatropha curcas is identified as potential biodiesel source and
comparing with other sources, which has added advantages as rapid
growth, higher seed productivity, suitable for tropical and subtropical
regions of the world.

The Jatropha plant can reach a height up to 5 m and its seed yield
ranges from 7.5 to 12 tonnes per hectare per year, after five years of
growth. The oil content of whole Jatropha seed is 30-35 % by weight
basis. Several properties of the plant including its hardness, rapid growth,
easy propagation and wide ranging usefulness have resulted in its spread
far beyond its original distribution.

Preparation of bio diesel from jatropha requires a two-step

approach; the extraction of the Jatropha oils from the seed, and the
conversion of the extracted oil to Biodiesel, according to the following
transesterification reaction.

The mechanical extraction was done using a hydraulic press. After

dehulling, the Jatropha seeds were first pressed to extract oil and then
placed inside a soxhlet and brought into contact with a condensed solvent.
The solvent dissolves the oil and then it is later separated using a rotor
vapor. The obtained Jatropha oil was used for Biodiesel production. The
transesterification reaction was done using methanol and two basic
catalysts. Solvent extraction has higher oil yield than hydraulic press
extraction.

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15.5 Biodiesel production

The process flowchart for biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas seeds
and by products is shown in figure 36.

Jatropha curcas
seeds

!
Oil extraction Oil
unit cake Manure

Lamp / Stoves Jatropha curcas Detoxification

oil

Alcohol &
Catalyst
Transesterification
reactor - Crude glycerol

Crude biodiesel Refined glycerol

Soap / Candle

~ _ ____..___ _w_a_s_h•_·n_g _tank

_ _ __, Washed water

Pure biodiesel

Diesel engine

Fig. 36. Process flow chart for biodiesel production from jatropha
seeds and by products

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15.6 Applications
Biodiesel is the only alternative fuel that can be used directly in any
existing unmodified diesel engine, because it has similar properties to
diesel fuel. Biodiesel can be used in pure form (B 100) or may be blended
with petroleum diesel at any concentration in most modem diesel engines.
Biodiesel has different solvent properties than petrodiesel, and will
degrade natural rubber gaskets and hoses in vehicles (mostly vehicles
manufactured before 1992. Biodiesel has been known to break down
deposits of residue in the fuel lines where petrodiesel bas been used. As a
result, fuel filters may become clogged with particulates if a quick
transition to pure biodiesel is made. Therefore, it is recommended to
change the fuel filters on engines and heaters shortly after first switching
to a biodiesel blend.

Bio diesel has better lubricating properties and much higher cetane
ratings than today's lower sulfur diesel fuels. The fuel properties of
jatropha oil, jatropha biodiesel and conventional fuel is given in Table
3.Bio diesel addition reduces fuel system wear, and in low levels in high
pressure systems increases the life of the fuel injection equipment that
relies on the fuel for its lubrication.

The calorific value of bio diesel is about 37.27 MJ/L. Bio diesel is a
liquid which varies in color - between golden and dark brown - depending
on the production feedstock. It is immiscible with water, has a high
boiling point and low vapor pressure. The flash point of bio diesel
(> 130°C) is significantly higher than that of petroleum diesel (64°C) or
gasoline (-45 °C). Bio diesel has a density of~ 0.88 g/cm3, less than that
of water (Table 2). Rio diesel has virtually no sulfur content, and it is
often used as an additive to Ultra-Low Sulfur Diesel (ULSD) fuel.

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 Table 3. Fuel properties ofjatropha oil and its biodiesel Properties

Jatropha Oil Jatropha Diesel

biodiesel
Density, g/ml 0.920 0.865 0.84 1
Viscosity@ 3.5 5.2 4 .5
0
40 C , Cst
Calorific value, 39.7 39.2 42.0
MJ/kg
Flash point, °C 240 175 50

15.7 Economics of biodiesel production

Cost of raw jatropha oil = Rs. 22/litre
Biodiesel processing cost= Rs. 9/ Iitre
Cost of production= Rs. 31/litre
Less return from crude g lycerol = Rs. 3/litre
Net cost of production= Rs. 28/litre
Dealers margin = Rs. I/litre
Profit = Rs. 3/litre
Sale price ofbiodiesel = Rs. 32/litre

Sharda World School

Nursery To Class 10 OPEN

1
Admission
 IJO AIJRO>

Lecture No.16
Ethanolfrom agricultural produce (Sugarcane and corn)

16.0 Ethanol from agricultural produce (Sugar cane and corn)

Non-petroleum fuels liquid fuels find use when petroleum fuels are
scarce or costly. The scientists have been in search of new fuels to
replace conventional fuels that are used in IC engines. Among all the
fuels, alcohols, which can be produced from sugarcane waste and
many other agricultural products, are considered the most promising
fuels for the future. There are two types of alcohols: methanol
(CH3OH) and ethanol (C2H5OH). Ethanol has attracted a lot of
attention as a transport fuel because it is relatively cheap non-
petroleum-based fuel. Also, the emissions from the combustion of
ethanol are much less than for fossile fuels. Ethanol, being a pure
compound, has a fixed set of physical as well as chemical properties.
This is in contrast to petrol and diesel, which are mixtures of
hydrocarbons .. But in countries like India, ethanol is a strong candidate
since they posses the agricultural resources for it production. It is a
more attractive fuel for India because the productive capacity from
sugarcane crops is high, of the order of 1345 I/ha. Earlier, this fuel was
not used in automobiles due to low energy density, high production
cost and corrosion. The current shortage of gasoline has made it
necessary to substitute ethanol as fuel in SI engines. At present, Brazil
is the only country that produces fuel alcohol on a large scale from
agricultural products (mainly sugarcane). Brazil was the first and
biggest producer of cheapest bio-ethanol in the world. Second cheapest
bio-ethanol is made from com in the USA. Properties of ethanol and
methanol are similar, with difference of only 5 -10%. Ethanol is
superior to methanol as it has wider ignition limit (3 .5 -17) than
methanol (2.15 -12.8). Ethanol calorific value (26,880 kJ/kg) is
considerably higher than methanol (19,740 kJ/kg). Ethanol is a much
more superior fuel for diesel engines as its cetane number is 8

96
compared to the cetane number of 3 for methanol. Ethanol is used in
racing cars due to its very high beat of vaporization.

16.1 Manufacture of ethanol

Three different feed stocks are available for ethanol production such
as, sugar feed stock i.e., sugarcane and sugar beet; starch feed stock
i.e., cereal grains and potato and cellulose feed stock i.e., forest
products and agricultural residues.

16.1.1 Ethanol from starchy feed stock (grains)

Ethanol production from cereal grains such as barley, wheat and com
is a much easier process than from cellulose material. The process
includes several steps, as listed below:

a) Milling of grains
b) Hydrolysis of starch to sugar units
c) Fermentation by yeast
d) Distillation
e) Removal of water from ethanol

After grinding the raw material, it is mixed with water and enzymes to
break down the starch to sugar units. The free sugar can be used by
yeast or bacteria and converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide. As the
concentration of ethanol increases to about 15%, fermentation is
reduced, since high alcohol concentration kills the yeast or bacteria. It
is then necessary to separate the ethanol from the other material in the
fermentation tanks by distillation. Distillation increases the ethanol
concentration up to about 95%. In order to remove the rest of the water
from the ethanol solution, it must be dried by different drying agents to
a concentration of 99 .5% ethanol or absolute ethanol. Extractive
distillation with benzene also yields anhydrous ethanol. It is possible to
produce l litre of absolute ethanol from about 3 kg of wheat. The
process flow chart for production of ethanol from grains is shown in
fig.37.

97
 60 A6R0>
Enzyme/yeast
cultivation

Higher
alcohols
Grain
_ _ _ Grinding and Ethanol
purification
cooking Fermentation Anhydrous
And drying
ethanol

By-product
recovery Catlle
and drying feed

Fig. 37. Process flow chart for the production of ethanol from com

16.1.2 Ethanol from sugarcane

Ethanol production from sugarcane is one of the easiest and most
efficient processes since sugarcane contains about 15% sucrose. The
glycosidic bond in the disaccharide can be broken down into two sugar
units, which are free and readily available for fermentation.

The cane is cut and the juice is extracted by maceration. After

clarification, the juice is concentrated by boiling. The concentrated
juice is fermented with yeast to produce raw ethanol. A series of
distillation steps including a final extractive distillation with benzene
are used to obtain anhydrous ethanol. The normal yield of ethanol is
about 8. 73 litres of alcohol per tonne of cane. The potential of ethanol
production in India is about 475 litres per year. The process flow chart
for production of ethanol from sugarcane is shown in fig.38.

Ume~•
....,..Dlclddt

Fig. 38. Process flow chart for production of ethanol from sugarcane

98