UNIT - I

Pharmacognosy: Pharmacology - Definition and history; Indian systems of medicine -

Siddha, ayurvedha, and Unani systems; Classification of Crude drugs; Chemistry of Drugs;
Future of pharmacognosy.

Pharmacognosy:-
Pharmacognosy is defined as the scientific and systematic study of structural,
physical, chemical and biological characters of crude drugs along with their history, method
of cultivation, collection and preparation for the market. Pharmacognosy, known initially as
materia medica, may be defined as the study of crude drugs obtained from plants, animals
and mineral kingdom and their constituents. There is a historical misinformation about who
created the term pharmacognosy. According to some sources, it was C. A. Seydler, a medical
student at Halle, Germany, in 1815; he wrote his doctoral thesis titled Analectica
Pharmacognostica. However, The physician J. A. Schmidt (Vienna) used that one in his
Lehrbuch der materia medica in 1811, to describe the study of medicinal plants and their
properties.
The word Pharmacognosy is derived from Greek word viz.
 Pharmakon: A Drug
 Gignosco : To acquire the knowledge
The Pharmacognosy is the subject of crude drugs obtained from the plant, Animals
and Minerals origins. Source of crude drugs:-
1) Plant Source:- Neem, Babul, Tulsi, Saffron, Clove.
2) Animal source:- Honey bee, bee wax, Silk, Insulin, Shark, Liver oil, Thyroid.
3) Mineral source:- Chalk, bentonite, asbestos, talc, kaolin, Fuller's earth.
4) Micro- Organism: - Antibiotics,
5) Marine :- Salt, Protozoa, etc.
Sources of Natural Drugs
The following are the natural sources of Drugs:
• Biological sources (i.e. from Terrestrial and Marine living things)
o Plants
o Animals
o Microorganisms: Fungi, Algae, Bacteria
• Mineral sources
1
• Biotechnology: Tissue culture/ Recombinant DNA Technology

Plant Sources
Plant source is the oldest source of drugs. Most of the drugs in ancient times were
derived from plants. Almost all parts of the plants are used i.e. leaves, stem, bark, fruits and
roots.
The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be 2 to 2.5 lakhs falling in
about 300 families and 10000 genera. Only a small percentage of the total species have been
studied scientifically for the presence of any therapeutic activity and isolation of the
responsible bioactive compound isolated.
Investigators face numerous hurdles and problems in the systematic investigation of
all the species and as a result thousands of species are still not investigated thoroughly.
In many areas of the world, plants used in folklore medicine have been recorded. In
other regions of the world such information has not been recorded or lost. Ethno botanists
across the world have been trying to gather and record such valuable information before it is
completely lost or forgotten.
The search for new drug needs a team work of experts from various domains such as
botany, pharmacognosy, pharmacology, phytochemistry, medicine etc.
Majority of the natural drugs from plant sources are derived from Spermatophytes
(seed bearing plants). Thy phyla Angiosperme is the dominant one while the phyla
Gymnospermae yields few useful drugs such as Turpentine oil, Colophony, ephedrine etc.
Male Fern from Pteridophyta provides Taenicidal (tape worm killing) agents.
In Angiospermae, Dicotyledon plants provide more drugs than the Monocotyledon
plants which yield limited drugs such as Squill, Lemon grass oil, Aloes etc.
Examples of drugs obtained from plants include Quinine, Atropine, Cocaine,
Morphine, Codeine, Ergotamine, Reserpine, Caffeine, Sennosides, Glycyrrhizin, volatile oils,
fixed oils etc.
Animal Sources:
Gelatin is obtained from ox and sheep, Wool fat from sheep, Beeswax from
honeycomb, Cochineal from insects are some examples of drugs obtained from land animals.
Spermaceti, Shark liver oil, Cod liver oil, halibut liver oil are some of the drugs obtained
from marine animals.

Microbial Sources:
2
 Well-known antibiotics produced by a group of microorganisms known as
actinomycetes yielding antibiotics such as actinomycin, amphotericin, chloramphenicol,
erythromycin, kanamycin, neomycin, gentamicin, streptomycin and tetracycline.
Aspergillate group of fungi produce antibiotics such as penicillin, griseofulvin and
cephalosporin. Among the bacteria, genus Bacillusproduces antibiotics such as polymyxin B
and bacitracin. Ergot alkaloids also are obtained from a resting stage of a fungus.
Algae are source of limited number of drugs such as Agar and Alginate
Mineral Sources:
Several silicates such as Kaolin, Bentonite, Diatomite and compounds of Na, K, Al,
Ca, Mg etc. are obtained from Mineral sources including Sulphur and Iodine.
Biotechnology:
Recombinant DNA technology involves cleavage of DNA by enzyme restriction
endonucleases. The desired gene is coupled to rapidly replicating DNA (viral, bacterial or
plasmid). The new genetic combination is inserted into the bacterial cultures which allow
production of vast amount of genetic material. Important example is Human insulin is
produced by modification of porcine insulin or by bacteria using recombinant DNA
technology. Few others include Somatotrophin, Erythropoietin, Human blood coagulation
factors etc.
Scopolamine, Podophyllotoxin, Paclitaxel, Rosmarinic acid, Vanillin and Shikonin
are some of the examples of compounds produced from plant cell cultures.

History of Pharmacognosy
Egyptians wear aware of medicinal uses of several plants and animals and also about
human anatomy. The Greek physician Hippocrates (460- 360 B.C) known as 'Father of
medicine' Aristotle the renowned philosopher (384 - 322 B.C.) is well known for his studies
on animal Kingdom and Theophrastus (370 - 287 B.C.) for the plants Kingdom. Pedanius
Dioscorides, (040- 080 A.D.) A Greek physician in 78 A.D. described several plants of
medicinal importance in "De Materia Medica".
Pliny the Elder (23-70 A.D.) who compiled 37 volumes of natural history. Greek
pharmacist Galen (131 - 200 A.D.) described various methods of preparation containing
active constituents of crude drugs. The branch of dealing with the extraction of plant and
animal drugs is known as Galenical Pharmacy. Indian history of medicinal plants is dated
back to 3500 B.C. The curative properties of plants have been mentioned in the Suktas Of
Rigveda and Atharvaveda. Ayurveda has also described good number of plants with their
3
therapeutic properties. The ancient well known known treaties in Ayurveda the Charak
Samhita and Susruta Samhita are written by Charka And Susruta Respectively.

Pharmacology Definition
Pharmacology is the study of drugs including their origins, history, uses, and
properties. It mainly focuses on the actions of drugs on the body. A drug is defined a
substance that is used to treat, cure, or prevent a disease or otherwise enhance physical or
mental health. The word pharmacology comes from the Greek words pharmakos, meaning
medicine or drug, and logos, meaning study.
History of Pharmacology
Pharmacology emerged as its own discipline in the 19th Century, branching off from
research done in fields of science such as organic chemistry and physiology. Oswald
Schmiedeberg, who was born in what is now Latvia in 1838, is considered the father of
pharmacology. His doctoral thesis was on the measurement of chloroform levels in blood,
and he went on to become a professor of pharmacology at the University of Strasburg, where
he ran an institute of pharmacology. There, he studied chloroform, which was used as an
anesthetic, chloral hydrate, a sedative and hypnotic, and muscarine, a compound isolated
from the mushroom Amanita muscaria that stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system
and has been used to treat various diseases such as glaucoma.
In 1890, John Jacob Abel became the first pharmacology chair in the United States, at
the University of Michigan. He later went to Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. Abel
was the first to isolate the hormone epinephrine from the adrenal gland, isolate histamine
from the pituitary gland, and make pure crystalline insulin. Animals such as dogs, cats,
pigeons, and frogs were used to test pharmacological substances. Humans were even used as
test subjects. Sometimes they suffered through severe adverse effects from these substances,
such as when the German pharmacist Friedrich Serturner and three of his friends had
poisoning for several days from an alkaloid that Serturner had isolated from opium. This
alkaloid was later named morphine, after the Ancient Greek god of sleep, Morpheus.
Today, the most common test animal is the mouse, which is convenient to use because
it is small, easy to breed, and can produce many generations in a relatively short amount of
time. Guinea pigs and rabbits are also sometimes used. Once a compound has undergone
enough testing to be considered reasonably safe, it is used in Phase I clinical trials on human
volunteers, and eventually it may become a widely available drug.
Branches of Pharmacology
4
Pharmacodynamics
Pharmacodynamics is the study of the physiological or biological effects that varying
concentrations of drugs have on the body over time. This branch involves the study of the
localization of a drug to a specific area of the body, such as the brain. Most drugs may have
effects on more than one part of the body, and some may cause unwanted side effects.
Sometimes this is dependent on the dose of the drug. A substance may have side effects if too
much of it is taken; for example, too much magnesium in the body can cause diarrhea.
Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetics is the study of how the body absorbs, metabolizes, and excretes
drugs. A drug may be administered orally, parenterally (such as through an injection), or
intravenously (into the bloodstream, through an IV). The kidney is the main organ that filters
out drugs from the body, but the lungs and sweat glands also have minor roles.
Others
Other areas in pharmacology that can involve both of the two main branches of
pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics include:
 Clinical Pharmacology: focuses on the therapeutic uses of drugs and the factors that
may affect the efficacy of a drug, such as age, pregnancy, disease, and combination in
use with other drugs. It is also concerned with bioavailability, which is the proportion
of a drug dose that is actually absorbed by the body instead of just passing through.
 Toxicology: focuses on the adverse effects that drugs may have on the body. It
examines side effects not only from drugs given therapeutically but also on chemicals
that a person may be exposed to in their household, occupation, or environment.

INDIAN SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE

TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE

Traditional system of medicine also known as indigenous/ folk medicine/ alternative
medicine comprises of medical aspects of knowledge, skills, and practices based on
different cultures and different people which are used to treat the diseases. It includes
various systems being practiced throughout the world such as Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani,
Homeopathy, Chinese systems etc. These systems of medicine are based on theories,
beliefs and experiences of different practitioners from the ancient periods.
AYURVEDA SYSTEM OF MEDICINE
Ayurveda is one of the oldest system of medicine which came into existence in about
5
 900 BC. The word "Ayur" means Life and "Veda" means Science. Literally Ayurveda
means science of life. Charaka and Sushruta made significant contributions to Ayurveda.
The book "Charak Samhita" was written by Charaka and he was known as father of
Ayurveda.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF AYURVEDA

PRINCIPLES OF AYURVEDA
PANCHAMAHABHUTA TRIDOSHA GUNA-RASA SIDDHANTHA
 PRITHVI  VATA  RASA
 JALA  PITTA  GUNA
 VAYU  KAPHA  VIRYA
 AGNI  VIPAKA
 AKASHA  PRABHAVA

Ayurveda is based on the following principles

a) Panchabhuta Siddhanta
b) Tridosha theory
c) Guna-Rasa-Virya-Vipaka-Prabhava Siddhanta.
Pancha Bhoota Siddhanta
According to this theory, It believes that the whole universe is made up of five basic
elements known as "Mahabhutas" and they are present in the human body. They are
Prithvi (Earth) Jala (Water), Vayu (Air), Agni (Fire), Akasha (Void/Sky). Combinations
of these five elements form seven basic tissues of the body which are referred as "Sapta
Dahu" which are as follows:
1. Rasa (Lymph/ Plasma), 2 Rakta (Blood), 3. Mamsa (Flesh), 4. Meda (Fat), 5.
Asti(Bones), Moja (Marrow), 7. Shukra ( Reproductive organs).These Sapta dahu
undergo wear and tear to form "Mala" (Excretory products).
Tridosha theory
According to this theory, the five basic elements (Pancha Mahabhuta) exist in human
body in three different forms, together known as "Tridosha", they are
 Vata (Space + Air).
 Pitta (Fire + Liquid).
 kapha (Liquid + Solid).
These tridoshas when present in balanced form in the body is considered as healthy
6
 condition, any imbalance in tridosha is considered as disease condition. Ayurveda tries
to maintain the balance in these elements.
Vata: It regulates the psychic and nervous system. Imbalance of this leads to disease of
ENT heart, urinary tract, skin, etc.
Pitta: It regulates energy production, digestion, tissue building, etc. Imbalance of this
lead to disease like acidity, indigestion, liver and skin disease.
Kapha: It regulates heat, formation of fluids, mucous, etc. Imbalance of this results in
join pain, brain disease, drowsiness, etc.
Guna-Rasa-Virya-Vipaka-Prabhava Siddhanta
These are considered as five pharmacological principles / properties of "Dravya" (dru
substance), they are Rasa (Taste), Guna (Quality), Virya (Active principle), Vipaka
(Digestive products), Prabhava (Pharmaco therapeutic action).
DIAGNOSIS IN AYURVEDA
Diseases are diagnosed by-
 Observation of Doshas (vata, pitta, kapha).

 Observation of skin, eyes, hair, nails and tongue.

 Recording the pulse.
 Investigation of Mala (urine, stools and sweat).
TREATMENT
The different treatments in Ayurveda are as follows
 Elimination therapy
 Alleviation therapy
 Psychic therapy
 Surgery therapy
In addition to single drugs, compound formulations are generally used to treat disease in
the form of tablets, pills, powders and syrups. Following are the examples of few
Ayurvedic drugs along with their uses.

List of some Ayurvedic drugs and their uses

Drug Uses

Arjunaristha Heart disease

7
 Khadirarishta Skin disease

Kumaryasava Tonic, liver diseases

Triphala churna General diseases, stomachic

Ashwagandha churna Adaptogenic diseases

Parad bhasma Diarrhoea, dysentery

Chirayanta arka Fever

Kasturi gutika Aphrodisiac

Dashmula quath Ailments of kapha and vata

BRANCHES OF TREATMENT IN AYURVEDA

1. Kayachikitsa (General medicine).
2. Salya chikitsa (Surgery).
3. Salakya chikitsa (ENT).
4. Bala chikitsa (Pediatrics)
5. Jara chikitsa Treatment related to genetics).
6. Rasayana chikitsa (Treatment with chemicals).
7. Vajikarana chikitsa (Treatment related to reproductive organs and aphrodisiacs).
8. Graham chikitsa (Planetory effects).
9. Visha chikitsa (Toxicology).

SIDDHA SYSTEM OF MEDICINE

This system was practised in south India especially Tamil nadu. This system is believed
to be older than Ayurveda and the latter was derived from Siddha system. “Agastya"
believed to be the father of Siddha medicine and he wrote a book known as Charkku
"Agattiya
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SIDDHA SYSTEM

8
 PRINCIPLES OF SIDDHA

VATA TRIGUNA KAPHA

PITTA

It is based on three principles vata, pitta and kapha, which are known as "Trigunas".
 Vata: People with predominant vata are characterized by stout, black, cold and
inactive personalities. Increased vata develops flatulence, acidity, obesity, heart
attacks, etc.
 Pitta: People with predominant pitta are characterized by lean, whitish
complexioned ha personalities. Increased pitta shows early greying of hair, reddish
eyes, burning chest,mental derangement, anaemia.
 Kapha: People with predominant kapha are characterized by well built, good
complexioned well behaved personalities. Increased kapha leads to jaundice, heart
attack, high fever anaemia, etc.
A particular guna in the body increases according to the time.
 Vata is predominant at 6.00am to 10.00am and 6.00pm to 10.00pm.
 Pitta is predominant at 10.00am to 200pm and 10.00pm to 2.00am.
 Kapha is predominant at 2.00pm to 6.00pm and 2.00am to 6.00am.
DIAGNOSIS IN SIDDHA SYSTEM
During the diagnosis the physician studies eight things, they are Nadi (Pulse), Dhwani
(Speech), Twaka (Tongue), Deham (Body), Neeram (Colour), Malam (Faeces), Mutram
(Urine) and Vizhi (Eyes).
Treatment
Siddha physicians give knowledge of one thousand herbs and their effectiveness in
specific composition and formulation. Commonly medicines are prepared freshly for
specific diseases.
The formulations are prepared using plants animals, minerals, metals like mercury, gold,
silver, sulphur, zinc, copper, aluminum, borax and arsenic are used in small quantities.
9
 The following formulations are commonly used in Siddha system.
o Kashayam (Decoction).
o Churna (Powder).
o Tailam (Medicated oils).
o Kuligai (Pills & Tablets).
o Chenduram (Metal complexes).
o Bhasma (Calcinated drugs).
DIET IN SIDDHA
Siddha system also gives importance to "Pathya" (restriction on diet), following are the
examples of restricted and non-restricted diets.
Non restricted foods: wheat, milk, ghee, pulses, tender vegetables, goat
meat, sugar, etc. Restricted foods : chicken, mangoes, coconut, fenugreek,
mustard, sesame, almonds, etc.
UNANI SYSTEM OF MEDICINE
Unani system originated in Greece. It was started by a Greek philosopher Hippocrates.
He was the first physician to introduce documentation of medical history which gave
rise to development of "Humoral theory". Unani system was later developed by Arabs
and became popular as Arab system of medicine.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF UNANI SYSTEM
PRINCIPLES OF UNANI

Unani system considers that the entire universe is made of four basic elements viz:- fire,
air, earth, water. These elements are present in human body that represent various qualities.

10
Unani system is based on two theories.
 Hippocratic theory of four humors.
 Pythagorean theory of four proximate qualities.
Hippocratic theory of four humours mentions the first products of digestion, they are
 Blood (Dum).
 Phlegm (Balgham).
 Yellow bile (Safra).
 Black bile (Souda).
Pythogorian theory of four proximate qualities includes hot, cold, moist and dry. These
four qualities are present in the human body in combinations and represent the four
basic elements of the universe. They are.
 Hot & moist (Air).
 Hot & dry (Fire).
 Cold & moist (Water).
 Cold & dry (Earth).
These four qualities are present in different proportions in the body and vary from one
person to another. These 4 qualities represent the nature or temperament/ humor of
individual known as "Mizaj".
Mizaj/ Temperament/ Humors of a person
 Mizaj-e-har (Hot).
 Mizaj e-barid (Cold).
 Mizaj-e-yabis (Dry).
 Mizaj-e-rath (Moist).
Balance form of these 4 humors is called as healthy condition and imbalance form is
known as pathological condition
DIAGNOSIS
It is done by recording the parameters such as psychology, age, gender, habits, working
condition, history, etc. The following things are analysed during diagnosis
 Pulse reading.
 Examination of sputum, urine, and stools.
 Patient counselling.
TREATMENT IN UNANI SYSTEM
Two things are attempted during the treatment they are:
 To remove the cause of ailment, also known as cleansing or detoxification. It is
11
 done by purging, diuresis, vomiting and bleeding.
 To strengthen the natural defence mechanism and prevention of relapse.
Treatment in Unani system involves various therapies which are as follows:
a. Regimental therapy: It includes emesis, purging, diaphoresis, diuresis,
massaging, Turkish bath, etc
b. Diet therapy: It is done by using a special diet. The quality and quantity
of foods is regulated
c. Pharmacotherapy: It deals with the use of medicine, most commonly natural
drugs are used.
UNANI MEDICINE
The Materia Medica describes drugs obtained from herbs, animals and mineral sources.
Herbal drugs include various parts of plants and their products. Animal drugs include
organs, flesh, hair, bones, etc. Mineral drugs include metals like gold, silver, lead, zinc
arsenic, etc. Precious stones like emerald, sapphire are also used.

CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

Classification of Drugs Introduction:
Drugs are chemical constituents which are obtained by the natural/herbal sourcesor
synthetic source. Technically and legally the term drug as defined in India under Drugs
andCosmetics Act of 1940 reads as follows.
1. All medicines for internal or external use of human beings or animal and
allsubstances intended to be used for or in diagnosis, treatment, mitigation or prevention of
disease in human beings or animals.
2. Such substances, other than food, intended to affect the structure or any function of
the human body or intended to be used for the destruction or vermin or insects, which cause
disease in human beings or animals as may be specified from time to time by the Central
government by notification inOfficial Gazette
Classification is required for each drug because they are not similar in manyexpect
like chemical, mode of action, morphological etc. If we are not classified them then we face
many problem that is drug identification, drug adverse effect, and drug action.
For the identification and separation of drug with each other classification isrequired
in many ways.
CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS:

12
 Alphabetical classification
 Taxonomical classification.
 Morphological classification.
 Pharmacological classification.
 Chemical classification.
 Chemo-taxonomical classification.
 Serotaxonomical classification.

Alphabetical classification
Alphabetical classification is the simplest way of classification of any disconnectedor
alphabetically similar crude drug. That means drug which are belong to similar alphabet then
it place the similar group. Crude drugs are arranged in alphabetical order of their Latin and
English names (common names) or sometimes local language names (vernacular names).
Some of the pharmacopoeias, dictionaries and reference books which classify crude drugs
according to this system are as follows.
 Indian Pharmacopoeia (English)
 British Pharmacopoeia (English)
 British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (English)
 United States Pharmacopoeia (English)
 British Pharmaceutical Codex. (English)
 European Pharmacopoeia (Latin)
 Pharmacopoeia Internationalis (Latin)
Taxonomical classification
In that classification drugs are classified on the basis of their division, class, sub-
class, order, family, genus and species. It is type of biological classification and restricted
mainly to crude drugs from plant source. It is criticized for its failure to recognise the
organised or unorganised nature of crude drugs in their morphological studies. The
taxonomical system of classification can be elaboratedfurther as follows.

13
Morphological classification.
In this types of classification, the crude drugs are divided into the parts of plantslike
leaves, fruits, flowers, woods, barks, extract, gums etc.

This type of classification is more convenient for practical purposes, even if

thechemical nature is not known, a drug can be studied on the basis of their morphological
and pharmacological characteristics. This type of classification is very useful in identifying
the adulterants used. In the natural state crude drugs from plant source can be readily
distinguished butoperations like collection, drying, preparation for the market produce
distortion ofthe natural form making their recognition very difficult.

14
 Animal drugs and mineral drugs are difficult to classify by this method. On the basis
of morphology drugs are divided into two parts.
1. Organized drugs
2. Unorganized drugs

Pharmacological classification.
In this classification drugs are placed together, which show the
similarpharmacological function or therapeutic effects. Drug action is a specific function for
each drug due to its chief chemical constituents. Chemicals are bind to the specific receptors
of our body and play agreat role in the therapeutics. Some crude drug are classified below.
 The special advantages which the method enjoys is that even ifthe  contentof the
crude drugs are not known, they can be classified properly on the basis of therapeutics
or pharmacological property.
 Pharmaceutical Aids are also a crude drugs, which are not place  in this classification
because pharmaceutical Aids shows many pharmacologicaleffects.

15
  However, the drugs which are dissimilar in their action of  mechanism even though
their therapeutic effects is same (Example- bulk purgative and irritant purgatives etc.)
are put together.
 It is also possible that the same drugs with two different actions in  the body,may be
classified seperatly at both the places. for example cinchona is grouped as
antimalarials and bitters and stimulants.

Chemical classification
In this classification crude drug are put together, which are contains the similar
chemical constituents. It is very important expect in the classification system because
chemicals are responsible for the pharmacological action.
It is very important for the phytochemical study of crude drugs. Chemical
classification is given below.

16
However, this type of classification fails in proper placement of drugs containing two
different types of chemicals. For examples, certain drugs are found to contains alkaloids and
glycosides (cinchona), Fixed oil and volatile oil (nutmeg), fixed oil and enzymes (bitter
almond) together and hence makes it difficult to categorize them systematically.
Chemo-taxonomical classification.
In this classification combine the two classifications for defining the crude drugs. In
which we investigate the drug category and chemical composition. Many crude drugs which
contain the chemical constituents which are belong to the similar classes or closely related to
similar species or family or division.
In this system, equal importance is given for taxonomical status and chemical
constituents. There are certain types of chemical which are characteristics the specific classes
of plants.
The character most often studied in chemotaxonomy are secondary metabolites of
pharmaceutical significance such as alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids etc.
Serotaxonomical classification.
This technique is based on the highly specific relationship between antigens and the
antibodies produced in response to the animal during the any infection or harm.
Serology is the scientific study of the blood for the diagnosis of our immunity power
or define our immunity efficiency by the production of antibodies against the pathogens or
introduce substances.
It is mainly based on the protein content, which are present in the plants or crude
drugs. Different protein contents are divided the crudedrugs in different categories.

17
CHEMISTRY OF DRUGS

Drug classification based on chemical structure refers to the grouping of drugs based on
their chemical composition and structure. This classification system is particularly useful
for understanding the physical and chemical properties of drugs, as well as their
mechanisms of action and potential side effects.

Here are some common classes of drugs based on their chemical structure:

Alcohols: Alcohols are compounds that contain a hydroxyl (-OH) group attached to a
carbon atom. Ethanol, the active ingredient in alcoholic beverages, is an example of an
alcohol that is used medicinally as a solvent and antiseptic.
Amines: Amines are compounds that contain a nitrogen atom that is bonded to one or
more carbon atoms. Many drugs, including antidepressants, antihistamines, and muscle
relaxants, are amines.
Carboxylic acids: Carboxylic acids are compounds that contain a carboxyl (-COOH)
group attached to a carbon atom. Aspirin, a popular pain reliever and anti-inflammatory
drug, is an example of a carboxylic acid.
Esters: Esters are compounds that are formed when an alcohol reacts with a carboxylic
acid. Many drugs, including aspirin, are esters.
Phenols: Phenols are compounds that contain a hydroxyl (-OH) group attached to an
aromatic ring. Many drugs, including antiseptics, disinfectants, and anesthetics, are
phenols.

18
19
20
Scope of Pharmacognosy
The crude drugs are obtained from plants and only a small number comes from animals and
mineral origins.
Pharmacognosy has wide and broad scope in the field of Pharmacy and its branches of them
are given following:-
1) Cultivation and domestication of the medicinal plants.
2) Analysis and Phytochemical
3) Preparation of general tonic and stimulation.
4) The steroid industry
5) Herbal Preparation herbal medicine
6) Flavoring agent and perfumes.
7) Tissue Culture
8) Phytomedicine
9) Natural Products.

1 Analysis and Phytochemical:- Many Bioactive biomolecular are extracted and isolated from
the crude drugs. They are analysed by modern technique such as Thin Layer Chromatography
(TLC), High performance Liquid Chromatography (HPL), Gas Chromatography.
2 Herbal Preparation herbal medicine:- Herbal medicine have become more popular in recent
years because it is believe that these do not have and toxin or side-effects as compare to the
modern medicine.
3 Flavoring agent and perfumes:- Large number of aromatic plants which are extensively
used as Flavoring agent, perfume, spicy and medicine Ajowan, Lemon grass, etc.
4 Tissue Culture:- Plant tissue Culture broadly referral to the in-vitro cultivation of plant seed
and various parts of the plants organ embryo, tissue, single cell protoplast.
5 Phytomedicine :- Herbal based traditional medicine practice that uses various plant material
in modalities considered both prevention and therapeutics.

21