SILICICLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks composed mainly of silicate particles derived by the weathering

breakdown of older rocks and by pyroclastic volcanism are called siliciclastic sedimentary
rocks. Sandstones, conglomerates, and shales compose the members of this group. The
siliciclastic sedimentary rocks make up roughly 3/4 of all sedimentary rocks in the geologic
record, and they are present in sedimentary successions ranging in age from Precambrian to
Holocene. Petroleum geologists are especially interested in sandstones because more than
half of the world's reserves of oil and gas occur in these rocks. Shales are likewise of great
interest because the organic matter contained in shales is believed to be the source material of
oil and gas.

SANDSTONES

Sandstones make up 20-25 percent of all sedimentary rocks. They are common rocks in
geologic systems of all ages, and they are distributed throughout the continents of Earth.
Sandstones consist mainly of silicate grains ranging in size from 1/16 to 2 mm. These
particles make up the framework fraction of the sandstones. Sandstones may also contain
various amounts of cement and very fine size (< -0.03 mm) material called matrix, which are
present within interstitial pore space among the framework grains. Due to their coarse size
(relative to the sizes of particles in shales), the framework mineralogy of sandstones can
generally be determined with reasonable accuracy using a standard petrographic microscope
or by backscattered electron microscopy.

Framework Mineralogy

The particles that make up sandstones are mainly sand-size and coarse silt-size silicate
minerals and rock fragments referred to as framework grains. They include;

1. Quartz: Quartz (Si02) is the dominant mineral in most sandstone, making up on average
about 50-60 percent of the framework fraction. It is a comparatively easy mineral to identify,
both megascopically in hand specimens and by petrographic examination in thin sections,
although it can be confused with feldspars. Due to its superior hardness and chemical
stability, quartz can survive multiple recycling. The quartz grains in many sandstones display
some degree of rounding acquired by abrasion during one or more episodes of transport,
particularly by wind. Quartz can occur as single (monocrystalline) grains or as composite
(polycrystalline) grains. When examined under crossed polarizing prisms with a petrographic
microscope, many quartz grains display sweeping patterns of extinction as the stage is
rotated. This property is called undulatory extinction. Quartz is derived from plutonic rock,
particularly felsic plutonic rocks such as granites, metamorphic rocks, and older sandstones.

2. Feldspars: Feldspar minerals make up about 10-20 percent of the framework grains of
average sandstones. They are the second most abundant mineral in most sandstone. Several
varieties of feldspars are recognized on the basis of differences in chemical composition and
optical properties. They are divided into two broad groups: alkali feldspars and plagioclase
feldspars. Alkali feldspars (potassium feldspars e. g. orthoclase, microcline) constitute a
group of minerals in which chemical composition can range through a complete solid
solution series from KA1Si3O8 through (K, Na) AISi3O8 to NaA1Si3O8. Plagioclase feldspars
form a complex solid solution series ranging in composition from NaA1Si 3O8 (albite) through
CaA12Si2O8 (anorthite). A general formula for the series is (Na, Ca) (AI, Si) Si 208.
Plagioclase feldspars can commonly be distinguished from potassium feldspars on the basis
of optical properties such as twinning by examination with a petrographic microscope.
Unfortunately, some K-feldspars (e.g., orthoclase and sanidine) and some plagioclase are
untwinned, making them difficult to differentiate from each other and from quartz. Potassium
feldspars are generally considered to be somewhat more abundant overall in sedimentary
rocks than plagioclase feldspars; however, plagioclase is more abundant in sandstones
derived from volcanic rocks.

Feldspars are chemically less stable than quartz and are more susceptible to chemical
destruction during weathering and diagenesis. They are also softer than quartz, so become
more readily rounded during transport. They also appear to be somewhat more prone to
mechanical shattering and breakup owing to their cleavage. Feldspars are less likely than
quartz to survive several episodes of recycling, although they can survive more than one
cycle if weathering occurs in a moderately arid or cold climate. A high content of feldspars,
particularly on the order of 25 percent or more probably indicates derivation directly from
crystalline source rocks.

Accessory Minerals

Minerals that have an average abundance in sedimentary rocks less than about 1-2 percent are
called accessory minerals. These minerals include the common micas (muscovite white mica
and biotite dark mica), and a large number of heavy minerals, which are denser than quartz.
Muscovite is chemically more stable than biotite and is commonly much more abundant in
sandstones than biotite. Micas are derived particularly from metamorphic source rocks as
well as from some plutonic igneous rocks. Minerals that have a specific gravity greater than
about 2.9 are called heavy minerals. These minerals include both chemically stable and
unstable varieties. Stable heavy minerals such as zircon and rutile can survive multiple
recycling episodes and are commonly rounded, indicating that the last source was
sedimentary. Less stable minerals, such as magnetite, pyroxenes and amphiboles are less
likely to survive recycling. They are commonly first-cycle sediments that reflect the
composition of proximate source rocks. Thus, heavy minerals are useful indicators of
sediment source rocks because different types of source rocks yield different suites of heavy
minerals. Due to their low abundance in sandstones, heavy minerals are commonly
concentrated for study.

Rock Fragments

Pieces of ancient source rocks that have not yet disintegrated to yield individual mineral
grains are called rock fragments (clasts). Rock fragments make up about 15-20 percent of the
framework grains in the average sandstone; though in some species can range from zero to
more than 95 percent. Fragments of any kind of igneous, metamorphic, or sedimentary rock
can occur in sandstones, however, clasts of fine-grained source rocks are most likely to be
preserved as sand-size fragments. The most common rock fragments in sandstones are clasts
of volcanic rocks, volcanic glass (in younger rocks), and fine-grained metamorphic rocks
such as slate, phyllite, schist, and quartzite. Rock fragments are particularly important in
studies of sediment source rocks. They are moderately easily identified, and they are more
reliable indicators of source rock types than are individual minerals such as quartz or
feldspar, which can be derived from different types of source rocks.

Mineral Cement

The framework grains in most siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are bound together by some
type of mineral cement. These cementing materials may be either silicate minerals such as
quartz or opal or nonsilicate minerals such as calcite and dolomite. Quartz is the most
common silicate mineral that acts as cement. In most sandstone, the quartz cement is
chemically attached to the crystal lattice of existing quartz grains, forming rims of cement
called overgrowths. Quartz overgrowths are particularly common in quartz-rich sandstones.
Less commonly, quartz cement is present as microcrystalline quartz, which has a fine-
grained, crystalline texture similar to that of chert. When silica cement is deposited as
microcrystalline quartz, it forms a mosaic of very tiny quartz crystals that fill the interstitial
spaces among framework silicate grains. Opal is also composed of SiO 2, but, unlike these
minerals, opal contains some water and lacks a definite crystal structure.

Carbonate minerals are the most abundant nonsilicate mineral cements in siliciclastic
sedimentary rocks. Calcite is particularly common carbonate cement. Less common
carbonate cements are dolomite and siderite (iron carbonate). Other minerals that act as
cements in sandstones include the iron oxide minerals hematite and limonite, feldspars,
anhydrite, gypsum, barite, clay minerals, and zeolite minerals. All cements are secondary
minerals that form in sandstones after deposition and during burial.

Matrix Minerals

Grains in sandstones smaller than about 0.03 mm, which fill interstitial spaces among
framework grains, are referred to as matrix minerals. Matrix minerals may include fine-size
micas, quartz, and feldspars; however, clay minerals make up the bulk of matrix grains. Clay
minerals are compositionally diverse. They belong to the phyllosilicate mineral group, which
is characterized by two-dimensional layer structures arranged in indefinitely extending
sheets. The most common clay mineral groups are illite, smectite (montmorillonite),
kaolinite, and chlorite. Clay minerals form principally as secondary minerals during subaerial
weathering and hydrolysis, although they can also form by subaqueous weathering in the
marine environment and during burial diagenesis.

Classification of Sandstones

Descriptive classification of sandstones is based fundamentally on framework mineralogy,

although the relative abundance of matrix plays a role in some classifications. Finding a
classification that is suitable for all types of sandstones and acceptable to most geologists has
proven to be an elusive goal (in fact, more than fifty different classifications for sandstones
have been proposed without widespread acceptance). Classifications that are all-inclusive
tend to be too complicated and unwieldy for general use, and classifications that are
oversimplified may convey too little useful information.

Sandstone Maturity

Compositional maturity refers to the relative abundance of stable and unstable framework
grains in sandstone. Sandstone composed mainly of quartz is considered compositionally
mature, whereas sandstone that contains abundant unstable minerals (e.g., feldspars) or
unstable rock fragments is compositionally immature. Textural maturity is determined by the
relative abundance of matrix and the degree of rounding and sorting of framework grains.
Textural maturity can range from immature (much clay, framework grains poorly sorted and
poorly rounded) to supermature (little or no clay, framework grains well sorted and well
rounded).
Mineralogical Classification

Most sandstones are made up of mixtures of a very small number of dominant framework
components. Quartz, feldspars, and rock fragments such as chert and volcanic clasts are the
only framework constituents that are commonly abundant enough to be important in
sandstone classification. In addition to framework grains, matrix may be present in interstitial
spaces among these grains. Published classifications range from those that have a strong
genetic orientation to those based strictly on observable, descriptive properties of sandstones.
Most authors of sandstone classifications use a classification scheme that involves a QFR or
QFL plot. These plots are triangular diagrams on which quartz (Q), feldspars (F), and rock
fragments (R or L) are plotted as end members at the poles of the classification triangle.

One of the simplest and easiest classifications to use is that of Gilbert (1982), which is based
on an earlier classification by Dott (1964). In this classification, sandstones that are
effectively free of matrix (<5 percent) are classified as quartz arenites, feldspathic arenites, or
lithic arenites depending upon the relative abundance of QFL constituents. If matrix can be
recognized (at least 5 percent), the terms quartz wacke, feldspathic wacke, and lithic wacke
are used instead. A principal difference between Gilbert's (1982) and Dott's (1964)
classification is that Dott sets the boundary between arenites and wackes at 15 percent matrix.
Sandstone classifications that include more classification "pigeonholes" than Gilbert's, and
that have been rather widely used by American geologists, include those of McBride (1963)
and Folk, Andrews, and Lewis ( 1970). These classifications do not include matrix as part of
the classification scheme. The name arkose is often used informally by geologists for any
feldspathic arenite that is particularly rich (> 25 percent) in feldspars. Another term is
graywacke, commonly applied to matrix-rich sandstones of any composition that have
undergone deep burial, have a chloritic matrix, and are dark grey to dark green, very hard,
and dense

Quartz Arenites

Quartz arenites are composed of more than 90 percent siliceous grains that may include
quartz, chert, and quartzose rock fragments They are commonly white or light grey but may
be stained red, pink, yellow, or brown by iron oxides. They are generally well lithified and
well cemented with silica or carbonate cement; however, some are porous and friable. Quartz
arenites typically occur in association with assemblages of rocks deposited in stable cratonic
environments such as eolian, beach, and shelf environments. Thus, they tend to be
interbedded with shallow-water carbonates and, in some cases, with feldspathic sandstones.
Most quartz arenites are texturally mature to supermature. Cross-bedding is particularly
characteristic of these sandstones, and ripple marks are moderately common. Fossils are
rarely abundant though trace fossils such as burrows of the Skolithos facies may be locally
abundant in some shallow-marine quartz arenites. Quartz arenites can originate as first-cycle
deposits (formed under weathering, transport, and depositional conditions so vigorous that
most grains chemically less stable than quartz were eliminated) derived from primary
crystalline or metamorphic rocks, but they are more likely to be the product of multiple
recycling of quartz grains from sedimentary source rocks. Quartz arenites are very common
rocks in the geologic record, particularly in Mesozoic and Paleozoic stratigraphic
successions.

Feldspathic Arenites

Feldspathic arenites contain less than 90 percent quartz, more feldspar than unstable rock
fragments, and minor amounts of other minerals such as micas and heavy minerals. Some
feldspathic arenites are coloured pink or red because of the presence of potassium feldspars
or iron oxides; others are light grey to white. They are typically medium to coarse grained
and may contain high percentages of subangular to angular grains. Matrix content may range
from trace amounts to more than 15 percent, and sorting of framework grains can range from
moderately well sorted to poorly sorted. Thus, feldspathic sandstones are commonly
texturally immature or submature, i. e., wackes. Feldspathic arenites are not characterized by
any particular kinds of sedimentary structures. Bedding may range from essentially
structureless to parallel laminated or cross laminated. Fossils may be present, especially in
marine beds. Feldspathic arenites typically occur in cratonic or stable shelf settings, where
they may be associated with conglomerates, shallow-water quartz arenites or lithic arenites,
carbonate rocks, or evaporites. Less typically, they occur in sedimentary successions that
were deposited in unstable basins or other deeper water, mobile belt settings. Feldspathic
arenites occur in sedimentary successions of all ages, although they appear to be particularly
abundant in Mesozoic and Palaeozoic strata.

Lithic Arenites

Lithic arenites are an extremely diverse group of rocks that are characterized by generally
high content of unstable rock fragments such as volcanic and metamorphic clasts and some
stable clasts such as chert. They contain less than 90 percent quartzose grains with more
unstable rock fragments than feldspars. Colours may range from light grey, uniform medium
to dark grey. Many lithic arenites are poorly sorted; however, sorting ranges from well sorted
to very poorly sorted. Quartz and many other framework grains are generally poorly rounded.
Lithic arenites tend to contain substantial amounts of matrix, much of which may be of
secondary origin. Thus, most lithic sandstones are texturally immature to submature (lithic
wackes). Lithic arenites may range from irregularly bedded, laterally restricted, cross-
stratified fluvial units to evenly bedded, laterally extensive, graded, marine turbidite units.
They may occur in association with fluvial conglomerates and other fluvial deposits or in
association with deeper water marine conglomerates, pelagic shales, cherts, and submarine
basalts. Lithic arenites may be deposited in non-marine settings in proximal alluvial fans or
other fluvial environments. Alternatively, they may be deposited in marine foreland basins
adjacent to fold-thrust belts, or they may be transported by large rivers off the continent into
deltaic or shallow shelf environments. Volcaniclastic sandstones are a special kind of lithic
arenite composed primarily of volcanic detritus.

CARBONATE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS