quantities

Electrical
18
Chapter
 Bontihes, uis, civcls
CAMBRIDGE IGCSETM PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK

GETTING STARTED
Does anything get used up going around a circuit? you know what happens when we
What do batteries and cells have that gets used up? mobile (cel0 phone? chargea
Why can birds stand on power lines without being
electrocuted?

INSPIRED BY AN EEL?USING PHYSICS FOR LAW ENFORCEMENT

Jean Richer, a French astronomer, met an electric NASA researcher Jack Cover finished
eel (Figure 18.1) during an expedition to the
Amazon basin in 1671. He described it as being 'as
the TASER in 1974. He namedit after the book
Tom Swift and His Electric Rifle. TASERS
developing
fat as a leg' and it made his arm go numb for 15 by law enforcement officers to subdue are used
minutes after he touched it with his finger. About suspected
criminals without using lethal force (Figure 18.2)
80% of an electric eel is basically a battery, with a The TASER fires two thin insulated copper wires at
positive terminal at its head and a negative terminal the target. Once the barbs at the end of the wies
at its tail. The charge is carried by positive ions hook into the skin, the person becomes part of the
instead of electrons. It has about 5000to 6000 circuit. When a curent is passed through the circuit
stacked plates (called electroplaques). Each pair the person loses control of their muscles, like the
of plates is like an electric cell that can produce a victims of the electric eel.
voltage of about 0.15V so that an eel can deliver a
shock of 900 Vand a current of up to 1A. To save
energy it can send out low voltage pulses (75V).
This makes the muscles of potential prey twitch,
which can be detected by the eel. If it detects prey,
the eel can send out bigger shocks when it wants
to stun its victim. Some eels were taken back to be
studied in Europe where they inspired the work of
Italian scientists. Luigi Galvini used frogs to show
that electricity made their legs move. Alessandro
Volta invented the first battery based on the
electric eel.

Figure 18.2: Even without the cartridge that sends the

copper wires to its target, a TASER stillpasses an electrical
charge.

Discussion questions
1 Describe how an electric eel is like a battery.

Figure 18.1: An electric eel. 2 ATASER is like an electric eel but why does the
eel not need the wires used in a TASER?

322)
 18 Electricalquantities

18.1CCurrentt in electric a

circuits
clectric,circuits to transfer energy from a battery
use
We
powersupply to components in the circuit, which then
tHnster
or theenergytotheir surroundings. For an clectric
Ilow.two things are needed:: a complete circuit
urrentto
around, andIsomething to'push' it around
lolow
orit
dhe
circuit. push might be provided by a cell, battery
The
A\ battery is simplytwo or more cells
orpowersupply,
connected eend-to-end, In most familiar circuits, metals switch
Current
copperor steel providethe circuit for the current
avnteaba
to
as toda
osuch
lowaround.
shows how asimple circuit can be set up + filament
Figure18.3a cell
labboratory. Once the switch is closed, there is a lamp
inthe metal Ipath forthe current to flow along.
continuous
Current Mlows from the positive terminal of the battery
line
roel). In the circuit symbolfor acell, the longer Current
18.3b).
wnesents the positive terminal (see Figurefilament lamp.
orment flows through the switch and the Figure 18.3a: Asimple electric circuit, set up in a laboratory.
huck to the negative terminal of the battery. Acurrent
called
b: The same circuit represented as a circuit diagram.
hat flows in the same direction all the time is
irect current (d.c))_You will meet alternating current
transformers. It is obvious how the switch in Figure 18.3a works.
Mel in Chapter 21 when you learn about Youpush the springy metal downwards until it touches
Alternating current is when current reverses direction. can flow
the other metal contact. Then the current
amany countries, mains electricity has a frequency of) through it. Most switches work by bringing two pieces
SOH2 so it changes direction 100 times per second. of metal into contact with one another, though you
cannot usually see this happening. It is worth having
KEY WORDS a look inside some switches to see how they work. (Of
course, they must not be connected in a circuit when you
current: the rate at whËch electric charge passes a examine them!)
point in acircuit n.0he P o ns togn Similarly. take alook at some filament lamps, like the
cell: adevice that provides an electromotive force one in Figure 18.3a. Every lamp has two metal contacts,
(e.m.f) in a circuit by means of a chemical reaction for the current to flow in and out. Inside, one fine wire
carries the current up to the filament (which is another
battery: twO or more electrical cells connected wire), and a second wire carries the current back down
together in series again, Notice also how the circuit symbols or these and
direct current (d.c.): electric current that flows in many other components have two connections for joining
them into acircuit.
the same direction all the time
alternating current (a.c.): electric current that Good conductors,
periodically) changes direction
bad conductors
Figure 18.3b shows the same circuit as represented by a The wires we use to connect up circuits are made of
aicuit diagram. Each component has its own standard metal because metals are good conductors of electric
smbol. If you imagine the switch being pushed so current. The metal is usually surrounded by plastic, so
hat it closes, it isclear from the diagram that there is a that, if two wires touch, the electric current cannot pass
Continuous path forthe currentt to flow around the circuit. directly from one to another (causing a short circuit).
Plastics (polymers) are good electrical insulators.

323 )
 the
There judgemento reading different
ammeter (uA)k
currents circuit.
ammeter
The through
i
symbol
to
represent series
where
components
circuit. Figune serithe to
(shortened
Currens moves igures o
I will readings
negative
the added microamps
ammeter. takinag components circuit,. thethrough Smaller here to
breakadd
ammeter
circuit
anhasa circuit
i the in
in
which scale read-out of t
it
round, shownis round flow
in ammeter
1 arrow
instead
184. aj the 1n measured. a components to a flows current. can
anshown
Figureneedle,
make into 18.5). way circuit.amperes or 10-6A) ammeter
involved current
electric
use against
direct used
digital
A
pointing
connected is
other
acircuit.
way ammeter one
thetheas it (mA) 10A a
to
wrong Figure the the in of
we hasato between all milliamps = ammeter
the
current, have
electric be
sometimes likewhere up in is unitammeter
in
as judgement
meter
a
needle
gives Ito upward other
the
an
(see sameusedcomponents = A that
meterYou need is oadd circuit the SI A 001
Measuring the betweenlineconnected
ammeter :To broken matter get the 0.001 0.000 an so
scale.
across tinycurrents
an This
called in series
Adding
analogue
of no is 1- a series is not an is measured
which =
types, position galvanometer in not current
doesother on LmÀ=
is connected be lLA connected
in
measure a There An is, is
thatcircuit meter must simple does reading 18.5:
are An
two needle. the It or
(A),
it
circuit 18.5. circuit. be
whencircuit series, a since lampTheamps may Figure
To A are the In is
a
COURSEB0OK
steel minerals through
muscles supply, answercircuit
This
and conduct
may happens mayour flows. terminal. the negatively
for digital
amps
in to
a flow.charges
The in
17. difficult current;
gold polythene), liquids youryouwater
passes
conductors the metal, Chapter electric in and
siver, do what and
makes
current?
current circuit?
of negative
supply
current
the the electrons 011 current,
left)
PHYSICS: thatexample, current theconductor.
stop, terminal electric a In an
very it
through the
because electric the power are in by electric
coppet, or materialspooris
that it
the charge. about
These allows it makes circuit (on
insulators A enough,
may the around make causes
Perspex® For electricity-
shock. electrical positive or by analogue
heartconduct electric
IGCSETH incloding generally to learned flow measure
manywell.
an back battery to another. electric
clectrons that it that a carried
are
good
conductors big complete, travelling that
needed through to around
material
electricYour the material
as good very is good and The force of you current is types:
Ammeters
CAMBRIDGE (such are are
metals conduct it bodies from one charge
carried
are therenot they an if violently.
and, a is
circuit, pushsame flowisaflow
charge.
actually
of particlesKEY
WORDS
a
flow two
Polymers
glass but but get Our quite is circuit
iows the
repel a to
a
conductor: electrical
insulator: negative are (on
18,4: the
right).
Most between, can
burns What
the the is charge:
)324
conduct, youbodycontract
and electricity, People is a Current
aroundis electric or current
provides
is attract current
charged current There
whenyour tissue When What push an Figure
In get is A (A),
 18 Electrical quantities

Coventional electric current flows from positive to

KEY
WORDS the flow
the direction of
egative Figure I8.7 shows
:ameter for We picture positive
oT charge afound a simple circuit. terminal,
aahanometer:
measuring tiny electric around the
Charge lowing out of the positive negative ferminal.
ameter:ameter circuitand back into the cell at the
for measuring electric Current Now, we know that in a metal it is the negatively
chargd
negative terminal of
amps(A):the Sl unit of electric Current electrons that move. They leave the terminal, in the
ampere,
the cell, and flow around to the positive
have two
opposite direction to the current. Hence we
Questions diflerent pictures of what is going on in a circuit.
What instrument is Used to measure electrie
current?
shouldittbe connected in a circuit?
b How
.Drawitscircuit symbol. Current
electron flow
upin which a cell makes an electric
Acircuit is set
2 currentfiowthrough alamp. TwO ammeters are
included, one to measure the current flowing into 0tey
thelamp, the other to measure the currenttflowing
outof the lamp.
. Draw a circuit diagram to represent this current flow
circuit.
Figure 18.6: In ametal, some electrons are free to move
h Add an arrow to show the direction of the about. In copper, there is one conduction electron for
each
current around the circuit.konuotE atom of the metal. The atoms, having lost an electron,
C What can you say about the readings on the are positively charged. Abattery pushes the conduction
two ammeters? electrons through the metal. The force is the attraction
electrical between unlike charges that was discussed in Chapter 17.
3 a Name two materials that are good
conductors.
b Name two materials that are good electrical cell
insulators.

A flow of electrons
Two pictures: current flow of conventional
Current
and electrons
Metals are good electrical conductors because they
contain electrons that can move about freely. (This has
lirady been mentioned in Chapters ll and 17.) The idea lamp
sthat, in abad conductor, such as mostpolymers, all of Figure 18.7: Two ways of picturing what happens in an
lie electrons in the material are tightly bound within the electric circuit: conventional current flowS from positive to
doms or molecules, so that they cannot move. Metals negativejeleetrons flow from negative to positive.
ae diferent. While most of the electrons in a metal are
ghtly bound within their atoms, some are free to move
We can think of conventional current, a flow of positive
Dout withinthe material. These are called conduction charge, moving from positive to negative. Conventional
Strons (seeFigure 18.6). Avoltage, such as that current is rather like a fluid moving through the wires,
provided by abattery or power supply, can start these
just like water moving through pipes. This picture does
conduct
he metal,ion and
electrons moving
an electric
, in one direction through
cCurrent iows,. Since electrons not tell us anything about what is going on inside the
wires or components of a circuit. However, it is perfectly
egativeelectric charge, they are attracted to the good for working out many things to do with acircuit:
pOSive ternminal of the battery

325)
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSET pHYSICS COURSEB0OK

what the voltac will be hotoss a

lor eample, or how mch energyprticular component
ill betransferred to a Quantity Symbol for
Unit
quantity
particularlamp Current
Altenativey, ecan think of clectronfow as,a arnps
DovemsnLof conduction cloctrons, from negative to charge
Dositoe This picturc Cath allow US to Lhink about wias Coulombs
tirme
gOing on inside the components of a circuit: why aresistor seConds
gets warm when a current fows through it, for example Table 18.1: Symbols and units for some
electical
These two pictures are both models The electron flow Soa current of 10 Apassing a point
picture is a microscopic model, since it tells us what is easYothat 19C
charge flows past that point every second.
going on at the level of very tiny particles (electrons). it easier to recallthis
relationship
in the
Theconventional current picture is a
large scale model. macroscopic or charge (C) =current (A) xtíme (9)
Q=1t
foloing Son
The clectrons in a circuit flow in the opposite
the clectriccurrent. It isa nuisance to have to direction to So. if a curent Lof 10A fiows around aa
this It stems from the eatty days of rernember
experiments
circuit for Ss
then 50 Cof charge fiows around the circuít.
cloctricity Benjamin Franklin realised that there on static
were Worked Example 18.1 shows how to calculate
two types of clectric charge, which he called positive and that flows ín a circuit. he dhaey
Tegative. He had to choose which type he would call
positive He chose to say that when
with a silk cloth, the amber acquiredamber was rubbed
a negative charge.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18.1
Franklin was setting up a convention, which other 1 A
current of 150 mA
scientiststhen followed-hence the term onventional one rminute. How muchfiows around a circuit for
current. He had no way of knowing that'celectrons were
electric
around the circuit in this tíme? charge flows
being rubbed from the silk to the amber, but his choice
means that we now say that electrons have a negative Step 1: Write down what you kno, and what
chargeltRemember that conventional current and electrOn you want to know. Put all quantities in
iow move in opposite directions around the uníts shown in Table 18.1.
acircuít)
1= 150 mA =0.15A (or 150 x 10 A)
Current and charge (=I minute =60s
An ammeter measures the rate at which electric Q=?
fiows past a point in a circuít, The clectric currentcharge
is
defined as the charge passing a point in the circuit per Step 2: Write down an appropriate form of the
unít of time (usually per second), We can write this equation relating 0, I and t. Substitute
values and calculate the answer.
relationship between current and charge as an equation
using the quantities and symbols given in Table 18.1: Q=It
arrent (A) =charge (C)
time (s) Answer
Q=0.15Ax 60s =90C
- IA ic 90 coulombs of charge flow around the
circuit.
12
KEY EOUATION Questions
4 a In which direction does conventional current
Current charge flow around a circuit?
time Vet to e
b In which direction do electrons flow around
acircuit?
dete
5 a What is the unit of electric current? anES
b What is the unit of electric charge?
cools

326)
 18 Electricafquantities

milliamps are there in lamp? cell

How many
many microamps are there in lamp?
How
thefollowing equations shows the corrcct
b
Whichof between clectrical units? A) arnmeter
reationship

1C=1A resistorV
missing values a-d in Table 18.2.
Caleulatethe working,
Showallyour
orollo to circul
Charge Current Time voltmeter
Current time to.Dush
charge
18.8: The cell provides the p.d. needed
current
220C 2A Figure The amount of
the circuit.
the current around resistor. The
3 hours the resistance of the
57.6C b depends on the p.d. and flovwing through the
resistor.
current
0.5 A 9 minutes ammeter measures the This circuit can
C
voltmeter measures the p.d. across it.
d The resistance of the resistor. The
5.4C 70 mA therefore be used to find the The voltmeter
series in the circuit.
ammeter is connected in
Table 18.2 in the circuit.
is connected in parallel
It is called
for thé p.d.across a cell. also
There is a special name(e,.m.f)
18.2 Voltage in the electromotive force
of thecell, and it is
misleading since e.m.f.
can be
measured in volts. The term component that pushes a
electric circuits current
is a voltage, not a
Current around a
force.Any
circuit is said to be a source
of e.m.f. for
The
cell pushes a dynamos.
Smure 18.8 shows a circuit in which a voltage needed (example, cells, batteries, power supplies and source in
the by a
through a resistor. The cell provides 'voltage WMe.m.f. is defined as the electrical work done
the resistor. Here, complete circuit.
opushthe current through should say that there is moving aunit charge around a
we
sa rather loose term, and resistor. Potential
the
apotential difference (p.d)acrossdone
ditierence is defined as the work by a unit charge KEY WORDS
(a resistor, in this case). It is or work done per
passing through a componentvoltmeter. The p.d. is also the voltage:thé energy transferred as
measured in volts (V) using a the push of a
points the unit charge; it can be imaginedcircuit
diference inelectrical potential between two battery orpower supply in a
component and where
point where the current enters a work done by
difference in
rather like the
t leaves acomponent. This isdownhill. potential differenc (p.d.)]the electrical
height that makes a ball roll (aunit) charge passing through an
a component; another name for the voltage
Voltmeters are always connectedin paralleb with circuit is between two points
component, that is, across a component. This
called a parallel circuit, where components are connected volts (V): the Sl unit of voltage (p.d. or e.m.f.);
In branches across the circuit. Voltmeters can either have
an analogue display (with a needle) or a digital
display
value). The reading on a voltmeter is in voltmeter: a meter for measuring the p.d.
(With a numerical (voltage) between two points
volts (V) but they have different ranges. Smaller voltages
May be measured in millivolts (mV) or microvolts (V). electromotive force\(e.m.f.) the electrical work
lake care not to confuse italic, V, which is used as the done by a source (cell, battery, etc.) in moving (a
Symbol for an unknown potential diference or voltage, unit) charge around a circuit; the voltage across
With upright, V, which is used as the symbol for the unit, the terminals of a source
Voits You can tell the difference in books, but you cannot
casily tell the difference when they are written.

327>
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSET PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK

Questions What is a volt?

What do the letters pd. stand for? boBetial Uhy do we use high voltages for our
b What meter is used to measure pd.? vmat reason is that asupply with ahigh hem. mai
f.ns suppl
does a
y The
work on the charge thatiLitpushesATOund the ctrelotutL of
c Draw the symbol for this meter. 230 Vmainssupply does 230J of
A work on
10 a What name is given to the pd. across acell or
battery? cmflectro motie eete
coulomb of charge that travels round the cireuieacht.
This gives us aclue as to what we mean
b What unit is this measured in? supply with an e.m.f. of IV does 1J of nbyworkavolt. A
vltap coulomb of charge it pushes rround a circuit. On each
In other
Combining e.m.f.s words, a volt is a joule per coulomb.
The Chemical energy supplied bythe ocell is
Many battery-operated electrical appliances need more
than one cell to make them work. For example, a radio what
electrons around a circuit, The c.m.t. tells you puSTeSmuch
may need four 1.5 Vcells Each has an e.m.f. of 1.5V work is done on each coulomb of charge as it how nas
and, when connected together in series, they give a through the cell. This is described by the
combined e.m.f. of 6V. You can see that, when cells are work done on the charge (J) equation:
connected in series, thei e.m.f.s add up. em:. (E) =
charge (C)
Figure 18.9 shows some examples of this. In general, if The bigger the e.m.f. of a cell, the more strongly
cells with e.m.fs E, and E, are connected in series, their electrons are pushed around the circuit,jusLlike p
combined e.m.f.Eis given by: determines how strongly water is pushed through a nin
The potential diflerence across a device:
You can understand why e.m.£s add up like this if you is a measure of how much electrical worksuch as a
is done lamp
by
think about what happens when electric charge each coulomb as it passes through a
passes
through. For four 1.5 V cells in series, each cell does described by the equation: component. This is
electrical work on each unit eharge as it passes through,
so their combined e.m.f. must be 6 V. p.d. (V) =work done by the charge (J)
charge (C)
30y 4.5V 1.5V Both word equations above can be summarised as the
word equation:
oltage (V) = work done J
b
charge C(Oauati)
Or, the symbol equation:
C

Figure 18.9: The e.m.fs of cells or other supplies add up

when they are connected in series. Here, each
cell has an e.m.f. of 1.5V. a, b: More cells give aindividual
higher
combined e.m.f. c: When one cell is connected the wrong KEY EQUATIONS
way round, the combined e.m.f. is reduced.
p.d. work done by the charge
charge
Question
11 Three 12 Vbatteries are e.m.f = work done on the charge
connected in series. charge
Draw a diagram to show how these batteries
could be connected to a lamp.
Calculate the combined e.m.f. of the batteries, Thevoltage or potential differenceis the work done (o
energy transferred) per unit charge.
34236V As clectric current flows througha circuit, the chemical
energy of the cellis transferred to the gomponents as
internal energy (in a osistoc) or kinetic energy (ina mol

328
 18 Electricalquantities

yansterred
I bylight (inaalamp) and so on. Though we L5V cells inseries How
15Acirouit consists of twocharge gain on gong
d p.d. in terms of work, we could have
em..and much energy does 2Cof
eined theenergy transferred instead. Recall from
about
through the cells? 9T
phed vork done =energy transferred.) consistsof 20 identical lamps
S&8thaf
Chapter 16 Aset of party lights 240 Vmains supply. What is
connected in series to a
Questions the p.d. across eachlamp?2 20

P= of a 1.5 Vcell, a
Rearrangethecquation tomake: Draw a circuit consisting series. Arrange the cell
2 resistor and a lamp all in
Wthe subject of the equation vXO=W current flows clockwise
w so that conventional voltmeter across the
A
Othe subject of the equation.
a

h round the circuit. Add a cell.

through the
Calculatethee e.m.f. of a battery that gives 60 J of
cell. Acharge of 6CAows amount of
this
Calculate how much energyW
13 energytoa charge of 5C. 2T76 b 5xd
lamp is 12 V. The lamp is
charge gainsfromthe cell.
transfers 6J of its
Thep.d.across a
14 connectedifor 10seconds. Calculate how many This amount of charge
the voltage across
C
energy to the lamp. What is
ioules ofenergy are transferred when: the lamp?
acharge of 1Cpasses through it w 12Xi= L23 resistor.
d Work out the voltage across the a-6
h achargeof 5Cpasses through it 60 C6C
acurrent of 2Aflows. X1n- 20X(2= 240J
C
current and time.)
Recall the equation that links charge,

ACTIVITY 18.1
18.3 to identify
The cake monster 1 Copy and complete Table in the cake circuit
to a lamp in what each component (part)
How does energy travel from a cell circuit.
represents in an electrical
of how an
acircuit? Fiqure 18.10 shows a model What it represents in
electrical circuit works. During this activity, think Component an electric circuit
carefully about how well it represents what goes on
in an electric circuit.
cakes. cake factory
Aroad runs through a factory that bakes cake. A
Each truck on the road can carry only one road
cake.
cake monster can take only one bite out of a
The cake inspector (in the white laboratory coat) truck
measures the 'cake difference' (p.d. for short), which cake monster
cake. A
is the amount a monster bites out of each
of
trafic inspector (not shown) counts the number return
trucks that pass him ina given time. The trucks
cake inspector volino
any uneaten cake to the factory. traffic inspector ammh
Table 18.3
CAKIS
2 How might you change the cake monster
model to represent (show) the following
changes in an electrical circuit:
a increasing the number of lamps Ading 3 te
b a lamp with a bigger resistance. caRe moiste tn
Figure 18.10

329 )