EDUC 205 3. Analyze units.

Break down activities

into ideals and activities.
CHAPTER 5. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
4. Collect Methods. Develop methods
THE FIELD OF CURRICULUM
to achieve these goals.
TECHNICAL-SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
• Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles
(MODERNIST PERSPECTIVES)
1. Objectives-Oriented
- Coincide with traditional theories and
models of education and reflects o Established general learning
established formal methods of objectives from various sources
schooling. – society learners, and subject
matter
- Emphasizes specific, measurable
learning outcomes, focusing on o Refine objectives to align with
knowledge acquisition as a structured school values and cognitive
and efficient process. principles.
- Curriculum is viewed as a coordinated 2. Selection of Learning Experiences
plan, aiming to create an organized
learning environment through clear o Experiences must align with
objectives and consistent monitoring. objectives and consider students’
backgrounds and learning
• Bobbit and Charters Models development
- Compares curriculum developments to 3. Organization of Learning
constructing a railroad, planning a route Experiences
for growth, culture, and individual
o Organize curriculum to build
abilities.
cumulative knowledge, linking
- Identifies essential activities, abilities, key concepts and skills for
and qualities necessary for effective life enhanced retention.
performance.
4. Evaluation
- Emphasizes learning from actual life
o Evaluation is integral to gauge
situations to develop judgement and
effectiveness and make
participation skills.
necessary adjustments
- Advocates a systematic, scientific
method to select meaningful educational • Hilda Taba
context aimed at developing productive - Advocates for teacher involvement in
citizens. curriculum design with a focus on
- Bobbit’s method of defining life-related meeting student needs directly.
activities aligns with backward design - Hilda Taba Grassroots Model:
principles used today.
1. Diagnosis of Needs. Identify
- Curriculum should align with educational specific student needs
goals, which influence the selection of
content and activities. 2. Formulation of Objectives. Set
clear goals based on diagnosed
- Four-Step Process needs
1. Select Objectives. Define 3. Selection of Content. Choose
educational aims. relevant content that aligns with
2. Divide Objectives. Categorize objectives.
objectives into ideals and activities.
 4. Organization of Content. Arrange • Master Design Chart
content based on leaner maturity
and interests. - Rows represent critical topics, and
columns show emphasis levels and
5. Selection of Learning Experiences. learning behaviors (e.g., understanding
Design methods to engage students. concepts or generalizations)
6. Organization of Learning - Differs from a curriculum map by
Activities. Structure activities to focusing not just on content topics but
enhance comprehension. also on student engagement with the
material.
7. Evaluate and Assessment.
Determine the effectiveness of the - Organize topics meaningfully (e.g.,
curriculum in achieving objectives. chronologically, according to knowledge
structure).
• Backward Design Model
• Learning Analysis
- Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe
- Identify the sequence of learning
- Begin with the end in mind, focusing on
activities to help students X acquire the
the designed outcomes before planning
selected content and master skills.
specific instructional activities.
- Analyze which cognitive or problem-
- Inspired by Bobbit and Charters task
solving activities will help students learn
analysis and principles from architecture
the material.
and engineering, where end goals
dictate planning. - Determine the optimal sequence and
instructional approaches (informed by
- It is a method of instructional design
cognitive psychology and brain
which asks users to begin with the “end”
research).
– desired results, goals, or standards –
and then build a curriculum from the - Brain research helps improve
“evidence of learning (performances) understanding of how specific content
called for by the standard and the fosters learning.
teaching needed to equip students to
perform. • Synthesis in a Master Curriculum Plan
- After task analysis, create a Master
Curriculum Plan to integrate content
selection, learning activities,
instructional methods, materials, and
evaluation methods.
- Define specific learning objectives
across cognitive, affective, and
sometimes psychomotor domains,
aligning objectives with content
sequence and learning activities.
NONTECHNICAL-NONSCIENTIFIC APPROACH
• Subject-Matter Analysis (POST MODERNIST, POST CONTRUCTIVITST
- Determine the most important PERSPECTIVE)
knowledge that students should acquire. - The nontechnical-nonscientific approach
- Engage subject-matter experts to define to curriculum development contrasts
crucial topics, concepts, rules, and with the traditional, technical- scientific
theories. model, focusing instead on the
 subjective, personal, and complex goals, balancing systematic thinking
nature of education. with an acceptance of nonlinearity.
- This postmodern or postconstructivist - The deliberation model integrates
modern and postmodern perspectives,
- perspective embraces the complexities
emphasizing a flexible, systems-
of the educational landscape and views
oriented approach where feedback and
curriculum development as a dynamic,
adjustments are essential. Deliberation
interactive process rather than a fixed,
proceeds from problem identification to
objective procedure.
proposal development, leading to
- Rejects the notion that curriculum solutions within a socially constructed
development is purely objective, context.
universal, or linear.
- Curriculum development considers
- Puts the learner's experience at the cultural, custom, and value diversity,
center rather than focusing solely on aiming for curricula that reflect diverse
content mastery social contexts.

- Recognizes that knowledge cannot - Stages of Deliberation (Noye's Six

always be broken into discrete parts; it Stages)
is intertwined with the learner's social
5. Public Sharing. Participants openly
and personal context.
discuss ideas, share visions for
- Evolved as part of avant-gard and education, and set foundational
experimental philosophers and politics; goals for curriculum development
they tend to challenge established, 6. Highlighting Agreement and
formalized education practices be more
Disagreement. Identifying points of
fluid and emergent.
alignment and difference on
- Curriculum is viewed as holistic and curriculum goals and approaches.
contextual, shaped by and responsive to
7. Explaining Positions. Members
cultural, political, ecological, historical,
articulate and justify their views,
and autobiographical influences.
data, and rationale, aiming for
- The curriculum is not finalized before mutual understanding
students enter the classroom; instead, it
8. Highlighting Changes in Position.
is developed through interactions
Members may adjust views based
between teachers and students.
on others' insights and data.
- Encourages a child-centered or
9. Negotiating Points of Agreement.
problem-centered design, adapting Consensus-building through
content based on students' needs, persuasion and mutual respect to
interests, and the emergent direction of resolve curricular issues.
the classroom discourse.
10. Adopting a Decision. Achieving a
• Deliberation Model consensus that reflects the group's
- This model emphasizes a collaborative, values and practical educational
six-stage process where educators and goals, including methods, pedagogy,
stakeholders share ideas, negotiate, and assessments.
and reach consensus on curriculum • Slattery's Approach
content.
- Curriculum development should be a
- This model recognizes the subjectivity reflective process, encouraging
and cultural diversity within educational educators to engage in self-study and
rospection to better understand their
 past, present, and potential future (2020). In addition, there are 14,458
teaching. schools that are privately run and 271
operated by state universities and
- Curriculum developers should be
colleges (SUC) or local universities and
scholarly in their approach, interpreting
colleges (LUCS) (de la Fuente, n.d.).
educational documents and contexts
The Department of Education (DepEd)
through hermeneutics, or the science of
has a Central Office, 17 Regional
interpretation.
Offices (including BARMM), and 223
• Doll's "Four R's" Curriculum Schools Division Offices. There are
Development Model school districts that have a functional
line, but no bureaucratic/plantilla item.
- Richness. Curriculum depth,
encourages diverse interpretations and - By virtue of the Local Government Code
"flavors" of reality, promoting continuous of 1991, local school boards (LSB) exist
learning and intellectual exploration. at the division level, which is equivalent
to a local government unit (ie, province
- Recursion. Continuous revisiting of or city depending on size). Districts are
ideas and content, allowing deeper the equivalent of municipalities or large
understanding with each encounter, like barangays. The Governance of Basic
Jerome Bruner's spiral curriculum. Education Act (2001) further allowed for
school-based management and
- Relations. Recognizes the dynamic
connections within curriculum mandated the creation of school
development, emphasizing both governing councils. Illustration 1 is a
pedagogical and cultural links that visual representation of the Philippine
education governance structure.
evolve over time.
- Rigor. Redefined as interpretive and • Curriculum. Centrally determined but
uncertain rather than strictly precise; contextualized at the division level. Private
embraces alternative perspectives, schools are free to set their curricula if they
rooted in chaos theory's unpredictability. meet the national minimum.

ENACTING CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT • Standardized Assessment. Centrally

developed and locally administered. Private
- Curriculum teams operate at multiple schools participate in international learning
levels-federal, state, and local-with the assessments.
highest-level teams creating broad
policies, standards, and laws such as • Teachers and School Heads. Centralized
No Child Left Behind and Race to the qualification criteria through its registry of
Top. qualified applicants; centralized
determination of plantilla items, salaries are
- However, local curriculum teams paid nationally but processing of
primarily handle the detailed alignment applications and appointments are done at
of these standards with practical the division level. Private schools
teaching needs. independently hire teachers and school
heads using their own criteria.
• Current State of Philippine Education
Governance • Classrooms (Constructions). Division
Offices report classroom construction
The structure of Philippine basic education is big
and has many moving parts. needs. Central Office collates division level
information through an inventory and
- There are a total of 47,188 schools in prioritizes construction projects through a
the Public School system (37,628 criteria (i.e makeshift classrooms, shifting of
elementary schools, 1,511 junior high classes, etc.). Budget request is then made
schools, and 216 senior high schools at the national level. Budget is determined
 by Congress. Procurement and construction values with broader societal and
are done by DPWH District Engineering economic objectives.
Offices; LGUs can also build Classrooms.
- The curriculum should help students
• Classrooms (Maintenance). Handled by acquire necessary knowledge, skills,
the schools and divisions. and attitudes, but it may also reflect
larger political, economic, and cultural
• Learning Materials (Textbooks). Centrally aims, influenced by factors such as
procured; field offices can develop globalization and local community needs
supplementary learning materials.
- AIMS. Broad general statements about
• Technology/ICT. Centrally procured; what the education system or curriculum
school’s MOOE covers internet seeks to achieve, often reflecting long-
subscription. term visions.
Key Members of Curriculum Teams - GOALS. More specific than aims, goals
• TEACHERS define what is to be achieved within a
course, subject, or program. They help
- As primary implementers of the focus on particular areas of learning
curriculum, teachers are often the main over a period of time.
contributors to curriculum teams,
drawing on classroom experience to - OBJECTIVES. Precise and measurable
inform subject content and instructional outcomes that describe what students
methods. should be able to do by the end of a
lesson or unit. They are concrete and
- In many schools, teachers are tasked achievable within a shorter time frame.
with adapting textbook materials into
lesson plans, a fundamental part of Key steps in Setting Aims, Goals, and
curriculum development Objectives
11. Needs and Task Analysis. The first
• PRINCIPALS AND VICE PRINCIPALS
step is a thorough analysis of the
- Effective principals play a supportive, needs and tasks that the curriculum
sometimes directive role in curriculum should address. This involves
reform, promoting collaborative determining what students need to
communities of teachers and succeed academically,
encouraging innovative practices. professionally, and socially.

- Research suggests principals are 12. Data collection. Curriculum

central in fostering change and building developers gather insights through
“distributive leadership” among staff. data collection methods such as:

• CURRICULUM EXPERTS 1. Observing student engagement

and learning patterns to identify
- Some schools enlist external experts gaps.
who contribute specialized knowledge
on curriculum design and instructional 2. Engaging with stakeholders (e.g.
complexities, offering insights that enrich principals, teachers, students) to
the development process. understand community priorities
and identify areas for
Summary of Generating Aims, Goals, and improvement.
Objectives in Curriculum Development
13. Identifying Content and Structure.
- In developing a curriculum, educators Based on the collected data,
begin by recognizing the core educators begin defining:
challenges, often balancing local cultural
 1. Content. The knowledge and - Behavioral objectives are defined by
skills that the curriculum should observable or measurable outcomes,
cover, considering both local and which indicate the student's acquired
global perspectives. skills or knowledge.
2. Instructional Strategies. Effective According to Mager, a well-defined behavioral
methods and approaches for objective should include:
delivering the content.
1. Behavior. The action showing the objective
3. Evaluation methods. Ways to is achieved.
assess students’ progress and
the curriculum’s effectiveness. 2. Conditions. The context in which the learner
demonstrates this behavior.
Guidelines for Formulating Educational
3. Proficiency Level. The minimum acceptable
Objectives
standard.
1. Alignment with Goals. Objectives should
Writing Lesson Outcomes
match the curriculum's broader goals and
align with content standards, specifying • Audience
clear, measurable outcomes.
- This refers to the specific target
2. Relevance and Worth. Objectives must be audience or learners for whom the
meaningful, offering content with real-life learning outcome is intended. It defines
value and relevance to students' lives. who will be achieving the outcome and
3. Clarity and Agreement. Objectives should helps tailor the content to their level of
be straightforward, ensuring uniform understanding and expertise.
understanding and implementation across • Behavior
classrooms.
- The behavior component outlines the
4. Consideration of Diversity. While specific action that learners are
maintaining standards, objectives should expected to demonstrate as a result of
consider students' diverse needs, interests, the learning experience. This action
and backgrounds. should be observable, measurable, and
5. Logical Organization. Group objectives reflective of the desired outcome.
cohesively to aid in lesson planning and • Condition
maintain consistency across different topics
and complexity levels. - The condition element describes the
context or circumstances under which
6. Regular Updates. Objectives should be the behavior will be demonstrated. It
periodically revised to stay relevant as provides any necessary constraints,
societal demands and educational practices tools, resources, or settings that need to
change. be in place fon the behavior to occur.
7. Supporting Progression. Objectives • Degree
should build knowledge and skills
progressively, facilitating students' - The degree component indicates the
continued learning level of proficiency or mastery expected
from the learners. It helps define the
8. Legal Compliance. Ensure objectives meet quality or extent to which the behavior
legal mandates, covering required subjects should be performed. This aspect
and skills, to maintain essential educational provides a measurable criterion for
standards. assessing the outcome's achievement.
Behavioral Objectives
TYPES OF OBJECTIVES 2. Significance. Content's relevance is
determined by its contribution to overall
Nonbehavloral Objectives
curriculum aims and the development of
- Nonbehavioral objectives emphasize essential skills and attitudes, shifting focus
terms like 'appreciate" or "understand" from mere content acquisition to processing
for broader learning outcomes knowledge effectively in the digital age

- They focus on higher-order thinking 3. Validity. The authenticity of selected

skills, like analysis and appreciation, content must be regularly veritied to ensure
and allow for learning that extends it remains accurate and relevant
beyond quantifiable measures, often acknowledging that personal ideologies and
addressing cognitive, affective and metaphors can influence perceptions of
psychomotor domains. validity

Affective Objectives: Krathwohl's Five Levels 4. Interest. Curriculum design should

prioritize learners interests, ensuring that
- David Krathwohl's model of affective content is meaningful and engaging while
objectives calegorites learning into five also fostering new interests that align with
hierarchical levels, each building upon educational and societal values.
the previcus
5. Utility. Content must be useful for current
1. Receiving. Learner's openness to stimuli, and future applications, considering
shown through awareness students needs and ambitions while
2. Responding. Learner's active engegement recognizing that knowledge can have
and willingness to respond to stimuli. varying degrees of utility in different
contexts
3. Valuing. Learner’s development of beliets
or values, thown by acceptance or 6. Learnability. Selected content must be
commitment. appropriate for students experiences and
learning styles, ensuring it is organized and
4. Organization. Learner's Internalization and sequenced for optimal comprehension and
aructuring of values into a coherent system. accessibility.
5. Characterization. Highest Internalation 7. Feasibility Content selection must
level, reflecting a philosophy or general consider practical limitations such as time,
value system guiding behavior. resources, staff expertise, and political and
economic contexts, recognizing the
Conception of Content
constraints that influence curriculum
- Content (subject matter) is a planning.
compendium of lacks, concepts,
PARTICIPANTS IN CURRICULUM
generalizations, principles, and theories.
DEVELOPMENT
It also incorporates methods, strategies,
for processing information • The Governing Board/Policy-Making
Board
- Curriculum content provides or should
provide, students with opportunities for - Adopt policies to direct and support ongoing
discovering knowledge and relating it to curriculum development and evaluation
the real world
- Approve recommendations from
Criteria for Selecting Content superintendent/principal regarding
curriculum and state approved instructional
1. Self-Sufficiency. Content should enable
resources for teacher use
learners to achieve maximum self
sufficiency by connecting their intellectual, - Approve a budget that provides adequate
emotional, and spiritual selves and funding for the development.
facilitating multidimensional experiences
 Implementation, and training needed to - Provide technical and expert assistance as
effectively design and deliver the well as training and resources needed to
implement the curriculum
- Provide funding for the automated
management system and adequate - Provide support to principals in their role of
instructional resources to implement the implementing and managing the curriculum
curriculum based on system data on their campuses
- Demonstrate an understanding of the • The School Principal
curriculum management plan and articulate
how the Board supports curriculum work. - Serve as the primary instructional leader of
Communicate to constituents the Board's teacher leaders and be responsible for
curricular and student expectations managing the delivery of the curriculum
- Translate the importance of curriculum
• The Head of the Network of Schools (ex.
Superintendent) delivery and instructional best practices on
a regular basis
- Implement the policies of the Board
- Develop a working knowledge of the
- Recommend that central staff is hired to curriculum for all subjects/courses
develop, assess, and manage represented at the assigned campus
curriculum
- Observe teaching and learning in each
- Ensure that a functional organizational classroom
structure is in place to manage
curriculum design and delivery functions - Monitor lesson delivery and assessment
- Monitor the quality of work that teachers
- Recommend a budget to support
assign to students and look for evidence of
curriculum design and delivery work
the design characteristics of high student
Require that administrative regulations
engagement
and management plans are developed
and followed. • The Teachers
- Report annually to the Board concerning - Be responsible for effectively teaching the
curriculum design and delivery progress written curriculum.
- Be responsible for system coherency - Deliver classroom instruction by using
and capacity lesson plans that are designed and proven
to promote high student engagement
• The Director of Curriculum
- Determine student mastery by using a
- Develop a comprehensive long-range plan
variety of assessments including common
for curriculum management. development
customization, revision, and evaluation assessments, district curriculum-based
assessments/ benchmarks, state and
- Recommend staff to be hired Establish national assessments
curriculum regulations, guidelines and
- Collaborate during planned meeting lmes
priorities Organize and facilitate committees
with peers and supervisors for the purpose
to develop, customize, review, and evaluate
of improving student, learning
curriculum
- Involve students in the learning process
- Oversee the assessment of curriculum
using a variety of strategies and grouping
- Conduct program evaluations and arrangements
communicate results
• The Students perceived consequences if funding
request is withheld or reduced
- Recognize the importance of their active
participation in the learning and assessment - Prepare a recommended curriculum
process budget with the Director of Curriculum

- Understand and articulate their learning - Demonstrate an understanding of the

strengths and needs curriculum management plan and
articulate how the work is supported
- Articulate the learning objectives within a through the budgetary process
required unit of study
- Be able to track cost and benefit
- Come to class with all the necessary
learning tools CHAPTER 6: CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

- Actively participate in the learning process The Nature of Implementation

- Use data results to establish learning goals - This is the phase where teacher action
takes place. It is one of the most crucial
- Meet or exceed learning requirements process in curriculum development.
based on the district curriculum
Curriculum defined
- Recognize the impact their behavior has on
their own learning and the learning of others - this is the phase where teacher action takes
- Set goals for their own learning and aspire place. It is one of the most crucial program
to meet the criteria of the Portrait of a process in curriculum development although
Graduate many education planners would say
“a good plan is a work half done”
• The Parents
- Curriculum implementation means taking it
- Partner with teachers and administrators into practice the written curriculum has been
designed in syllabi, the course study,
- Establish high expectations for learning and curricular guides, and guides (SADC MoE
nurturing the desire to be a life-long learner
Africa 2000)
- Be actively involved in their child's
CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION TREND
education by knowing their child's teacher’s
1. RAPID SOCIETAL AND EDUCATIONAL
- Attending meetings that provide parents
CHANGE. In today’s fast-paced world,
with information about school
curricula need to be implemented quickly to
- Attending parent/teacher conferences stay relevant and address current needs in
society and education.
- Keeping up with their child's progress,
report cards, and test data 2. CONSEQUENCES OF DELAYED
IMPLEMENTATION. Delayed curriculum
- Making certain that their child completes implementation can lead to educational
homework assignments, and that their child programs that are outdated or miss evolving
goes to class prepared for learning with all intellectual and societal rights.
the necessary learning tools.
3. CHALLENGES IN EDUCATIONAL
• The Finance and Budget Officer SYSTEMS. Many educational systems have
- Ensure that the budget reflects the hierarchical, top-down approach, where
organizations goals and priorities curriculum decisions made at higher levels
and passed down, which can slow
- Use a program-based budgeting responsiveness.
process that is based on goals,
priorities, need, cost benefit and 4. STATISTICS ON CURRICULUM FAILURE.
According to Jon Wiles and Joseph Bondi,
 over 90% of new curricula fail to reach full 1. Innovations designed to improve student
implementation due to various challenges, achievement must be technically sound,
including lack of adaptive planning and changes should reflect research findings.
effective management 2. Successful innovation requires change in the
structure of a traditional school.
5. PHILIPPINE BUSINESS FOR
3. Innovation must be manageable and flexible
EDUCATION. First, the numbers: There are
for the average teacher.
over 23 million students going to 76,534
4. Implementation of successful change efforts
public and private schools, and 846,455
must be organic rather than bureaucratic.
teachers in the Philippine basic education 5. Avoid the “do something, anything” syndrome.
system. Those working in administration
under the Office of the Secretary of Modernist approaches to curriculum
Education number to 200,000 implementation
Technical Scientific Approach Defined rules and procedures

• Emphasize a systematic, organized • Modernist approach relies on clear rules and

approach to curriculum planning, and procedures for initiating change and
implementation. developing curricula.
• Prioritize efficiency and control over the • Rules provide a structured framework
process, ensuring each stage of
Types of change in curriculum implementation
curriculum development and delivery is
carefully managed. Interaction change
• Often seek uniformity across educational
setting. • Features an equal distribution of power
• Follow dynamic, flexible process. among groups with shared goals.
• Emphasize the learning journey. • Strategies develop organically during the
change process.
Implementation as a change process
Planned change
Current trends in rapid change
• Ideal approach where individuals have
Brain Based Learning (BBL) – If the body is active, equal power and follow precise procedures.
the brain also active. • Suitable for those who prefer clear, precise
actions but can also fit within postmodern
• Rapid advancement in neuroscience and
curriculum development.
learning science
• Change in population Coercive change
• Growing culture diversity
• The rapid growth in tech is reshaping • Involves one group controlling the process,
curricula. excluding others from decision-making.
• Leaders focus on stability and efficiency,
Kurt Lewin’s force field theory and curriculum but coercive methods often lead to discord
change. and distrust.
• Driving force Random change
• Restraining force
• Unplanned and unstructured, with mo
Driving force = restraining force = equilibrium specific goals or foresight
• Common in schools when curricula are
Driving force > restraining force = change will occur
altered in response to unexpected events,
Driving force < restraining force = change is such as new legislation or pressure from
prevent. the interest groups.
5 types of change (John Mcheil) Concern-Based Adoption (CBA)
1. Substitution – teachers change her The CBA model is another approach to curriculum
resources unit for teaching. implementation, focusing on the idea that
Example: during pandemic, from textbook to individuals’ concern must be addressed for
digital materials. effective change to occur.
2. Alteration – added or remove unit
Stage of concern (Based on F.F. Fuller’s and
3. Perturbation – ex: in matatag from 1hr to 45
Lieberman & Miller’s research)
mins of teaching
4. Restricting – these changes lead to Stage 1. Awareness of innovation. Teachers
modification of the system itself, that is, of become aware of the new curriculum but don’t yet
the school or school district. understand how it will affect them.
5. Value – orientation changes – shifts in the
participants fundamental philo. Ex: peace Stage 2. Interest in learning about the
and discipline in matatag curriculum. innovation. Teachers are interested but don’t yet
see how the innovation will impact their practice.
Modernist model
Stage 3. Concern for self. Teachers start to
1. Overcoming Resistance to Change question whther they have the skills and knowledge
to implement the new curriculum.
Key characteristics of the ORC Model
Stage 4. Concern for teaching. Teachers become
• Success depends on leaders’ ability to
concerned with how to manage resources, time,
address and mitigate resistance by
and the practical aspects of teaching the new
understanding and addressing staff concerns.
curriculum
• Sharing decision-making power with
administrators and teachers, leaders can Stage 5. Concern for students. Teachers must
foster a sense of ownership, making staff feel begin to focus on how the curriculum will affect
more committed to the change. students’ learning and how to modify it o=for their
• The ORC Model identifies specific types of students’ needs.
concerns at each stage.
System model
Gene Hall and Susan Loucks divided
implementation into four stages: Build upon the foundational practices of
organizational development OD and CB, using
Stage 1. Unrelated concerns. At this stage, systems thinking to emphasize the interrelatedness
teachers do not see a relationship between and ongoing dynamics within educational
themselves and the suggested change, which they organizations.
therefore do not resist.
CHAPTER 7: CURRICULUM EVALUATION
Stage 2. Personal concerns. Individuals react to
the innovation in terms of their personal situation. The Nature and Purpose of Evaluation
Importance of Curriculum Evaluation
Stage 3. Task-related concerns. These concerns
relate to the actual use of the innovation in the • Essential for curriculum development,
classroom. implementation, and maintenance.
Stage 4. Impact-related concerns. A teacher is • Disagreement exists regarding its meaning,
concerned with how the innovation will affect purposes, approach, and use of results.
students, colleagues, and the community.
Purpose and Function
2. Organizational Development (OD) Model
• Determines the value and effectiveness of
The OD model developed by Richard SCHMUCK actions or programs.
and Matthew Miles in the 1970s, challenges the
traditional, rational, and technical approaches to • Assess how well students meet standards
educational improvement. and the program’s importance.
 • Reflects value judgements on prior curricula - What to evaluate (curricular content,
and instructional designs. instructional strategies, etc.).

Definition and Scope - How to gather relevant data for

interpretation (tools like questionnaires,
• Synonymous with assessment, involving checklist, etc.).
judgement of merit and worth.
• Questions to consider:
• Influences data collection and interpretation.
- Does the curriculum address the needs of
• Requires educators to evaluate both their diverse students?
actions and those of students.
- What knowledge is relevant for future,
Evaluation Methods unknown challenges?
• Commonly involves test to assess what - Are teaching and learning strategies
educators prioritize. adaptive to dynamic knowledge and
technological advances?
• Teachers critique their teaching through
tools like videotaped sessions. Assessment as a Component of Evaluation
• Focuses on the relationship between • Assessment provides evidence for
teachers’ and students’ actions and learning understanding students skills,
outcomes. comprehension, and progress.
Current Challenges • Types of assessment include:
• Evaluation is more complex due to social, - Initial assessment to determine teaching
economic, political, and technological approaches
changes.
- Summative assessment to evaluate mastery
• Diverse perspective on schools’ purposes at the end of a lesson/unit.
and needed competencies add complexity.
- Comparative assessment to measure
Process and Frameworks of Curriculum Evaluation student performance against others locally,
Reasoning from Evidence: nationally, or intentionally.
• Derived from Pellegrino, Chudowsky, and Definition of Evaluation’
Glaser’s reasoning assessment triangle,
expanded into an hourglass model. 1. Worthen and Sanders
Evaluation is “the formal determination of the
• Key stages:
quality, effectiveness, or value of a program,
- Cognition. Understanding how students product, project, process, objective, or curriculum.”
acquire knowledge and develop It includes:
competence.
1. Setting standards for quality
- Observation. Data collection though tests,
2. Collecting relevant information
portfolios, observation, interviews, and
lesson analysis. 3. Applying standards to make judgement.
- Interpretation. Processing data into 2. Brown and Green
evidence about curriculum success using
qualitative and quantitative methods. Evaluation involves judging the success of learning
outcomes or the effectiveness of products based on
Key Activities and Questions in Evaluation collected data.
• Evaluators must decide:
3. Seel and Dijkstra Approaches to Evaluation
Evaluation provides comparative data on the worth The scientific, modernist approach to
or value of programs, serving as a basis for evaluation is grounded in a behaviorist and
decisions such as program selection or perspective philosophy. It emphasizes precision,
continuation. objectivity, and sequence in understanding and
assessing educational phenomena.
4. Stufflebeam
This approach is characterized by a reliance on
Evaluation is “the process of delineating, obtaining,
systematic methods to measure outcomes and
and providing useful information for judging
determine the effectiveness of curricula and
decision alternatives.
instructional strategies.
5. Marsh and Willis
Key Characteristics of the Scientific, Modernist
Evaluation is an integral part of human activity, Approach:
addressing questions such as:
1. Modernist seek to establish clear cause-and-
1. Is something worth doing? effect relationships in the educational
2. How well is it being done? process.
3. Should time and resources be spent on it? 2. They focus on how specific instructional
strategies or curricula lead to defined learning
6. Sirotnik and Oakes outcomes.
3. Emphasis is placed on observable and
Evaluation is critical inquiry into values, positions, measurable behaviors is indicators of
and actions. It assesses: learning.
1.) Whether values are reflected in a program. 4. Standardized assessment are the preferred
2.) The clarity and attainment of stated goals. tools for evaluating student achievement.
3.) Broader questions of merit and worth using 5. The process of evaluation follows a logical and
a hermeneutic approach, which focuses on sequential method, ensuring consistency and
interpretative methods. replicability.
6. Curricula are developed with explicit alignment
Measurement vs. Evaluation to measurable outcomes, ensuring that
instruction is purposeful and focused.
• Measurement involves assigning numerical
values to observed phenomena (e.g., Humanistic and Postmodernist Approaches to
recording the number of pushups or reading Evaluation
speed).
1. Humanistic Approach
• Evaluation goes beyond measurement by
assigning value and meaning to the data, • Focus on improving self-concepts over
such as determining what constitute “goods” specific achievements.
or “successful” performance. • Less reliance on objectives test: evaluation
Hermeneutic Approach in Evaluation as a means of personal growth.

This method emphasizes interpreting and raising Levels of Evaluation

profound questions about the underlying worth of • Broad: National/state systems (e.g., No
an educational program, including: Child Left Behind)
• How well the program aligns with the • Institutional: individual schools or districts.
community and societal needs.
• The appropriateness of the standards and • Program-specific: course-level evaluations
success criteria used.
Scientific, Modernist Approach vs. Humanistic,
• The influence of external and internal
Postmodernist Approach
decision-makers on learning outcomes.
• Scientific, Modernist Approach:
 Modernist approach: rely on objective, quantitative
1. Key Focus. Uses experimental methods and data (e.g., test scores)
quantitative data to assess educational
Postmodernist approach: use subjective,
effectiveness.
interpretative approaches to understand the
2. Approach. Relies on objective measures such
complexity of learning.
as test and statistics to compare outcomes
(e.g., students’ achievement in different Certainty cs. Ambiguity
conditions).
3. Assumptions M.A: aim for certainty through statistical analysis
1. Random assignment of students to P.A: accept ambiguity and uncertainty, emphasizing
conditions. ongoing interpretation.
2. Uniformity of instruction across all
students. Role of the teacher
3. Objectives tests as impartial and
M.A: view the teacher as an implementer of
accurate measures.
standard procedure.
4. Criticism. Assumptions are often unrealistic
(e.g., random assignment and identical P.A: see teachers and students as co-creators of
instruction). Educators argue that tests don’t the educational process through collaborative
capture the diversity of learning styles, and engagement.
instruction is rarely uniform across students.
5. Context. This approach is prevalent in high- Utilitarian approach vs. intuitionist approach
stakes accountability environments where data- Utilitarian approach
driven decision-making is essential for proving
accountability. 1. Key philosophy. Aims to maximize the greatest
good for the greatest number of individuals.
• Humanistic, Postmodernist Approach: 2. Focus. Evaluates the impact of programs on
1. Key Focus. Interested in the impact of large groups, such as an entire school or
education on students’ self-concept and district.
individual experiences rather than purely 3. Evaluation criteria. Programs are judged based
academic achievement. on their ability to benefit the largest number of
2. Approach. Shuns scientific, objective measures people or students. The emphasis is on the
and favors interpretive methods like aesthetics, overall performance of the group or population.
ethnography, autobiography, and 4. Evaluation method. Typically involves
phenomenology. quantitative data that can be generalized to
3. Philosophy. Embraces uncertainty and larger populations, with a focus on efficiency
ambiguity, recognizing that there is no absolute and measurable outcome.
truth in educational outcomes. Evaluation is Intuitionist Approach:
seen as s process of intersubjective
communication, not a search for definitive 1. Key philosophy. Focuses on the subjective,
answers. personal experience of individuals or small
4. 4. Critical Stance. Encourages doubt and groups.
collaboration, seeing evaluation as an ongoing, 2. Focus. Gathers data to understand the impact
dynamic process shaped by interactions among of a program on individuals rather than large
educators and students, groups.
5. Key Advocate. Doll emphasizes that education 3. Evaluation criteria. There is no singular criterion
should embrace uncertainty, questioning fixed for judging worth; rather, multiple criteria are
truths and focusing on the evolving, lived used. Participants (such as students and
experiences of students and teachers within the teachers) themselves are involved in evaluating
classroom and community. the program.
4. Evaluation method. Often more qualitative in
Key Difference nature, focusing on personal experiences and
Objective vs. subjective Evaluation feedback. The evaluation is shaped by the
 perspective of those directly involved in or 3.) Criteria for evaluation. Payoff evaluators
affected by the program. focus on measurable outcomes, such as pre
and post-test results, the performance of
Key difference
experimental versus control groups, or
Scope of evaluation improvements in student achievement
according to predefined criteria.
U.A: focuses on group or population-level 4.) Objective. The goal is to determine how well
outcomes the curriculum achieves its objectives and
I.A: focuses on individual or small group the tangible impact it has on students,
experiences. teachers, and other stakeholders.

Criteria for worth Evaluation models

U.A: look for broader, more objective measures of Scientific models/modernist models
success. Stake’s congruence-contingency model of
I.A” rely on multiple, subjective criteria informed by evaluation
personal experiences. Robert stake’s congruence-contingency model
Decision-making process focuses on assessing the alignment between the
planned curriculum and its actual outcomes,
U.A: decisions made based on quantitative emphasizing both formal and informal evaluation
measures impacting the majority. methods.
I.A: emphasizes the views and insights of those 1. Stake’s Congruence-Contingency Model od
directly affected by the program. Evaluation
1.) Antecedents (Prerequisites). Conditions
Intrinsic vs. Payoff Approach
before teaching, such as student
Intrinsic Approach: characteristics (aptitudes, achievement) and
teacher qualities (experience, education).
1.) Focus. Evaluates the curriculum’s inherent 2.) Transactions (Curriculum). The planned
quality, looking at its content, structure, interactions between students, teachers,
accuracy, and design without considering its and resources, focusing on classroom
outcomes. dynamics and instructional strategies.
2.) Key question. “how good is the curriculum?” 3.) Results (Outcomes0. The outcomes,
3.) Criteria for evaluation. Intrinsic evaluators including immediate achievements (test
assess the curriculum’s accuracy, scores) and long term impacts (attitudes,
sequencing, materials, and the proposed community influence).
experiences for students. They believe that 2. Stufflebeam’s CIIP Model: context, inpit,
a curriculum with solid content and process, and product
organization will lead to effective student
learning. Daniel stufflebeam’s CIIP Model offers a
4.) Objective. The goal is to determine the comprehensive approach to evaluation, designed to
curriculum’s intrinsic value, whether it is inform decision making in curriculum and program
well-designed and relevant in its content management.
and structure, independent of its results.
It consist of four types of evaluation:
Payoff Approach
1. Context evaluation. Focuses on understanding
1.) Focus. Evaluates the outcomes or effects of the environment where the program operates.
the curriculum after it has been 2. Input evaluation. Involves assessing the
implemented, often by measuring student resources and strategies used to implement
performance or other observable results. the program.
2.) Key questions. “what are the effects of the 3. Process evaluation. Focuses on the
curriculum?” implementation of the program.
4. Product evaluation. Assess the final Action-Research Curriculum Evaluation Model’
outcomes of the program to determine if the
- The ARM combines both scientific
objectives have been met.
(modernist) and humanistic (postmodernist)
Humanistic models/post-modernist models approaches to evaluation, focusing on the
continuous modification of educational
1.) Connoisseurship. This model focuses on the
experiences.
evaluator’s personal appreciation of the
qualities within a curriculum. it consist of five Steps in AMR
dimensions:
1. Set goals. Teachers identify their objectives
1.) Intentional. Evaluating the curriculum’s
for the curriculum or pedagogy.
value and merit =.
2. Monitor implementation. Teachers
2.) Structural. Assessing the design and
determine how to track their teaching
organization of the curriculum.
methods and curriculum in action.
3.) Curricular. Reviewing the content and its
3. Interpret data. Data collected during
sequence.
teaching are analyzed to assess
4.) Pedagogical. Analyzing the appropriateness
effectiveness.
of instructional strategies.
4. Refine the process. Teachers continuously
5.) Evaluative. Reflecting on the methods of
adjust the curriculum and teaching strategies
assessment used in evaluating the
based on their findings.
curriculum.
2.) Criticism. Unlike connoisseurship, criticism Alternative assessment
involves publicly sharing a critique of the
curriculum. It includes:
1.) Description. Providing a detailed account of
the curriculum and environment.
2.) Interpretation. Explaining the findings, such
as why a new curriculum is necessary.
3.) Evaluation. Assessing the educational value
of the program.
4.) Thematics. Identifying recurring themes in
the curriculum that inform broader
curriculum development.
Human issues of evaluation
Illuminative Evaluation Model
1.) Objectification and standardization
- Developed by Malcolm Parlett and David • Students are often treated as
Hamilton, is a humanistic, postmodernist interchangeable units, with a focused on
approach that focuses on uncovering the comparison rather than individual growth.
unique features and specific problems of 2.) Bias in testing
an educational program. • Cultural bias. Test often use language and
The model has three key steps: examples that favor the dominant culture.
• Social and economic bias. Students’ is
1. Observation. Educators observe the often influenced by their social and
educational program in its natural setting, economic conditions.
considering all factors that influence its delivery. • Disabilities. There is a question of fairness
2. Further inquiry. Evaluators dig deeper, in holding students with disabilities to the
separating significant findings from trivial same standards as other.
details. 3.) Equity vs. equality in evaluation
3. Explanation. Rather than passing judgement, • The believe in meritocracy, that everyone,
evaluators provide explanations of what is regardless of background, can succeed if
happening in the program and why. they work hard enough.
4.) Redefining evaluation o Focus on skills like creativity and
• Holistic assessment. Evaluation should problem-solving, not just tests.
recognize the diverse backgrounds of
o Learn from other countries but adapt
students and personalize the assessment
ideas to fit local needs.
methods.
• Cognitive feedback. Teachers should aim
for evaluation methods that empower
students rather than create competition or
fear.
CHAPTER 8:
The chapter compares education systems in five
countries: Finland, Australia, China, Singapore,
and South Africa. It looks at what makes these
systems unique and what lessons can be learned
for improving global education.
Key Ideas:
1. Global Thinking:
o Education today should prepare
students to connect with the world,
embrace diversity, and solve global
challenges.
2. Examples from Countries:
o Finland: Focus on fairness and trust
in teachers. No standardized tests,
and teachers design their own
lessons.
o Australia: Mix of public and private
schools. They focus on innovation
and understanding nearby Asian
cultures.
o China: Education is centralized but
evolving. They stress "quality
education" and balance traditional
and modern approaches.
o Singapore: Known for strict
standards and student success, with
an emphasis on efficiency and skill-
building.
o South Africa: Faces challenges
from its history but works on equity
and improving teacher training.
3. Lessons for Education:
o Trust teachers and give them
freedom.