Index

Sr. No. Chapter Name Page No.

1 Classification of Indian Architecture 2-2
2 Harrapan Art and Architecture 3-5
3 Mauryan Art and Architecture 6-11
4 Post-Mauryan Architecture 11-17
5 Patna Kalam Painting 18-22
6 Pala Art 23-27
7 Gupta Architecture 27-30
8 Temple Architecture 30-37
9 Cave Architecture 37-49
10 Evolution of this form of architecture during the medieval period 50-52
11 Indian painting 52-54
12 Mural painting 55-61
13 Folk painting 62-71
14 Miniature painting 72-74
15 Tribal Revolts in Bihar 75-80
16 Santhal Uprising 81-85
17 Munda Rebellion 85-88
18 Revolt of 1857 88-95
19 Bihar Peasants In Modern History 96-102
20 Partition of Bengal 102-105
21 Administrative & Economic Policies Under British Rule 106-113
22 Non-Cooperation Movement in India and Bihar 114-116
23 Role of India and Bihar in Civil Disobedience Movement 117-119
24 Kisan Sabha in Bihar 120-121
25 Role of India and Bihar in Quit India Movement 121-125
26 Introduction and Expansion of Western Education(Including Technical 126-129
Education) in Bihar
27 Famous Personalities 129-191
 Mahatma Gandhi
 Jawaharlal Nehru
 Rabindranath Tagore
 B.R Ambedkar
 Subhash Chandra Bose
 Dr. Rajendra Prasad
 Ram Manohar Lohia
 Dr Sachchidananda Sinha
 Sri Krishna Singh
 Jay Prakash Narayan
 Raj Kumar Shukla

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1) CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
Harappa Art

Ancient Mauryan Art

India
Post-Mauryan Art

Gupta Age Art

South Indian Art

Delhi Sultanate

Medieval
India Mughal Art

Indo-Gothic Style

Modern
India
Neo-Roman Style

A civilisation as old as India is bound to have a very long and immersive architectural history. The story of Indian art
and architecture is a story of evolution.
 From the ancient Harappa valley civilisation to the British rule, the buildings and sculptures have a narrative of
their own. The emergence and decay of great empires, the invasion of foreign rulers who gradually became
indigenous, the confluence of different cultures and styles, etc. are all reflected in the evolution of Indian
architecture and sculpture.
 The word 'architecture' comes from the Latin word 'tekton,' which literally means "builder." The study of
architecture originated when early man began to construct his shelter to dwell in.

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 2) Harappan Art and Architecture

Harappan civiliza on (3300 BCE-1500 BCE) flourished as ancient India's first urban civilization. In terms of creative
inventiveness, each of its features was distinct. Harappan Art and Architecture includes everything from the fort and
structures to the ceramics and metal objects. Also in Harappan civilization, there is an established sculptural standard
of exquisite beauty.

Harappan Art and Architecture

The Harappan art and architecture can be understood by the buildings, po ery, metal works, sculptures, etc.

Harappan Architecture - Buildings

 Magnificent was the architectural style of the fort future generations. The Harappan granary bears
and buildings of the Harappan culture. The fort quiet witness to this.
was high and looked majestic and the groupings of
buildings and their decorated interiors were
marvellous.
 Artistically laid out where the drawing and retiring
rooms, the kitchen, and the bath. Burnt
bricks were used in all constructions.
 Covered drains are another specialty of Harappan
architecture. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro and
the port at Lothal still pay rich tributes to the
architectural expertise of Harappan culture.
 Harappan civilization has a rich column of large
pillars suppor ng buildings. This is another of its
distinct legacies that have been passed down to

Harappan Art - Pottery

 Harappan clay pots and ornamental pieces were one of its main attractions, even back then, all over the world.
 The craftsmanship of the Harappan pottery is evident in trays of various sizes, cups, cooking pots, and other
ceramics.

Harappan Art - Sculpture

 Harappan culture's craftsmen and sculptors were  They could create human-like images in stone as
equally skilled. Precious stones were carved into well.
beads and strung on a necklace.  A partially damaged depiction of a bearded
human figure unearthed at Mohenjo-

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 Daro also has the uncommon trait of no
moustache on the upper lip, which seems to be
quite smooth.
 The symmetry of the leaves carved on the top
garment on the image's left shoulder is stunning.
 Because of the sculpted image's dance-posture,
another damaged piece of stone sculpture from
the Harappan area resembles Natraj Shiva.
 The Harappan sculptors were clearly brilliant and
inventive, as seen by these specimens.

Harappan Art - Metal Works

 Harappan civilization achieved remarkable heights
in metalwork as well.
 They knew how to produce copper and bronze
pots, flower vases, and pictures of people,
animals, and birds.
 The polish and delicacy of their metal works are
shown by a bronze figure of a female dancer
discovered at Mohenjo-Daro.

Harappan Art - Seals

 The seals and sealing method also hint at their
creative abilities. Images of cows, deer, rhino, and
other animals have been discovered on seals
unearthed in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal,
and other sites.
 These exhibits not only an aesthetic sensibility but
also an understanding of the animal kingdom.
 The Harappan civilization mirrored every aspect of
urban life in its art and architecture. Every artist
demonstrated credit, expertise, and innovation in
his work.
 They continue to inspire amazement and
reverence in the minds of future generations.

Conclusion

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Architecture, art, and utilitarian items were all rigidly uniform in the Harappan Civilization. It traded across an even
greater area, obtaining raw materials and exporting completed products, traders, and some of its practices to places
where its standardization regulations did not apply. It predated Mesopotamian major cultures and was contemporary
with Sumerian cultures. However, it acquired a lot of ideas from Central Asia as well, and it gathered the best of ideas
and technology in many ways. It is relevant and significant in that regard.

3) Mauryan Art and Architecture

Previous Year Questions

 Describe the chief characteristics of Mauryan Art.(67 BPSC/2022)
 Discuss the features of Mauryan art and architecture and its relationship with Buddhism. (64th
BPSC/2018)
 Throw light on Mauryan Art and analyse its impact in Bihar. (60-62 BPSC/2019)
 Discuss the salient features of Mauryan Art. (53-55 BPSC/2012)
 Analyze the salient features of Mauryan art and architecture. (47 BPSC/2007)
 Critically examine the chief characteristics of the Mauryan Art. (45 BPSC/2002)
 Identify the main features of the Mauryan Art as found in Bihar. (42 BPSC/1999)
 What are the distinctive features of Mauryan Sculpture? (40 BPSC/1995)

Mauryan art is an art created between the 4th and 2nd Century BC under the Mauryan Empire, which was the first
empire to control much of the Indian subcontinent. It marked a significant shift in Indian art from the use of wood to
stone. It was a royal art that Mauryan rulers, particularly Ashoka, supported. The most notable survivors include
pillars, stupas, and caverns.

Introduction
 The Great Mauryan ruler Ashoka embraced Buddhism (as a part of shraman tradition) and the immense
Buddhist missionary activities that followed during his rule paved the way for the development of Mauryan
sculptural and architectural styles.
 King Ashoka patronized the shraman tradi on in the third century BCE.
o The shraman tradition refers to several Indian religious movements parallel to but separate from the
historical vedic religion.
o It includes Jainism, Buddhism, and others such as Ajivikas, and Carvakas.

Background
 In 321 BC, Chandragupta Maurya, with the help of Chanakya (author of Arthashasthra) founded the Mauryan
dynasty after overthrowing Nanda Dynasty.
 The Mauryan Empire was the first most powerful Indian empire to bring the entire Indian subcontinent under a
single rule.
o The Mauryan empire under Chandragupta Maurya spread its boundaries into Central Asia and Persia.
 Expansion of Mauryan Empire: Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusara in 298 BC who
expanded the kingdom over most of present-day India, except Kalinga.
 Mauryan Dynasty under Ashoka: Bindusara's kingdom was inherited by his son Ashoka the Great in 274 B.C.
 Kalinga Invasion: During the invasion of Kalinga, Ashoka renounced bloodshed and adopted the policy of Ahimsa
and adopted Buddhism.

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Influence on Mauryan Art
Mainly influenced by two things:
Religious  Buddhism became most popular social & religious movement
influence  Concept of religious sculpture prominent
 First three Mauryan emperors Chandragupta, Bindusara & Ashoka known to have
Foreign Influence friendly relations with Hellenistic west and Achaemenids of Iran
 Adaptation of Achaemenids seen in Edicts & imperial palace of Pataliputra

Mauryan Art and Architecture

Mauryan architecture can be divided into Court Art and Popular Art.

Mauryan Art

Court Art (court Popular Art (individual

initiative) initiative)

Palace
Potteries
Viharas (Caves)
Sculptures
Pillars

Stupas

Court Art

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 There was a great influence of strong Central government (of Mauryan Empire) on the different forms of Court
Art.
 It mainly consist of Edits and Pillars made by the royal court on the direct orders of king himself.
 Court Art is subdivided into 4 subcategories i.e.
o Palace
o Viharas (Caves)
o Pillars and
o Stupas.

Palaces:
 Greek historian, Megasthenes, described the palaces of the Mauryan empire as one of the greatest creations of
mankind and Chinese traveler Fa Hien called Mauryan palaces as god gifted monuments.
 Persian Influence: The palace of Chandragupta Maurya was inspired by the Achaemenid palaces at Persepolis in
Iran.
o Material Used: Wood was the principal building material used during the Mauryan Empire.
o Examples: The Mauryan capital at Pataliputra, Ashoka’s palace at Kumrahar, Chandragupta Maurya’s palace.

Cave Architecture:
 During the Mauryan period, caves were generally used as viharas, i.e. living quarters, by the Jain and Buddhist
monks.
 Key Features: The caves during the Mauryan period were marked by a highly polished finish of the interior walls
and decorative gateways.
 Example: The seven caves (Satgarva) in the Makhdumpur region of Jehanabad district, Bihar, were created by
Mauryan emperor Ashoka for the Ajivika Sect:
o Barabar Caves (4 caves): Karna Chaupar, Sudama Cave, Lamarshi (Lomas Rishi) Cave, Vishwamitra (Vishva
Zopri) Cave
o Nagaragunja Caves (3 caves): In Bihar were formed during the time of Dasharath, grandson of Ashoka , Gopi
Cave, Bahayak Cave and Vedantika Cave.

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Pillars:

 Language: While most Ashoka pillar edicts were

in Pali and Prakrit language, few were written
in Greek or Aramaic language also.
 Architecture: Mauryan pillars mainly comprise of
four parts:
o Sha : A long shaft formed the base and was
made up of a single piece of stone or
monolith.
o Capital: On top of shaft lay the capital, which
was either lotus-shaped or bell-shaped.
o Abacus: Above the capital, there was a
circular or rectangular base known as the
abacus.
Ashoka pillars, (usually made of chunar sandstone), as o Capital Figure: All the capital figures (usually
a symbol of the state, assumed a great significance in animals like a bull, lion, elephant, etc) are
the entire Mauryan Empire. vigorous and carved standing on a square or
 Objec ve: The main objective was to disseminate circular abacus.
the Buddhist ideology and court orders in the
entire Mauryan empire.
Similari es with Persian (Achamenian) Pillars
 Polished Stones and Mo fs: Both Maurya and Achaemenian pillars, used polished stones and have certain
common sculpture motifs such as the lotus.
 Proclama ons: Maurya’s idea of inscribing proclamations (related to Buddhist teachings and court orders) on
pillars has its origin in Persian pillars.
 Third Person: Inscriptions of both empires begin in the third person and then move to the first person.

Differences with Persian (Achamenian) Pillars

 The Capital Figure: It was absent in Mauryan pillars of the Kumhrar hall whereas pillars at Persepolis have the
elaborate capital figures.
 The Shape and Ornamenta on: The shape of Mauryan lotus is different from the Persian pillar.
 Pillar Surface: Most of the Persian pillars have a fluted/ ridged surface while the Mauryan pillars have a smooth
surface.
 Architectural Scheme: The Achaemenid pillars were generally part of some larger architectural scheme, and bit
complex and complicated, while the Ashokan pillars were simple and independent freestanding monuments.
 Sha : Unlike Mauryan shafts which are built of monolith (single piece of stone), Persian/Achaemenian shafts
were built of separate segments of stones (aggregated one above the other).

Stupa:

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Stupas were burial mounds prevalent in India from the Vedic period.

 Architecture: Stupas consist of a cylindrical drum with a circular anda and a harmika and a chhatra on the top.
o Anda: Hemispherical mound symbolic of the mound of dirt used to cover Buddha’s remains (in many stupas
actual relics were used).
o Harmika: Square railing on top of the mound.
o Chhatra: Central pillar supporting a triple umbrella form.
 Material Used: The core of the stupa was made of unburnt brick while the outer surface was made by
using burnt bricks, which were then covered with a thick layer of plaster and medhi and the toran were
decorated with wooden sculptures.
 Examples:
o Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most famous of the Ashokan stupas.
o Piprahwa Stupa in Uttar Pradesh is the oldest one.
o Stupas built after the death of Buddha: Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethapida,
Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalivana.
o Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan: Grand stupa with a circular mound and a circumambulatory path.

Depiction of Buddha at Stupas

 Symbols: In the early stages, Buddha was represented through symbols that represented the different events
of Buddha’s life like footprints, lotus thrones, chakras, stupas, etc.
 Jataka Stories: Later on, Jataka stories (stories associated with the previous birth of Buddha) were portrayed
on the railings and torans of the stupas.
o The Jataka stories that find frequent depiction are Chhadanta Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Vessantara
Jataka, Vidur Jataka and Shama Jataka.

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  The chief events from Buddha’s life which are narrated in the arts are birth, renunciation, enlightenment, the
first sermon (dharmachakrapravartana) and mahaparinirvana (death).

Popular Art forms of Mauryan Period

 Popular art forms during Mauryan Period had no influence of the Central Government, instead these art forms
were mixture of local and other Indian Art forms.
 Popular Art forms of Mauryan Period are classified into 2 types
o Po eries, and
o Sculptures

Po ery:
 Pottery of the Mauryan period is generally referred to as Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
 Mauryan pottery was characterized by black paint and highly lustrous finish and was generally used as luxury
items.
 Kosambi and Patliputra were the centers of NBPW pottery.

Sculptures:
 Besides animal sculptures found on Mauryan  The torso of the nude male figure found at
Pillars, many other sculptures are found. These Lohanipur at Patna.
sculptures were made up of stone. On these  Didargunj Yakshi was found at Didargunj village at
sculptures shiny polish was used to be done, Patna.
which adds to their beauty and sculptures became
more realistic the most significant example of
independent sculptural art of Mauryan Period is
the statue of Yakshini, found from Didarganj,
Patna. Besides these many other sculptures are
found from different parts of Bihar and the
country.
 They were objects of worship related to all three
religions – Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism.
 The earliest mention of yakshi can be found
in Silappadikaram, a Tamil text.
 Yakshini statue was later considered as the statue
of a goddess.

The list of some of the most famous sculptures found different parts of the country are given below:-
 Yakshini Statue- Didarganj, Patna, Bihar
 Woman and Child Statue- Bulandibag, Patna, Bihar
 Jain Tirthankar's Statue- Lohanipur, Patna, Bihar
 Yaksh's Statue- Parkhan, Mathura, U ar Pradesh
 Elephant's Statue- Dhauli, Odisha

Yaksha & Yakshini

Yaksha Nature spirits usually benevolent also known as fertility spirits
Yakshini Female counterpart of male yaksha

Didarganj Yakshini

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 Place
 Didarganj (Bihar)
 In Patna museum presently.
Material
 Sandstone with polished surface ,reflecting sophistication in treatment
Features
 Tall, well built, well proportioned, free standing sculpture
 Yakshini holds chauri (flywheel) in right hand & left hand is broken
 Shows sculptures sensitivity towards round muscular female human body- folds of muscles are properly
rendered & tightening of garment around belly creates effect of bulging belly.
 Lower garment has been rendered with great care. Each fold of garment on legs is shown by protruding
lines clinging to legs ,which create transparent effect
 Heaviness of torso is depicted by heavy breasts and impressive back

Impact on Bihar
 The name Bihar is derived from the word viharas i.e. residence of Buddhist monks.
 Mauryan arts give evidence of the centralized administration of kingdoms and their continuity in Bihar.
 Mauryan art gave the best of temple architecture in later periods.
 The geometrical correct structure of the modern period becomes an interpretation for the development of
geometry in the Gupta period.
 Mauryan Art is a valuable treasure of India it gives us pride and self-confidence in agriculture Bihar is the capital
of the Maurya Kingdom and has numerous prints of it. Apart from the na onal emblem of India and state
Emblem of Bihar, Mauryan art is also present at Rashtrapa Bhavan, The new Parliament building is going to be
made on the Sanchi Stupa model.
 The workmanship and design of this period were moderate, liberal, and common in nature. The worth of the
stupa at Sanchi and the bull capital at Sarnath portray the significance and stand as a declaration of this brilliant
time of Indian history.

Mauryan Art - Critical Analysis

 Many historians such as John Marshall and Persi Brown considered that the Mauryan Art was influenced with
(inspired from) Iranian Art Forms.
 Some of them said that the Mauryan Palace was a carbon copy of the palaces of Armenian Empire of Iran.
 Pillars of Mauryan Period was also considered as the inspiration of Iranian pillars with slight variations in their
architecture.
 Mauryan Art (especially court Art){ was highly religious in nature, which restricted the appearance of cultural
ethos and other aspects of the society of that period.

Conclusion
Although the tradition of art and culture in Indian subcontinent was started during the Indus Valley Civilisation, but
lost the continuity in later period of time. Art and craft tradition got continuity only during the Mauryan Period.
It developed new art traditions, such as the tradition of constructing Pillars was started during Mauryan Period.
Mauryan Art Forms indicate the Political and cultural unification of the country. It will always remain an attraction for
the lovers of Indian Art and Cultural traditions

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 4) Post Mauryan Art and Architecture

Expected Questions
 Write short notes on Post-Mauryan Art and Architecture
 Differentiate between Gandhara, Mathura, and Amravati schools of Art.

With the decline of the Mauryan empire several small dynasties rose to power. Among them, Shungas, Kanvas,
Kushanas and Shakas in the north and Satvahanas, Ikshavakus, Abhiras, and Vakatakas in Southern and Western India
gained prominence.
The architecture in the form of rock-cut caves and stupas continued, with each dynasty introducing some unique
features of their own.
Similarly, different schools of sculpture emerged and the art of sculpture reached its climax in the post-Mauryan
period.

Rock-cut Caves:
 The construction of rock caves continued as in the Mauryan period. However, this period saw the development
of two types of rock caves – Chaitya and Viharas.
o Chaitya was a rectangular prayer hall with a stupa placed in the center, for the purpose of prayer and Viharas
were used as the residences of the monks.
o Examples
 Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in Bhubaneshwar, Odisha were patronized by the Kalinga king Kharavela
and are also known for the Hathigumpha inscription (in Brahmi script).
 Ranigumpha cave in Udayagiri is double-storied and has some beautiful sculptures.

Stupas:

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 Post Mauryan period stupas became larger and more decorative and wood and brickwork were replaced by
stone.
 Torans:
o In the post-Mauryan period, the Shunga dynasty introduced the idea of torans (Torans reflect the Hellenisti
influence) which were beautifully decorated gateways to the stupas.
 Examples
o Bharhut stupa in Madhya Pradesh.

Sculpture:
Post Mauryan empire three prominent schools of the sculpture came into prominence in three different regions of
India namely Gandhara, Mathura, and Amravati schools.

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Gandhara: The Gandhara School of Art or Greco-Indian School of Art (First sculptural representation of Buddha in
human form) has its origin in Greco tradition (Greek invaders brought with them the traditions of the Greek and
Roman sculptors) which was further merged with the regional or local art of the time.
 Ini al Development: Gandhara school was developed in the western frontiers of Punjab.
 Patronage: This school was patronized by both Shaka and Kushan rulers.
 Major centers of Gandhara school of art were Jalalabad (Eastern Afghanistan), Hadda (ancient region of
Gandhara),Begram (Parwan province of Afghanistan) & Taxila (Pakistan).
 Key Features: Buddha was depicted in Gandhara Art, through four types of hand gestures called Mudras:
o Abahayamudra: Indicates fearlessness
o Dhyana mudra: Indicates meditative position
o Dharmachakramudra: Means turning the wheel of law.
o Bhumisparshamudra: Touching the earth with right hand and calling it to witness truth.

Mudras Related To Buddha of Gandhara The tips of the thumb and index finger touch each
School other, forming a circle.
Vitarka Mudra: It indicates teaching and discussion
or intellectual debate.

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 Varada Mudra: It indicates charity, compassion or
granting wishes.
Signifies five perfections: Generosity, morality,
patience, effort and meditative concentration,
through the five extended fingers.
Anjali Mudra: Indicates greetings, devotion, and
adoration.
Both hands close to the chest, palms, and fingers
joined against each other vertically (Namaste
posture).
This is for Bodhisattvas (who aim and prepare to
attain perfect knowledge).

Karana Mudra: It indicates warding off evil.

The energy created by this Mudra helps remove
obstacles such as sickness or negative thoughts.

Uttarabodhi Mudra: It means supreme

enlightenment.
This Mudra is known for charging one with energy. Vajra Mudra: It indicates knowledge.
It symbolises perfection. This mudra signifies the importance of knowledge
or supreme wisdom.

Mathura: The sculptures of the Mathura school were influenced by all the three religions Buddhism, Hinduism, and
Jainism.
 Ini al Development: Developed in and around Mathura.
 Patronage: This school was patronized by Kushan rulers.
 Major Centres: Mathura, Sonkh and Kankalitila.
 Key Feature: Symbolism in the images was one of the key features of the Mathura school of art like Shiva was
represented using linga and mukhalinga, Halo around the head of Buddha was decorated geometrical patterns
and Buddha is shown to be surrounded by two Bodhisattavas Padmapani (holding a lotus) and Vajrapani (holding
a thunderbolt).

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Amarava : Unlike Gandhara and Mathura schools which focused on single images, Amaravati school laid more
emphasis on the use of dynamic images or narrative art (like jataka tales).
 Ini al Development: Amaravati school was developed on the banks of the Krishna river.
 Major Centres: Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda.
 Patronage: This school was patronized by Satvahana rulers.
 Key Feature: Tribhanga posture, i.e. the body with three bends was used excessively by Amaravati school in its
sculptures.

Significance
 Development of Art and Architecture: Mauryas made a remarkable contribution to art and architecture, and
introduced stone masonry on a wide scale.
 Polished Stone Pillar: High technical skill was achieved by Maurya artisans in polishing the stone pillars, which
are as shining as the Northern Black Polished Ware.
The stone statue of Yakshini in the form of a beautiful woman found in Didarganj (Patna) is noted for its Maurya
polish.
 Pillars and Sculptor Development: Each pillar is made of a single piece of buff-coloured sandstone. Only their
capitals, which are beautiful pieces of sculpture in the form of lions or bulls, are joined to the pillars on the top.
The erection of the polished pillars throughout India shows the spread of the technical knowledge involved in the
art of polishing them
 Cave Architecture: The Maurya artisans also started the practice of carving out caves from rocks for monks to live
in. Later, this form of cave architecture spread to western and southern India.
 Development of Terraco a Art: In the central phase of the Northern Black Polished Ware around 300 BC, the
central Gangetic plains became the center of terracotta art. In Maurya rimes, terracottas were produced on a
large scale. They generally represented animals (elephants) and women (mother goddesses).

Difference between the Gandhara School, Mathura School and Amravati School
Basis Gandhara School Mathura School Amravati School
External influ The heavy influence of It was It was developed indigenously.
ence Greek or Hellenistic developed indigenously.
sculpture, so it is known
as Indo-Greek art.

Material used Early Gandhara School The sculptures of Mathura The sculptures of Amravati
used bluish-grey School were made using School were made using white
sandstone while the later spotted red sandstone. marble.
period saw the use of mud
and stucco.
Religious Influ Mainly Buddhist imagery, Influence of all three Mainly Buddhist influence.
ence influenced by the Greco- religions of the time,
Roman pantheon. i.e. Hinduism, Jainism and
Buddhism.
Patronage Kushana rulers Kushana rulers Satavahana rulers.

16
Area of Developed in the North- Developed in and Developed in the Krishna-
development West Frontier, in the around Mathura, Sonkh and Godavari lower valley, in and
modern-day area Kankalitila. Kankalitila was around Amravati,
of Kandahar. famous for Jain sculptures. Nagarjunakonda, Goli,
Ghantasala and Vengi.
Features of Spiritual Buddha Delighted Buddha Symbolic representation of
Buddha Sad Buddha Less spiritual Buddha’s life
sculpture Bearded Buddha Shaven head and face Lives of Buddha in both human
Less ornamentation Muscularity and animal forms.
Great detailing Energetic
Buddha in Yogi postures The graceful posture of
Greek factors like wavy hair, Buddha
a large forehead, and long Seated in Padmasana
ears.

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5) Patna Kalam Painting

Previous Year Questions

 Bring out the Salient Features of Patna Kalam Painting. (BPSC 66th Exam, 2021)
 Examine the Salient Features of Patna Qulam painting. (BPSC 63rd Exam, 2019)
 Bring out the main Features of Patna Qulam Painting. (BPSC 56 to 59 Exam, 2016)
 Discuss the Salient Features of Patna Kalam Painting. (BPSC 48 to 52 Exam, 2009)

Expected questions
 Highlight the main features of Patna Kalam Painting. Also highlight how is it different from Mughal
Painting.

Patna Kalam is a unique monotonous painting style in India. It was influenced with three different school of painting
i.e., Persian school, Mughal art and British style of painting. The main characteristic of Patna Kalam, which makes it
unique is that instead of royal paintings, in this art form paintings are mainly done on daily life which includes
paintings on common man, women, children, farmers, carpenter, iron-smith and son on. It got this kind of diversity
and uniqueness because of influences it got from various art forms mentioned above.

History and Evolution of Patna Kalam

 It is a well-known fact that art and craft got most of its popularity and patronage during Mughal period and
specially during the rule of Jahangir and Shahjahan. But after Aurangzeb come to the throne, the patronage of art
and craft lost the significance for Mughal rulers. It happened because rise in orthodoxy and fundamentalism
which restricted them to do so. After artist felt dejected, they moved out of the court of Mughals and went
towards three parts the country. One group of painters went to Northern Hill region (now Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand) Basohli, Kangra, Mandi, Kullu, Garhwal etc. While the second group of painters went to Western
plains mainly to Udaypur and nearby areas. And the third and last group of painters went to Eastern
Plains (mainly to Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal) such as Varanasi, Mathura, Murshidabad and other parts.
 The group which went to Murshidabad got the patronage of Mir Zafar, Nawab of Bengal (a great patron of art
and craft). One of those painters who went there was Manohar, who took shelter under the patronage of Nawab
of Murshidabad. Here these painters came into contact with European traders and made paintings for them. In
Murshidabad they got almost same respect and recognition as they received earlier in the Courts of Mughal.
 But after the death of Mir Zafar, his son Miran acceded on the throne. Miran was not interested in art and craft at
all. Hence these painters again faced the wrath of migration again.

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 These painters migrated to Patna, and settled in Machharhatta, Lodhikatra, Chowk and Diwan Mohalla of the city
around 1760. The main reason behind shifting of these painters to Patna from Murshidabad was the presence
large scale of trade activities in the region.
 These painters started painting for local rulers, Zamindars, traders, British officers and soldiers according to their
demand.

Features of Patna Kalam

Influences On Patna Kalam:- Patna Kalam was influenced by different art forms such as :- Mughal Pain ng and
Bri sh Pain ng

Influence of Mughal Painting

 Since the early painters of Patna Kalam were migrated from the court of Mughals, hence Patna Kalam painting
had great influence of Mughal Painting, which is mix of Persian Art forms and Indian traditional Art forms.
 The colours and lines used in Patna Kalam were inspired from Mughal Painting. In Patna Kalam, bright colours
were used and lines were almost identical to Mughal art forms.
 But there was a great difference between Mughal Painting and Patna Kalam. In Mughal paintings, background
and borders were equally important as subject, but in Patna Kalam paintings background and borders were not
much significant.
 In Patna Kalam paintings subject was used to be most important. In this painting style background and border
were used to be either white or plain, while in Mughal paintings, coloured background and stylish borders were
used.

Influence of British School of Painting

 Patna Kalam got the British influence due to high level of trade activities in the region. British officials, traders
and soldiers, used to come to these painters and demand for painting according to their choices. By this way
Patna Kalam got the features of British style of painting.
 The most important influence of British Painting style on Patna Kalam, which is not seen in other Indian art
forms, was the excellent use of shadow and lighting in the paintings.

Technique
 These pictures were painted directly with the brush, (without being drawn in pencil first). This technique was
known as Kajli seahi. The Patna School tradition developed an individualistic style and technique, very different
from the usual Mughal School (due to the the Persian influence) and the less formal Rajput School. Moreover,
the Patna artists made their own pigments, brushes and paper as their ancestors did in the Mughal courts.

Patronage
The Patna Kalam style reached its peak during the reign of the last Nawab of Bihar, Mir Qasim, who was a patron of
the arts and encouraged the development of local arts and crafts. The Nawab himself was a skilled painter and was
known to have commissioned many Patna Kalam paintings. The patronage of the Nawab and his court led to the
development of a vibrant artistic community in Patna, which produced some of the most beautiful Patna Kalam
paintings.

Materials used in Painting

1) Colours Used
 Colours used in paintings of Patna Kalam were generally obtained from natural sources like minerals, fruits
and flowers.

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  For example, yellow colour was used to be obtained from feeding cow with turmeric and then cow's urine was
collected and was let the colour to settle down, then colour was filtered and dried. This dried powder was
used as yellow colour in Patna Kalam paintings.
 Important colours used in paintings were Indian Red, Zink white, Gamboge white, Yellow, Golden Yellow,
Golden leaf, Grey, Yellow leaf, Bronze, Purple, Green, Gold Powder, Silver leaf, Mica powder.
2) Canvas
 Paintings of Patna Kalam were usually done on paper, mica, elephant teeth and cotton clothes (Tent).
 Papers used in Patna Kalam paintings were generally imported from Nepal.
3) Brushes
For very fine work, the artists used a brush made from the tail hair of squirrels. For bolder and broader work, they
used hair from the tail of a goat, neck of a hog or the neck of a buffalo. All these hair, except those of the squirrel,
were first softened by being boiled.

Process of Painting in the Patna Kalam

The whole process of a piece of pain ng involved three stages, i.e.

1) Prepara on of colours
2) Sketching
3) Filling of colours.

Prepara on of Colours
Colours were used to be prepared during the rainy season. It used to be done so because of increased moisture
during rainy season reduces pollution in atmosphere; hence the colour obtained was used to be of good quality and
without any dust and dirt.

Sketching
Although instead of drawing sketches, pictures were directly painted using brush and colours. But some paintings
were done by sketching also. In such paintings sketching was used to be done during summer.

Filling of colours in the sketches

Colour was used to be filled during winter season, because in winter humidity is very low which results into good
bonding of colour with the Canvas. It also helps in creating shadow in paintings.

Subjects
 The artists painted numerous specimens that showcased the scenes of everyday life in the city. These colored
sketches of everyday life of Patna folk were admirably drawn as life-like representations.
 There were the familiar figures of the European compound – washer men, butlers returning from the market,
tailors, servants and sweepers exercising the dogs.
 Then they portrayed the various bazaar tradesmen and craftsmen – pedlars, bangle-sellers, butchers, fish-sellers,
basket makers, carpenters, distillers, toddy-sellers, candle makers, sweetmeat-sellers, water-carriers, brass-
workers, thread makers and blacksmiths.
 Many of the paintings feature festivals, celebrations, weddings.

Artists of Patna Kalam Paintings

The artists who practiced the Patna Kalam style were known as “Karkhanedar” and were skilled in various techniques
such as drawing, coloring, and miniature painting.
Famous ar sts of Patna Kalam Pain ng

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 Bhawani Das: He is considered one of the pioneers of Patna Kalam Painting. He was active in the 18th century
and is known for his depictions of Hindu deities, particularly Krishna.
 Manohar: He was another prominent artist of the 18th century and is known for his intricate designs and use of
metallic pigments in his paintings.
 Mahesh Das: He was an artist in the early 20th century and is known for his innovative use of color and his
depictions of rural life in Bihar.
 Shan Devi: She is a contemporary artist who has played a key role in the revival of Patna Kalam Painting. She
has won several awards for her work and has exhibited her paintings both in India and abroad.
 Amitabh Kumar: He is another contemporary artist who has contributed to the revival of the art form. He has
experimented with new techniques and styles while staying true to the traditional themes and motifs of Patna
Kalam Painting.

Shivala– Muslim wedding

Famous artists of Patna

Gopal Lal– Holi
Kalam Painting

Mahadev Lal– Rani Gandhati

Ishwari Prasad Verma– Bharat

Mata

Decline and Revival

 The art started declining after the departure of the Britishers from India. The artists were left without a reliable
source of income. Moreover, the advent of photography and printing technologies in the 19th century made it
easier and cheaper to produce images, further reducing the demand for traditional hand-painted art.
 In the 20th century, Patna Kalam Paintings faced further challenges due to the growing popularity of modern art
forms, which led to a decline in the number of artists practicing the art form. The partition of India in 1947 also
had a significant impact on the art form, as many artists migrated to Pakistan, leaving behind a void in the art
community.
 However, efforts have been made in recent years to revive Patna Kalam Paintings. The revival started in the 1960s
with the establishment of the College of Arts and Crafts in Patna, which provided a platform for the training and
promotion of traditional arts, including Patna Kalam Paintings. The college also organized exhibitions and
workshops to showcase the art form to a wider audience.
 Today, a small but dedicated group of artists continue to practice Patna Kalam Paintings, keeping the tradition
alive. The art form has gained recognition and appreciation from art enthusiasts in India and abroad, and efforts
are being made to ensure its preservation and continued growth. Some artists have also adapted the style to
create contemporary works that incorporate modern themes and techniques, attracting a new generation of art
enthusiasts to the traditional art form.

The recognition of the paintings

was reduced. 21
 Lack of
patronage

Causes of Decline Lack of demand for the paintings.

Introduction of Photography in the

Western region.

Establishment of Litho
Press in 1861.

Comparison of Patna Kalam Painting and Mughal Painting

Criteria Patna Kalam Pain ng Mughal Pain ng

Origin Patna, Bihar Mughal Empire

Time Period 17th-19th century 16th-19th century
Style Folk and rural Courtly and refined
Subject Mostly religious and mythological Diverse themes such as court scenes, portraits,
Ma er themes hunting scenes, etc.
Colors Bright and vibrant Soft and pastel
Techniques Bold and flat brushwork, use of Fine brushwork, use of gold and other precious
vegetable colors materials
Influences Mughal and Rajput styles Persian and Indian styles
Ar sts Mostly anonymous and untrained Highly skilled court artists
Audience Common people and local rulers Mughal court and elite patrons
Legacy Maintained a strong regional Had a significant impact on the development of
identity Indian miniature painting

Conclusion
Though Paintings got lots of patronage in the mid-18th century it got declined due to socio-economic factors. it is
currently preserved at Patna Museum, Government colleges of Patna, and Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Library. The
Government of Bihar put forth a splendid attempt to restore this 200-year-old Patna school of smaller than usual
artistic creations by distributing them in the calendar in 2010 interestingly post-freedom. The goal behind distributing
this subject-based 2010 schedule is to feature Bihar’s rich legacy of workmanship and culture. To make people
mindful of the traditional paintings of Patna Kalam that made an extraordinary social character to Bihar.

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 6) Pala Art Forms of Bihar

Previous Year Questions

 Discuss the features of Pala art and architecture and its relationship with Buddhism. [65th BPSC-2020]
 Describe the salient features of Pala architecture and sculpture. [47 BPSC/2007]
 Give a description of the main features of Pala art in Bihar. [41 BPSC/1997]
 Critically examine the salient features of Pal Art. [43 BPSC/2001]

Expected Questions
 “Pala period witnessed the last great phase of Buddhism art in India”. In the light of the statement
highlight the main features of Pala art.

Pal Art is one of the best contemporary art forms of the country. It developed during the medieval period between
8th-12th century under the aegis of Pal rulers. Pal rulers were Buddhist followers, which can be seen in the art forms
of Palas very easily.
Pal Art included various forms of art and crafts which include a splendid Architectural art forms (Mahavihar, Chaityas,
Temples and Stupas), sculptures (bronze and stone made) and Paintings (manuscript and wall Paintings).

Pala period was last great phase of Buddhism:

 Various monasteries, such as Nalanda and Vikramsila were great centres of Buddhist learning, and art and
numerous manuscripts were illustrated here with Buddhist themes and images of Vajrayana Buddhist deities on
palm leaves.
 Pala’s patronised Buddhism as their state religion, temples during their period have roofs like Buddhist stupa
(Anda style) called Bangla roofs.
 They rejuvenated the Buddhist places destroyed by the Shashanka of Gaunda and Facilitate internationalisation
of Buddhism (king Saylendra of Java).
 Further, Pala dynasty also happens to be the last major ruling dynasty in India under which Buddhism received
state support patronage.
 After the fall of the Pala dynasty, Buddhism also rapidly declined in India.

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Features of Pal Art

Pal Art

Pain ngs Sculptural Art Forms

Architectural Art
(I). Manuscript (I). Bronze Sculptures
Forms
Painting (II). Stone Sculptures
(I). Mahaviharas,
(II). Wall Painting (III). Clay
(II). Chaityas,
Art(Terracota figures)
(III). Temples and
(IV). Stupas

Architectural Art Forms

In terms of architecture, Pal period was very important. In this many architectural art forms such as Mahavihar,
Chaityas, Temples and stupas were developed. To make these architectures burnt bricks were used.

I. Mahaviharas
 Mahaviharas were made during Pal rule mainly for residen al purposes for Buddhist monks. But Mahavihars also
served as important Buddhist educational centers.
 Mahaviharas were generally in rectangular in structure, which included an open courtyard in the middle. All around
the courtyard, porch/veranda was used to be made, in which gates of rooms were opened. Some Mahaviharas in
which gates of rooms were opened. Some Mahaviharas had double storeyed rooms and stairs for the 2nd storey
rooms were made in the courtyard.

II. Chaityas
 These were basically a kind of Buddhist temples. The tradition of building Chaityas were old but these got
diversification during Pal rule. Many remains of Chaityas can be found from different parts of Bihar.

III. Temples
 Although Pal rulers were Buddhist but they also made many temples of Hinduism. These temples were basically
made in the famous Nagar style. Some important examples of temples were:-
o Gufa Mandir, Kahalgaon (Bhagalpur)
o Vishnupad Mandir (Bodh Gaya) (Important feature of this temple is Ardh Mandap)

IV. Stupas
 Although culture of stupas were ancient but some stupas were also made during Pal period with slight
differentiation. Stupas contain the relics of Buddha and Bodhisatavas. Basically, stupas were made to hide the relics
of Buddha/Bodhisatavas inside them.

24
 Stupas had multiple parts, which include Yash , Chhatra, Harmika, Gumbad, Pradakshina Path, Vedika, and Toran
Dwar. The schematic diagram of Stupa is given below.

Paintings During Palas

During Palas, two forms of paintings were practiced. One is Manuscripts/ Miniature painting and the other is Wall
Painting/ Mural painting.

Manuscripts/ Miniature Pain ng

 Palas was considered the founder of the Miniature form of painting in India and established the Pala School of
Painting.
 Palm leaves were used to write manuscripts and, on these manuscripts, the painting was done along with the
text.
 Scenes from Buddha's life, as well as gods and goddesses from Mahayana sects, are shown in these paintings.
 Also, the Tantra's influence was clearly seen in these paintings.
 The primary colors used in these paintings are red, blue, black, and white.
 Astasahasrika-Prajnaparamita (The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand) and 'Panchraksh' are two important
miniature paintings. Both of these works of art are housed in the Cambridge Museum (England).
 Sinuous lines, delicate and nervous lines, sensuous elegance, linear and ornamental accents, and subtle colour
tones are all hallmarks of Pala art.
 Dhiman and his son Vitpala were great sculptors and painters of the Dharmapala and Devapala periods.

25
 At Buddhist centers such as Nalanda, Odantapuri, Vikramshila, and Somapura, a vast number of manuscripts on
palm-leaf relating to Buddhist subjects were composed and decorated with images of Buddhist deities.
 Students and pilgrims at these centers brought specimens of Pala Art back to their nations in the form of
manuscripts, which helped in spreading the Pala style to Nepal, Tibet, Burma, Sri Lanka, and Java.

Wall Pain ng/ Mural pain ng

 Wall paintings were also depicted on the walls of Mahavihara, Chaityas, temples, and other structures.
 Various figures such as animals, humans, flowers, birds, and trees were depicted in these paintings.
 Pala style is naturalistic, evoking the ideal shapes of contemporary bronze and stone sculpture while also evoking
a sense of Ajanta's classical art
 The wall painting discovered at Sarai Sthal (Nalanda) is one of the best specimens of Pala era’s wall paintings.
 In this painting, a woman may be seen applying make-up while looking into a mirror. This picture depicts both
human emotions and art at the same time.
 The influence of Ajanta and Bagh painting may be seen because the methods of creating images and painting are
extremely similar.
 Although the artwork has faded, certain images such as elephants, horses, dancers, and Bodhisattvas can still be
seen.

Sculptural art
Besides architectural and painting art forms. Sculptural art also got phenomenal development. mainly three types of
sculptural art is found from Pal period i.e.
 Bronze Sculptures
 Stone Sculptures
 Terraco a

Bronze Sculptures
 These are made up of bronze using molds. One of the main characteristic features of these sculpture were
excellent ornamentation used in them. Another important feature of these sculptures was that they were plain
from behind despite being ornamented and decorated from front.
 Dhiman and Vithpal were two important sculptors of Nalanda, they were contemporary of Dharma
Pal and Devpal (Pal rulers).
 Bronze sculptures are found in large numbers from Kulkihar (Gaya), Nalanda and Sultanganj. These sculptures can
be compared with the aesthetics of the Natraj sculptures of Chola Empire.
 These sculptures were mainly religious in nature, which include sculptures various god and goddesses of Hindus
and Buddhists. Important examples of this sculpture style were of Buddha, Vishnu, Balram, Bodhisatavas etc.

Stone Sculptures
 Besides Bronze sculptures, sculptures were also made out of stones. The stones used for making these sculptures
were mainly basalt. Which were brought from either Munger or Santhal Pargana.
 Similar to bronze sculptures, ornamentation was also done in stone-made sculptures.

Terraco a During Palas

 During the Pala period, terracotta (earthenware) was developed in artistic and attractive shapes.
 This work was created with the intention of being decorative particularly to make the walls more adorable.
 Along with depictions of religious issues, the artists have picked subjects from people's ordinary lives.
 Beautiful and artistic clay images from the Buddha period have been discovered.

26
 Along with Buddha and Bodhisattvas, many images of Hindu gods such as Vishnu, Sun and Hanuman were also
depicted in Terracotta.
 The ruins of Vikramshila Mahavihara have yielded some significant findings.
 The drawing on a wooden plate depicting a lady sitting in a posture with a mirror in her hands, beholding herself
in the mirror, is an amazing example of creative beauty.
 The terracotta plaques discovered in Paharpur (Bihar) are excellent examples of the Pala period's art.
 These plaques, which are mostly utilized for wall surface decorating, have been recognized as a one-of-a-kind
masterpiece by Bengal painters.
 The Pala period is without a doubt when clay art reached its pinnacle.

Critical Analysis of Pal Art

 Architectures in Pal period were generally made out of burnt Bricks instead of stones and rocks, which resulted
into lesser permanence and availability now.
 Sculptures of Pal art were plain from behind and only focus was on front.
 Ornamentation was heavily used in the Pal sculptures, which hide the real beauty of the sculptures.
 In Pal art religious aspects had more prominence that social, cultural and political aspects.

Conclusion
During the reign of the Pala kings, a variety of art and architecture flourished. These were mahaviharas, chaityas,
temples, terracottas, stupas, and paintings. Despite the tripartite fight for control of Kannauj between the Palas,
Rashtrakutas, and Pratihars, numerous art forms flourished during the Pal era. This period is regarded as the 'Golden
Age' in Bengal's history and the development of art & architecture is a major factor behind this along with the
political stability of Palas.

27
7) Gupta Architecture

Expected Question
 Write a short note on Gupta Architecture.

Gupta architecture is a representation of the people's strong religious convictions during the time. The "Golden
Period of Indian Architecture" is typically referred to as the beginning of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century
A.D. While the older Gupta monarchs were Buddhists who preserved Buddhist architectural traditions, temple
building rose to prominence under the patronage of the later Gupta rulers who were Hindus. Similarly, during the
Gupta period, Buddhist and Jain art achieved their pinnacle.

Gupta Architecture
 The beginning of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century A.D. is considered the "Golden Period of Indian
Architecture."
 Temple construction gained prominence under the sponsorship of the later Gupta rulers, who were Hindus.
 While the early Gupta kings were Buddhists who conserved Buddhist architectural traditions, temple building
rose to prominence under the patronage of the later Gupta rulers, who were Hindus.
 The Gupta kings were Brahmanical rulers, especially in the later phases. They, on the other hand, displayed
exceptional tolerance for all other religions.
 Vishnu was worshipped in the northern and central parts of India, Shiva in the southern section, and Shakti in the
eastern part of India, as well as on the Malabar coast or in the south-west.

Cave Architecture
 The architectural development of caves remained consistent during the Gupta period.
 The utilisation of mural paintings on the cave walls, on the other hand, became an extra element.
 The caves of Ajanta and Ellora have some of the best examples of mural art.
 Ajanta is a group of rock-cut caves near Aurangabad, Maharashtra, amid the Sahyadri ranges on the Waghora
River.
 There are 29 caves in all, 25 of which were utilised as Viharas (residence caves) and 4 of which were used
as Chaitya (prayer halls).
 Between 200 B.C. and 650 A.D the caves were constructed.
 The Buddhist monks inscribed the Ajanta caves under the patronage of the Vakataka rulers, one of them was
Harishena.
 The figures in these caves were painted with frescoes and exhibited a high level of naturalism. The colours were
created from local plants and minerals.
 The paintings' outlines were painted in red, and then the insides were painted.
 The absence of blue in the paintings is one of the most remarkable elements.
 Another famous cave architecture site is Ellora Caves.

28
 It is almost 100 kilometres from the Ajanta caves in Maharashtra's Sahyadri hills. It consists of 34 caves, 17 of
which are Brahmanical, 12 Buddhist, and 5 Jain.
 These caves were built by numerous guilds from Vidarbha, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu between the 5th and 11th
centuries A.D. (they are newer than the Ajanta Caves).
 As a result, in terms of topic and architectural styles, the caves represent a natural diversity.
 A set of nine Buddhist caves formed around the 6th century A.D. on the bank of the Bagh river in Madhya
Pradesh.
 It has a similar architectural style to the Ajanta caves.
 These are Buddhist caves located in Gujarat's Junagadh region. Although there are no caves here, three separate
places can be located.
 Khapra Kodiya, Baba Pyare, and Uparkot are the three sites found.
 The presence of a 30-50 ft high fortress known as "Upar Kot" in front of the prayer hall is a distinctive feature of
the Junagadh caves.
 "Pandav Leni" refers to a series of 24 Buddhist caves in Nasik. They were created in the first century A.D. during
the Hinayana period.
 Later, though, the Mahayana sect's impact may be seen in these caves.
 His presence is expressed in the Hinayana sect through the usage of motifs and symbols such as the throne and
footprints.
 Later on, Buddha idols were sculpted inside these caves, indicating Mahayana Buddhism's impact.
 The site also shows a superb water management system, as evidenced by the presence of water tanks carved out
of solid rock.
 It is also known as Montperir Caves, located in Borivali, near Mumbai, and was built as a Brahmanical cave during
the late Gupta dynasty.
 It was later transformed into a Christian cave, however.
 Sculptures of Natraja, Sada Shiva, and Ardhanarishwara can be seen among the site's ruins.
 Above the cave, precincts are the church and its graveyard.

29
 Caves of Udayagiri (not to be confused with Odisha's Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves). It's in Madhya Pradesh's
Vidisha district.
 It was built under the patronage of Chandragupta II in the early fifth century AD and is known for its numerous
sculptures on the hill walls.
 Varaha, or Vishnu's Boar incarnation, is a renowned sculpture.
 One of the earliest Hindu sculptures may be found in the caverns.

Stupas
The development of stupas slowed during the Gupta period.
However, the Dhamek stupa in Sarnath, near Varanasi, is an excellent example of a stupa built during this time.
Dhamek Stupa
 The Dhamek Stupa is a huge stupa in Sarnath.
 After reaching enlightenment, the Buddha is claimed to have given his first sermon to his first five students, led
by Kaundinya, revealing his Eightfold Path leading to nirvana at the Dhamek Stupa.

Sculptures
 Sarnath School of Sculpture, which sprang up near Sarnath, was added to the list.
 Many Buddha pictures in Sarnath have plain translucent drapery covering both shoulders and a sparsely
ornamented halo around the head, whereas the Mathura Buddha images retain the folds of the drapery and the
halo around the head is lavishly embellished.
 Sultanganj Buddha is a notable example (7.5ft in height).

Temple Architecture
The beginning of Indian temple architecture may be traced back to the Gupta dynasty.
There were manuals created on how to build temples.
The Gupta temples were divided into five categories:
1) Kankali Devi temple in Tigawa and the Vishnu Varaha temples in Eran are examples of square buildings with flat
roofs and shallow pillared porches.
o For the first time, the sanctum or cella (garbhagriha) of a temple with a single entrance and a porch
(Mandapa) appears.
2) An extension of the previous form with the addition of an ambulatory (pradakshina) surrounding the shrine,
often a second level;
o Examples include the Shiva temple in Bhumara, and the ladkhan at Aihole.
o Parva temple in Nachna Kuthara is another notable example.
3) The Dashavatara temple (Deogarh Jhansi) and the brick temple at Bhitargaon Kanpur are famous examples of
the square temple with a low and squat tower (shikhara) above; pillared approach, a high platform at the base.
o The "Curvilinear tower," or "Shikhara," was the most remarkable achievement of this stage.
o Temple construction in the "Nagara Style" is regarded to be the third stage's triumph.
4) The Kapoteswara temple in Cezarla (Krishna district) is a rectangular temple with an apsidal back and barrel-
vaulted roof above.

30
5) Circular temples with shallow rectangular projections on the four cardinal faces; the Maniyar Math shrine in
Rajgir, Bihar, is the sole monument that exemplifies the form.

Conclusion
Between 320 to 550 CE, the Gupta Empire ruled over northern, central, and southern India. The achievements in the
arts, architecture, sciences, religion, and philosophy are well-known during this time period. Chandragupta I (320–
335 CE) began the Gupta Empire's rapid development and quickly established himself as the empire's first
autonomous ruler. It signalled the end of 500 centuries of regional power dominance and the resulting unrest, which
began with the Maurya’s fall. It marked the start of a period of overall wealth and expansion that lasted for the
following two and a half centuries and was known as India's Golden Age.

31
 8) Temple Architecture

Previous Year Question

 Analyze the development of temples in North India in ancient times. (68 BPSC/2023)
Expected Question
 Write a short note on
o North Indian temples
o Buddha Architecture
o South Indian Architecture
o Vesara Temple Architecture

Introduction
 Most of the architectural remains that survive from Ancient and Medieval India are religious in nature.
 In different parts of the country, distinct architectural style of temples was result of geographical, ethnic and
historical diversities.
 Two broad orders of temples in the country are known as Nagara in the north and Dravida in the south.
 At times, the Vesara style of temples is also found as an independent style, created through the selective mixing
of the Nagara and Dravida orders.
 As temples grew more complex, more surfaces were created for sculpture by adding more and more rhythmically
projecting, symmetrical walls and niches, without breaking away from the fundamental plan of the shrine.

Central India
 In the later periods, the temples grew from simple four pillared structures to a large complex.
 This means that similar developments were incorporated in the architecture of temples of both the religions.
 Two such temples that survive are; temple at Udaygiri which is on the outskirts of Vidisha (it is a part of a large
Hindu temple complex) and a temple at Sanchi, which was a Buddhist site.
 The early temples were modest looking shrines each have four pillars that support a small mandapa before an
equally small room that served as garbhagriha.
 Some of the oldest surviving structural temples of Gupta period are in Madhya Pradesh.
 The ancient temple sin UP, MP and Rajasthan share many traits and the most visible is that they are made
of Sandstone.
 Kandariya Mahadeo temple at Khajuraho is the epitome of temple architecture in Central India.

Nagara or North Indian Temple Style

 In North India it is common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform with steps leading up to it.
 Further, unlike in South India it does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
 While the earliest temples had just one tower, or shikhara, later temples had several.
 The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.
 There are many subdivisions of nagara temples depending on the shape of the shikhara.
 There are different names for the various parts of the temple in different parts of India; however, the most
common name for the simple shikhara which is square at the base and whose walls curve or slope inward to a
point on top is called the 'latina' or the rekha-prasada type of shikara.
 The second major type of architectural form in the nagara order is the phamsana, which tends to be broader and
shorter than latina ones.

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 o Their roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre of the building,
unlike the latina ones which look like sharply rising tall towers.
 The third main sub-type of the nagara building is generally called the valabhi type.
o These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.

Nagara Style of Temple Architecture

Central India West India East India

Examples: The Hills

Examples: Examples: Sun
Dasavatara Sun Temple,
Temple,
Vishnu Temple Konark Odisha
Modhera,
Jagganath
Temples at Gujarat
Temple, Puri
Khajraho, Odisha
Madhya
Pradesh

Westen Indian Temples

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 The temples in the north-western parts of India including Gujarat and Rajasthan, and in western Madhya Pradesh
are large in numbers.
 The stone used to build the temples ranges in colour and type.
 While sandstone is the commonest, a grey to black basalt can be seen in some of the 10th to 12th century
temple sculptures.
 The most exuberant and famed is the manipulatable soft white marble which is also seen in some of the 10th-
12th century Jain temples in Mount Abu and the 15th century temple at Ranakpur.
 Among the most important art-historical sites in the region is Samlaji in Gujarat.
 The Sun temple at Modhera dates back to the early 11th century and was built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki
Dynasty in 1026.
o There is a massive rectangular stepped tank called the surya kund in front of it, perhaps the grandest temple
tank in India.
o Every year, at the time of the equinoxes, the sun shines directly into this central shrine of the temple.

Eastern Indian temples

 Eastern Indian temples include those found in the North East, Bengal and Odisha.
 It appears that terracotta was the main medium of construction, and also for moulding plaques which depicted
Buddhist and Hindu deities in Bengal until the 7th century.
 Assam: An old sixth-century sculpted door frame from Dah Parvatia near Tezpur and another few stray sculptures
from Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia in Assam bear witness to the import of the Gupta idiom in that region.

 By the 12th-14th centuries, a distinct regional style developed in Assam.

o The style that came with the migration of the Tais from Upper Burma mixed with the dominant Pala style of
Bengal and led to the creation of what was later known as the Ahom style in and around Guwahati.

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 Kamakhya temple, a Shakti Peeth, is dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya and was built in the 17th century in Assam.
 Bengal: The style of the sculptures during the period between the ninth and eleventh centuries in Bengal
(including Bangladesh) and Bihar is known as the Pala style, named after the ruling dynasty at the time.
 While the style of those of the mid-eleventh to mid-thirteenth centuries is named after the Sena kings.
 While the Palas are celebrated as patrons of many Buddhist monastic sites, the temples from that region are
known to express the local Vanga style.
 The 9th century Siddheshvara Mahadeva Temple in Barakar in Burdwan District, for example, shows a tall curving
shikhara crowned by a large amalaka and is an example of the early Pala style.
 The black to grey basalt and chlorite stone pillars and arched niches of Purlia temples heavily influenced the
earliest Bengal sultanate buildings at Gaur and Pandua.
 In the Mughal period and later, scores of terracotta brick temples were built across Bengal and Bangladesh in a
unique style that had elements of local building techniques seen in bamboo huts.

Hill Temples
 A unique form of architecture developed in the hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and Kashmir.
 Kashmir’s proximity to prominent Gandhara sites (such as Taxila, Peshawar and the northwest frontier) lent the
region a strong Gandhara influence by the 5th century CE.
 This began to mix with the Gupta and post-Gupta traditions that were

brought to it from Sarnath, Mathura and even centres in Gujarat and Bengal.
 Brahmin pundits and Buddhist monks frequently travelled between Kashmir, Garhwal, Kumaon and religious
centres in the plains like Banaras, Nalanda and even as far south as Kanchipuram.
 As a result both Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to intermingle and spread in the hills.
 The hills also had their own tradition of wooden buildings with pitched roofs.

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 At several places in the hills, while the main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in a rekha-prasada or latina
style, the mandapa is of an older form of wooden architecture.
 Sometimes, the temple itself takes on a pagoda shape.
 The Karkota period of Kashmir is the most significant in terms of architecture.
 One of the most important temples is Pandrethan, built during the 8th and 9th centuries.
o In keeping with the tradition of a water tank attached to the shrine, this temple is built on a plinth built in the
middle of a tank.
 Like the findings at Samlaji, the sculptures at Chamba also show an amalgamation of local traditions with a post
Gupta style.
 The images of Mahishasuramardini and Narasimha at the Laksna-Devi Mandir are evidences of the influence of
the post-Gupta tradition.
 Of the temples in Kumaon, the ones at Jageshwar near Almora, and Champavat near Pithoragarh, are classic
examples of nagara architecture in the region.

Dravida style of temple architecture

The Dravidian style of temple architecture of South India was pioneered by the Pallavas who reigned in parts of
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and northern Tamil Nadu until the ninth century. Although they were mostly Shaivite,
several Vaishnava shrines also survived from their reign.
The early buildings are generally attributed to the reign of Mahendravarman I, a contemporary of the Chalukyan king,
Pulakesin II of Karnataka. Narasimhavarman I, also known as Mamalla, who acceded the Pallava throne around 640
CE, is celebrated for his architectural works.

The main features of this style of temple architecture are:

 The Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
 The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as a Gopuram.
 The shape of the main temple tower known as vimana in Tamil Nadu is like a stepped pyramid that rises up
geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of North India.
 In the South Indian temple, the word ‘shikhara’ is used only for the crowning element at the top of the
temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola— this is equivalent to the amalak and
kalasha of North Indian temples.
 Fierce Dvarapalas or the door-keepers guarding the temple adorn the entrance to garbhagriha
 It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the complex.
 At some of the most sacred temples in South India, the main temple in which the garbhagriha is situated has, in
fact, one of the smallest towers. This is because it is usually the oldest part of the temple
o It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the complex.
o Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower, or located as distinct, separate
small shrines beside the main temple
o Kailashnath temple at Ellora is a famous example of a temple built in complete Dravidian style

Classifica on of Dravidian temples:

 Just as there are many subdivisions of the main types of Nagara temples, there are subdivisions also of Dravida
temples.
 These are basically of five different shapes: square, usually called kuta, and also caturasra; rectangular or shala or
ayatasra; elliptical, called Gaja-Prishta or elephant-backed, or also called vrittayata, deriving from wagon-vaulted
shapes of apsidal chaityas with a horse-shoe shaped entrance facade usually called a nasi; circular or vritta;
and octagonal or ashtasra

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 The above classification is a simplistic one since several different shapes may be combined in specific periods and
places to create their own unique style.

Famous Dravidian temples in India

 The magnificent Shiva temple of Thanjavur, called the Rajarajeswara or Brihadeshwara temple, built in the
Dravidian style was completed around 1009 by Rajaraja Chola, and is the largest and tallest of all Indian temples
 Other famous Dravidian temples in the south are- Annamalaiyar Temple in Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu,
Meenakshi temple, Tamil Nadu, Airavatesvara temple etc

The contribu on of Pallavas to Dravidian architecture

 In the south the Pallavas created beautiful monuments in th 7th CE AD
 Mahendravarman and his son Narasimhavarman were great patrons of art and architecture (Their contribution
to rock-cut architecture will be discussed elsewhere)
 The shore temple at Mahabalipuram was built later, probably in the reign of Narasimhavarman II, also known as
Rajasimha. It has shrines dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu

The contribu on of Cholas to Dravidian architecture

 The Cholas perfected the Dravidian temple style inherited from the Pallavas. During this time, the architecture
style became more elaborate by moving away from the early cave temples of the Pallavas
 Stone came to be used as the predominant material for the construction of the temples during this time
 Gopurams became more prominent. They were decorated with carvings representing various Puranas
 The Vimanas attained a greater grandeur during the Chola period. Ex: The temple tower of Brihadeshwara
temple is 66 metres
 Greater emphasis was given for the use of sculptures in the construction of the temple

The Vesara or the Deccan Temple Architecture

 The buildings in the Deccan region are hybridized style, which contains both elements from nagara
and Dravida architectural styles and is known in some ancient texts as the Vesara style (not all temples of Deccan
are the vesara type).
 The vesara style became popular after the mid 7th century.
 Famous temples built with this style include: Kallesvara temple, Kukkanur; Ramalingesvara temple,
Gudur; Mahadeva temple, Ittagi; Kasivisvesvara temple, Lakkundi (and several other temples at
Lakkundi); Brahmadeva temple, Savadi – notable for being fully stellate; Mallikarjuna temple, Sudi (and Joda-
kalasha temple)

Buddhist and Jain Architectural Developments

The period of 5th to 14th centuries was not only the period of the development of Hindu temples but also were the
equally vibrant period for the Buddhist and Jain architectures.

Buddhist Architecture
 When the Gupta empire crumbled in the 6th century CE, the eastern region of Bihar and Bengal, historically
known as Magadha, appears to have remained unified whilst numerous small Rajput principalities sprang up to
the west.
 In the 8th century, the Palas came to power in the region.
 The 2nd Pala ruler, Dharmapala, became immensely powerful and established an empire by defeating the
powerful Rajput Pratiharas.

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 Dharmapala consolidated an empire whose wealth lay in a consolidation of agriculture along the fertile Ganges
plain and international trade.

Bodhgaya, Bihar:
 Bodhgaya became a pilgrimage site since Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here and became Gautama
Buddha.
 The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya is an important reminder of the brickwork of that time.
 The first shrine here, located at the base of the Bodhi Tree, is said to have been constructed by King Ashoka.
 The vedika (fence) around it is said to be Post-Mauryan, of about 100 BCE.
 Many sculptures in the temple are dated to the 8th century Pala period.
 The actual Mahabodhi temple as it stands now is largely a colonial period reconstruction of the old 7th
 The design of the temple is unusual and is neither Dravida nor nagara style.

Nalanda, Bihar:
 The monastic University of Nalanda is a Mahavihara as it is a complex of several monasteries of various sizes.
 Only a small portion of this ancient learning centre has been excavated till date, as most of it lies buried under
contemporary civilization, making further excavations almost impossible.
 Most of the information about Nalanda is based on the records of Xuan Zang/Hsuan Tsang (Chinese traveller).
 It states that the foundation of the monastery was laid by Kumaragupta I in the 5th century CE.
 All three Buddhist doctrines – Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana – were taught here.
 Monks came to here from the different regions of the world such as China, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, etc.
 Monks and pilgrims who came here take back small sculptures and illustrated manuscripts to their homeland,
which resulted in a decisive impact on the arts of the Buddhist countries in Asia.
 The sculptural art of Nalanda was developed out of a heavy dependence on the Buddhist Gupta art of Sarnath.
 The Sculptures were mainly made in stucco, stone, and bronze.
 By the 9th century, Nalanda school of sculpture was formed which was characterized by distinctive facial
features, body forms, and treatment of clothing and jewellery.
 The Nalanda sculptures initially depict Buddhist deities of the Mahayana tradition, such as standing Buddhas,
bodhisattvas, etc.
 During the 11th and 12th centuries, Nalanda emerged as an important tantric centre and the sculptures during
that period dominated by deities of Vajrayana tradition, such as Vajrasharada (a form of Saraswati), Khasarpana,
Avalokiteswara, etc.
 Various Brahmanical images have also been found at Nalanda.

Jain Architecture
 Jains were also prolific temple builders like Hindus and their sacred shrines and pilgrimage spots can be found
across the country.
 The oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are to be found in Bihar.
 In the Deccan, some of the most architecturally important Jain sites can be found at Ellora and Aihole.
 Karnataka has a rich heritage of Jain shrines and the Sravana Belagola, the famous statue of
the Gomateswara, the granite statue of Lord Bahubali which stands eighteen metre, is the world’s tallest
monolithic free-standing structure.
 It was commissioned by Camundaraya, the General-in-Chief and Prime Minister of the Ganga Kings of Mysore.
 Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since early times.
 The Jain temples at Mount Abu (Dilwara Temples) were constructed by Vimal Shah.
 One can see a complex of temples carved of white marble
 The temples are famous for its unique patterns on very ceilings, and graceful bracket figs along the domed
ceiling.
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 9) Cave Architecture in Ancient India

Previous Year Questions

 Development of caves in eastern India in ancient times.(68 BPSC/2023)
Expected Questions
 Write short notes on Cave Architecture in Ancient India.
 Write short notes on the following
o Shivleni caves
o Udaygiri and Khandagiri caves

Cave architecture is also known as Rock-cut architecture. The rock-cut architecture is a type of Rock Art in which a
structure is created by carving it out of solid natural rock. The cave architecture in India is believed to have begun
during the ancient time. These caves were used by Buddhist and Jain monks as places of worship and dwelling.
Initially the caves were excavated in the western India.
Indian rock-cut architecture is more diverse and abundant than any other type of rock building seen around the
world (more than 1,500 rock-cut structures in India). The Mauryans were masters of cave architecture and are
credited as being the forefathers of rock-cut cave architecture. Some examples of this type of cave structure
are Chaityas and Viharas of Buddhists. The great cave at Karle is also one such example, where great Chaityas and
Viharas were excavated by hewing out rocks.

Cave tradition in Eastern India

 Buddhist caves have been discovered in eastern India, primarily in the coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh and
Odisha, similar to those found in western India.
 Guntapalle in the Eluru district is one of the most important places in Andhra Pradesh.
 Guntapalle is one of the few locations where structural stupas, viharas, and caverns have all been unearthed in
one location.
 Rampa Yerrampalem, in addi on to Guntapalle, is an important loca on.
 A massive rock-cut stupa was carved out of the hillock in Anakapalli, near Visakhapatnam, during the 4th-5th
century CE.
 It is a remarkable location since it contains the country's largest rock-cut stupas.
 The Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves in Odisha are another notable cave location.
 These caverns are distributed around the area and contain inscriptions from the Kaharvela Kings.
 The caves were intended for Jain monks, according to the inscription.
 Numerous single-cell excavations can be seen here.
 The upper half of the cell is embellished with a succession of Chaitya arches and legends that are still told in the
region's folklore.

Cave tradition in western India

 Many Buddhist caves dating back to the second century BCE have been discovered in western India.
 Chaitya hall with the apsidal vaulted roof (found at Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja)
 A quadrangular hall with a circular chamber at the back and a flat roof (found at Kondivite)
 A stupa is found in the back of all chaitya caves.
 Karla, Maharashtra, has the world's largest rock-cut chaitya hall.
 Viharas have been discovered in all of the caverns.

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 The vihara's layout consists of a veranda, a hall, and cells surrounding the hall's walls.
 Interior decorative themes such as chaitya arches and vedika decorations over the cave's cell entrances can be
found in many early vihara caves.
 Later on, a stupa was erected to the back of the vihara, and it was renamed Chaitya-Vihara.
 Junnar (Maharashtra) has the most cave excavations, with more than 200 caves around the town's hills,
whereas Kanheri (Mumbai) has 138 caves explored.
 The caves were previously thought to belong to the orthodox Buddhist faith, Theravadins, due to the lack of
Buddha pictures.
 However, the discovery of a Konkan Maurya inscription stating the Saka era 322 (400CE) has now proven
conclusively that cave activity in western India existed.
 Many caverns have been turned into modern Hindu sanctuaries and have become popular worship locations.

Types of Caves
 Buddhist caves
 Hindu caves
 Jain caves

Buddhist Caves

 Some of the finest examples of cave architecture can be found in the ancient Buddhist caves. The greater chunk
of around 1200 surviving cave temples is Buddhist.
 The topography of the Western Ghats including the deep ravines, the sharp rocky exposures and horizontal
basalt hill tops naturally drew the Buddhist monks to the region where they employed the caves as shelters and
shrines.
 From 200 BCE to 650 AD the Buddhist monks kept on occupying the earliest Kanheri Caves situated inside the
forests of the ‘Sanjay Gandhi National Park’ in Maharashtra, India, that were excavated out of a huge basaltic
rock outcropping during the 1st and 2nd centuries B.C. as also the earliest Ajanta caves dating back to the 2nd
century BCE.
 The earliest caves comprising of cave temples that are associated with Buddhism include the Karla Caves, the
Kanheri Caves, the Bhaja Caves, the Bedsa Caves and the Ajanta Caves.
 Ideology of Buddhism encourages association with trade and commerce and early involvement of the Buddhists
with traders probably influenced them to locate their monastic establishments in close proximity to major trade
routes. All Buddhist caves are thus located near important trade routes and remained stopovers for many
travelling traders. Commissioned by some of these wealthy traders the interiors of the caves gradually became
more enhanced and elaborate. These included sectionalising areas for specific purposes like the viharas and
chaityas and embellishing the areas with fine carvings, reliefs and paintings.
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 Some caves also included elaborate facades, arches and pillars. The Buddhist chaityas and viharas stand as
examples of early cave structures. While the viharas were residential areas of the monks, the
congregational worship was conducted in the cave shrines known as chaityas.
 Buddhist architecture saw a second phase that started in the 5th century AD. The most prominent aspect of
architectural design that emerged during this period was introduction of the image of Lord Buddha. Huge statues
of Lord Buddha in various postures as also Jataka stories and deities associated with Buddhism in the form of
paintings and carvings found place on the stupas. Sculptures associated with Buddhism were also introduced in
the viharas.

Hindu Caves
 The Hindu caves that are located at different places across India are sort of extensions of Buddhist
cave architecture with of course certain alterations in architecture and design suiting the Hindu customs and
traditions.
 The phase of excavation of these caves is from 4th century AD to 8th century AD.
 Themes from great Hindu epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata are depicted in the structures.

Jain Caves
 Although it is difficult to trace the earliest phase of Jain cave architecture, it is generally considered to be
between 6th century AD and 12th century AD.
 The highly embellished sculptures of these caves illustrate the tales of Tirthankaras of Jain Pantheon.
 Elaborately painted ceilings are found in some Jain caves like the ones in Ellora in Maharashtra and Sittanavasal in
Tamil Nadu.

Saptaparni Cave
believe it to be the site in which Buddha spent
some time before his death, and where the first
Buddhist council was held after Buddha died
(paranirvana).
 It is here that a council of few hundred monks
decided to appoint Ananda (Buddha’s cousin) and
Upali, believed to have a good memory and who
had accompanied the Buddha when he gave
sermons in north India, to compose Buddha’s
teachings for the future generations.
 Saptparni Cave, also referred to as Sapta parni  The Buddha never wrote down his teachings. After
guha (Saraiki) or sattapaṇṇi guhā (Pali), literally the Saptaparni Caves meeting, Ananda created an
Seven-leaves-cave is a Buddhist cave site about 2 oral tradition of Buddha’s teaching from his
kilometres (1.2 mi) southwest from Rajgir, Bihar. memory, prefacing it with “Thus have I heard on
 It is embedded in a hill. The Saptaparni Cave is one occassion”.
important in the Buddhist tradition, because many  Upali is credited with reciting the Nikaya discipline
or “rules for the Bhikshus”.

Barabar Caves
 The Barabar Hill Caves are the oldest surviving Jehanabad district, Bihar, 24 km (15 mi) north of
rock-cut caves in India, dating from the Maurya Gaya.
Empire (322–185 BCE), some with Ashokan  These caves are situated in the twin hills of
inscriptions, located in the Makhdumpur region of Barabar (four caves) and Nagarjuni (three caves);

41
 caves of the 1.6 km (0.99 mi)-distant Nagarjuni Hill was to be an important feature of Indian rock-cut
are sometimes singled out as the Nagarjuni Caves. architecture and sculptural decoration for
 These rock-cut chambers bear dedicatory centuries. The form was clearly a reproduction in
inscriptions in the name of “King Piyadasi” for the stone of buildings in wood and other plant
Barabar group, and “Devanampiya Dasaratha” for materials.
the Nagarjuni group, thought to date back to the
3rd century BCE during the Maurya period, and
to correspond respectively to Ashoka (reigned
273–232 BCE) and his grandson, Dasharatha
Maurya.
 The caves of Barabar Hill are the world’s oldest
rock-cut caves. These caves were carved out of
a single piece of solid granite.
 The sculptured surround to the entrance to the
Lomas Rishi Cave is the earliest survival of the
ogee shaped “chaitya arch” or chandrashala that

Caves at Barabar Hill:

 Barabar Hill contains four caves: Karan Chaupar, Lomas Rishi, Sudama and Visvakarma.
 Sudama and Lomas Rishi are the earliest examples of rock-cut architecture in India, with architectural detailing
made in the Mauryan period. Similar examples include the larger Buddhist Chaitya, found in Maharashtra, such
as in Ajanta and Karla Caves. The Barabar caves greatly influenced the tradition of rock-cut architecture in the
Indian subcontinent.

Nagarjuni Caves
 The nearby caves of Nagarjuni hill were built few decades later than the Barabar caves, and consecrated
by Dasaratha Maurya, Ashoka’s grandson and successor, each for the Ajivikas sect. They are 1.6 kilometers east
of the Barabar Caves.
 There are three caves excavated in the Nagarjuna Hills – the Vadathi-ka-Kubha (Vedathika Kubha), the Vapiya-ka-
Kubha (Mirza Mandi), and the Gopi-ka-Kubha.
 Largest Cave: Gopi cave or Milkmaid’s cave
 Gopi (Gopi-ka-Kubha, milkmaid) is a cave reached by stepping up a flight of megalithic steps. It has got the largest
chamber in the group. The cave contains several important inscriptions, some of these testify that son of Ashoka
– Dasaratha (reigned in 232 – 224 BC) – has devoted these caves to Ajivika – thus these structures might be some
50 years younger than caves at Barabar. The cave is 12.3 m long and 5.8 m wide, both ends of the chamber are
semi-circular. The roof is vaulted, up to 3.2 m high. This cave has polished walls and floor – the famous “Mauryan
polish”.
 North from Nagarjuna Cave there is the second cave – Mirza Mandi (house of Mirza). Next to it, there is a dry
well – this can explain the other name of it – Vahiyaka, Vapuiyaka Kubha, Vapya-ka-Kubha – “cave of the well”.
Nearby there are remnants of several buildings – possibly viharas – Buddhist shrines.
 The cave contains inscription: “The Vahiyaka Cave was assigned by Dasaratha, immediately after his consecration,
to the venerable Ajivikas. Other caves have similar inscriptions, just the name of the cave is different.

Pitalkhora Caves
 The Pitalkhora Caves, in the Satmala range of the Western Ghats of Maharashtra, are an ancient Buddhist site
consisting of 14 rock-cut cave monuments which date back to the third century BCE, making them one of the
earliest examples of rock-cut architecture in India.

42
 Located about 40 kilometers from Ellora, the site is reached by a steep climb down a flight of concrete stairs, past
a waterfall next to the caves.
 The caves are cut in a variety of basalt rock, but some of the caves have crumbled and are damaged. Out of the
14, four are chaityas (one housing votive stupas, one apsidal and single-cell) and the rest are viharas.
 All the caves belong to the Early Buddhist schools period, but the reasonably well preserved paintings are of the
Mahayana period.
 The caves are in two groups, one of 10 caves and the second of four. It is believed that Pitalkhora can be
identified with Ptolemy’s “Petrigala” as well as the “Pitangalya” of Mahamayuri, a Buddhist chronicle. The
inscriptions date from c. 250 BCE to the 3rd and 4th centuries CE.
 The site shows statues of elephants, two soldiers of which one is intact, a damaged Gaja Lakshmi icon, and an
ancient rainwater harvesting system. These caves have been significant in helping establish the chronology of
cave building in the Ajanta-Ellora region.

Kondana Caves (Raigarh, Maharashtra)

 The Kondana Caves are located in the small village of Kondana, 33 km north of Lonavala and 16 km northwest of
Karla Caves.
 This cave group has 16 Buddhist caves. The caves were excavated in first century B.C. The construction on
wooden pattern is notable.
 The cave only one inscription on the front of the Chaitya, which gives information about donors.

Bhaja Caves
 Bhaja Caves is a group of 22 rock-cut caves dating back to the 2nd century BC located in the city of Pune.
 It belongs to the Early Buddhist schools in Maharashtra. The caves have a number of stupas, one of their
significant features. The most prominent excavation is its chaitya (or chaityagrha – Cave XII), a good example of
the early development of this form from wooden architecture, with a vaulted horseshoe ceiling.
 Its vihara (Cave XVIII) has a pillared verandah in front and is adorned with unique reliefs. These caves are notable
for their indications of the awareness of wooden architecture.
 The Bhaja Caves share architectural design with the Karla Caves. The most impressive monument is the large
shrine — chaityagriha — with an open, horseshoe-arched entrance.

Karle Caves
 The Karla Caves, also known as the Karli Caves, Karle Caves, or Karla Cells, are a group of ancient Buddhist rock-
cut caves in Karli, Maharashtra.
 It is just 10.9 Kilometers away from Lonavala. Other caves in the area are Bhaja Caves, Patan Buddhist Cave,
Bedse Caves and Nasik Caves.
 The shrines were built over a long period of time, from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE. The oldest of
the cave shrines is said to have been built around 160 BCE, near a significant ancient trade route that ran
eastward from the Arabian Sea into the Deccan.
 The first sacred Karla Cave was a natural cave, but after that, it was followed by man-made caves.
 The caves were traditionally linked to the Mahasanghika Buddhist sect, which enjoyed widespread popularity and
financial support in this part of India.
 A Buddhist monastery from the 2nd century BC is housed in the caves.
 This cave, the largest in South Asia, was built between 50 and 70 CE and 120 CE, under the reign
of Western Satraps ruler Nahapana, who documented the cave’s dedication in an inscription.
 The Karla group is one of the older and smaller of Maharashtra’s many rock-cut Buddhist sites, but it is one of the
most well-known because of the famous “Grand Chaitya“.

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 o It is “the largest and most completely preserved” chaitya hall of the period, as well as containing an unusual
amount of fine sculpture, much of it on a large scale.
 The caves were built with the help of several tradesmen and Satavahana rulers.
 Buddhist monastic facilities tended to be located in natural geographic formations close to main trade routes to
provide lodging places for traveling traders, having become connected with commerce and manufacture through
their early involvement with traders.

Kanheri Caves
 Kanheri Caves are a collection of more than 100 Buddhist caves nestled among the tranquil surroundings
of Mumbai’s Sanjay Gandhi National Park in Borivali. Kanheri, also known as Krishnagiri or Kanhagiri in ancient
inscriptions, literally means “black mountain” (Krishna means “black” and Giri means “mountain”) and is named
after a black basaltic stone.
 These caves include Buddhist sculptures, relief carvings, paintings, and inscriptions ranging from the 1st century
BC to the 11th century AD.
 The Western Ghats’ topography, combined with political patronage, favored the creation of Buddhist caves in
many of the Sahyadris’ hills, ravines, and cliffs.
 These caves are the earliest example of superb rock-cut architecture in the Western Ghats.
 The caves were cut between 200 and 600 A.D, according to historians.
 Kanheri was a significant monastery settlement that existed from the first century A.D. to the eleventh century
A.D.
 By the time the area was ruled by the Mauryan and Kushan empires, Kanheri had become a university center.
 Kanheri thrived for nearly a millennium as a result of its proximity to the ancient port towns
of Sopara (Nalasopara – known for its trading ties with Mesopotamia and Egypt, among others), Kalyan, Thane,
and Bassein (Vasai).
 The majority of these caves have no known date, but inscriptions mentioning donors and specific king names
have aided in their identification.
 By 1560, Buddhism had been gradually lost in Maharashtra, leading to the caves’ abandonment. They remained
in a dilapidated state for 300 to 400 years.
 Following India’s independence, the Archeological Survey of India decided to take over, revitalise, and conserve
the heritage site.

Junagadh Caves
 Junagadh Buddhist Cave Groups are located in Junagadh district of the Indian state of Gujarat. These caves group
includes Uparkot Caves, Khapra Kodiya Caves and Baba Pyare Caves.
 The so-called “Buddhist Caves” are not actually caves, but three separate sites of rooms carved out of stone to be
used as monks’ quarters.
 These caves were carved starting from Emperor Ashoka’s period up to 1st–4th century AD.

Nashik Caves (Pandava Leni Caves)

 Pandavleni Caves, also known as Trirashmi Caves, are ancient rock-cut caves located on the Trirashmi hill about
3004 feet above sea level. These are a collection of ancient Hinayana Buddhist caves (B.C.250- A.D.600).
 Nasik caves are another name for them. Recently, three new caves have been discovered in the Trirashmi
Buddhist cave complex by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
 Captain James Delamaine first documented the Trirashmi Buddhist caves complex in 1823, and it is now an ASI-
protected site.
 Leni is a Marathi word for caves. The Pandavleni Caves are made up of 24 carved cave temples known
as viharas. The Chaitya is one of the 24 carved cave temples.

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 In ancient times, these viharas served as monasteries where people could meet and discuss with monks, while
the vihara also served as a prayer hall for Buddhist monks and disciples of Gautam Buddha.
 These caves were carved between the 1st and 3rd centuries BCE, with additional sculptures added up until
the 6th century, reflecting changes in Buddhist devotional practices.
 Except for Cave 18, which is a 1st century BCE chaitya, the caves are mostly viharas.
 The oldest cave, No. 19, was built with a donation from Krishna, a Satavahana ruler in the first century BCE.
 The style of some of the more complex pillars or columns, such as those found in caves 3 and 10, is a good
example of how the shape evolved.
 Inscriptions documenting contributions date the caves to the 1st century BCE.
 Pundru, which means “yellow ochre tint” in Pali, was the name given to the caverns.
 This is due to the fact that the caves were home to Buddhist monks who donned “the chivari or yellow robes.”
The name Pundru was then changed to Pandu Caves (as per Ancient Monuments Act 26 May 1909).
 Cave evidence suggests that the caves witnessed the period between the Satavahana and the Western
Kshatrapa, who ruled over this region in the first century CE.
 Following the decline of Buddhism, the site was occupied by Jains. Even during the medieval period, Jain
monasteries were most likely still present.

Bedse Caves
 Bedse Caves (also known as Bedsa Caves) are a group of Buddhist rock-cut monuments situated in Maval taluka,
Pune District, Maharashtra, India.
 The history of the caves can be traced back to the Satavahana period in the 1st century BCE. They are some 9 km
from the Bhaja Caves. Other caves in the area are Karla Caves, Patan Buddhist Cave and Nasik Caves.
 There are two main caves. The best known cave is the chaitya (prayer hall – Cave 7) with a comparatively large
stupa, the other cave is the monastery or vihara (Cave 11). They are marked by a profusion of decorative
gavaksha or chaitya arch motifs.

Mahakali Caves
 The Mahakali Caves, also known as the Kondivita Caves, are a collection of 19 rock-cut Buddhist caves dating
from the first century BCE to the sixth century CE.
 This Buddhist monastery may be found in the Andheri neighborhood of Mumbai (Bombay) in western India.
 Caves are carved out of a solid black basalt rock,(volcanic trap breccias, prone to weathering).
 Mahakali Caves are a collection of 19 rock-cut monuments (4 caves on the southeastern face and 15 caves on the
northwestern face) dating from the first century BCE to the sixth century CE.
 The northwest group of caves dates from the 4th to 5th centuries, although the south-eastern group is older.
 These rock-cut caves have existed since the ancient Ashoka Empire, and Buddhist monks used them as dwellings
and meditation chambers as long as 2,000 years ago.
 One of the stupas that were originally built as a Buddhist monument is now revered as a Hindu lingam statue.
 The writings on the wall are in Pali script.
 Mahakali Caves are a few kilometers away from Paspauli. According to the inscription, a person from Paspauli
donated the Vihara at Mahakali.
 From the first century BCE to at least the 12th century CE, the Mahakali caves housed an active monastery.

Ganeshleni/Lenyadri/Junnar Caves
 Lenyadri, sometimes called Ganesa Lena, Ganesh Pahar Caves, are a series of about 30 rock-cut Buddhist caves,
located about 4.8 kilometres (3.0 mi) north of Junnar in Pune district in the Indian state of Maharashtra.
 The current name “Lenyadri” literally means “mountain cave”. It is derived from ‘Lena’ in Marathi meaning “cave”
and ‘adri’ in Sanskrit meaning “mountain” or “stone”.

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 The Lenyadri caves date between the 1st and 3rd century AD and belong to the Hinayana Buddhism tradition.
 Twenty-six of the caves are individually numbered. The caves face to the south and are numbered serially from
east to west. Caves 6 and 14 are chaitya-grihas (chapels), while the rest are viharas (dwellings for monks).
 Two of the central cells of Cave 7 – originally a Buddhist vihara – were at an unknown later date appropriated for
the worship of the Hindu god Ganesha. The rest of the cells and the hall of Cave 7 remain in their original form.
This Ganesha Lena vihara is one of the Ashtavinayak shrines, a set of the eight prominent Ganesha shrines in
Western Maharashtra. In regional mythology, this is the Girijatmaja cave where goddess Parvati desired to be a
mother and where Ganesha was born.

Naneghat Caves
 Naneghat pass (nane means “coin” and ghat means “pass“) was one of the trade routes. It connected the Konkan
coast communities with Deccan high plateau through Junnar.
 William Sykes found them while hiking during the summer of 1828.
 This was the most important trade route, as it connected harbour of Sopara and Kalyan directly to Junnar and
Paithan. The name is given because this path was used as a tollbooth to collect toll from traders crossing the
hills. While going through Malshej Ghat, we can easily get a glimpse of Naneghat after Murbad.
 The inscriptions are attributed to a queen of the Satavahana dynasty. Her name was either Nayanika or Naganika,
likely the wife of king Satakarni.

Ajanta Caves

 The Ajanta Caves are rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments dating from the 2nd century BCE to about 480 CE in the
Aurangabad district of Maharashtra.
 The caves include paintings and rock-cut sculptures described as among the finest surviving examples of ancient
Indian art, particularly expressive paintings that present emotions through gesture, pose and form.
 There are 29 caverns in all, 25 of which were utilised as Viharas (residence caves) and 4 of which were used as
Chaitya (prayer halls).
 The caves consist of 36 identifiable foundations, some of them discovered after the original numbering of the
caves from 1 through 29. The later-identified caves have been suffixed with the letters of the alphabet, such as
15A, identified between originally numbered caves 15 and 16. The cave numbering is a convention of
convenience, and does not reflect the chronological order of their construction.

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Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves

 Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, formerly called Kattaka Caves or Cuttack caves, are partly natural and partly
artificial caves of archaeological, historical and religious importance near the city of Bhubaneswar in Odisha.
 The caves are situated on two adjacent hills, Udayagiri and Khandagiri mentioned as Kumari Parvata in the
Hathigumpha inscription.
 It is believed that most of these caves were carved out as residential blocks for Jaina monks during the reign of
King Kharavela.
 Udayagiri means “Sunrise Hill” and has 18 caves while Khandagiri has 15 caves.
 The caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri, called lena or leṇa in the inscriptions, were dug out mostly during the
reign of Kharavela for the abode of Jaina ascetics.
 The most important of this group is Ranigumpha in Udayagiri which is a double storeyed monastery. Other
important caves include Hathi Gumpha, Ananta Gumpha, Ganesha Gumpha, Jaya Vijaya Gumpha, Mancapuri
Gumpha, Bagha/Byaghra/Vyaghra Gumpha and Sarpa Gumpha.
 Archaeological Survey of India has listed Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in the list of “Must See” Indian Heritage.
 In Udayagiri, Hathi Gumpha (cave 14) and Ganesha Gumpha (cave 10) are especially well known for their
historically important sculptures and reliefs. Raninka Na’ara (Queen’s Palace Cave, Cave 1) is also an extensively
carved cave and elaborately embellished with sculptural friezes.
 Khandagiri offers a fine view back over Bhubaneswar from its summit. The Ananta Cave (Cave 3) depicts carved
figures of women, elephants, athletes, and geese carrying flowers.

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Bagh Caves
 The Bagh Caves are a group of nine rock-cut monuments, situated among the southern slopes of the Vindhyas in
Bagh town of Dhar district in Madhya Pradesh state in central India. These monuments are located at a distance
of 97 km from Dhar town. These are renowned for mural paintings by master painters of ancient India.
 They were developed around the 6th century A.D.
 The most beautiful paintings known to have been created by prehistoric man can be found in these rock cut
caverns. Only 5 of the original 9 caverns have survived.
 Time of development – According to mythology, Buddhist monk Dataka constructed these caves. The caves were
carved between the late 4th and early 6th centuries AD.
 These caves were first discovered in modern times in 1818.

Ellora Caves
 Ellora (Locally known as ‘Verul Leni’) is located in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, India. It is one of
the largest rock-cut Hindu temple cave complexes in the world, with artwork dating from the period 600–1000
CE.
 It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site with cave temples dedicated to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.

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Elephanta Caves
 The Elephanta Caves are located on Elephanta Island (also known as the Island of Gharapuri), which consists of
two hillocks separated by a thin valley in Western India. Numerous old archaeological relics dot the little island,
serving as the only witnesses to its complex cultural past. These archaeological relics show that the area was
occupied as early as the 2nd century BC.
 Elephanta cave temples (on a small island off the coast of Bombay) date from the eighth century A.D. and are
similar to those at Ellora.

The caves on the island are divided into two groups:

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 A collection of five A pair of Buddhist
Hindu caves with rock- caves with cisterns
cut stone sculptures. that run along the
They are primarily island’s banks. Near
associated with the the hill, there is a
Shaivite sect of mound that resembles
Hinduism, and are a Buddhist stupa.
primarily dedicated to
Lord Shiva.

 Between the 14th and 17th centuries, when Portuguese ships began to ply the Arabian Sea and used these caves
as a base, the caves suffered extensive damage.
 They caused significant damage to the statues, which was exacerbated by water logging and dripping rainwater.

Shivleni Caves
 The Shivleni Caves (Shiva leni; Jogai Mandap; Hattikhana) in Ambajogai, Maharashtra, India are rock-cut cave
monuments which date in King Udayaditya (reigned c. 1060–1087) from Paramara dynasty of Malwa.
 The caves include sculptures of Hindu deities like Shiva, Saptamatrukas and Ganesha.
 Shivleni Caves are situated hardly half a kilometer to the north-west of Yogeshvari Temple, along the banks of the
Jayvanti river.
 A local story claims that the monument is the wedding court of the jogaidevi, whose temple is situated nearby. It
is said that the wedding was planned to take place in this mandap but could not take place for supernatural
reasons, and the elephants and everything inside it turned to stone, hence the name ‘Jogai Mandap’.

Mandapeshwar Caves
 It is also known as Montperir Caves, located in Borivali, near Mumbai, and was built as a Brahmanical cave during
the late Gupta dynasty.
 It was later transformed into a Christian cave, however. Sculptures of Natraja, Sada Shiva, and Ardhanarishwara
can be seen among the site’s ruins.
 Above the cave precincts are the church and its graveyard.

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 10) Evolution of this form of architecture during the
medieval period

Expected Questions
How did the architecture in the medieval period evolved?

Delhi sultanate

 With the arrival of Turks during the thirteenth century came a new technique of architecture- the architectural
styles of Persia, Arabia and Central Asia.
 The engineering features of these buildings were the domes, arches and minarets. The palaces, mosques and
tombs built by the rulers had these features which were blended with the features of the indigenous architecture
and a new synthesis in architecture was achieved.
 This happened because the Turkish rulers of Delhi utilized the services of the local Indian craftsmen who were
very skilful and had already constructed beautiful buildings.
 The earliest building of this period is Quwwatul Islam Mosque at Delhi and the Qutub Minar. The latter is a tower,
whose height is 70 metres. It is a tapering tower that has five stories. There are beautiful engravings of
calligraphy both in the mosque and on the tower.
 Ala-ud-din Khilji enlarged the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque and built a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque. This
gateway is called the Alai Darwaza. He also built the Hauz Khas in Delhi which was a hydraulic structure.
 The tomb of Mohammad Tughlaq, Firoz Tughlaq and the forts of Tughlaqabad are some more examples of
structures built during this time
 During the Afghan rule the tombs of Ibrahim Lodi at Delhi and Shershah’s tomb at Sasaram were built
 The architecture of this period also shows how indigenous styles were adopted and utilized by the builders.
During these years, the Turks were still in the process of settling down. The rulers were threatened by the
Mongols, who made sudden invasions from the north. This is why the buildings of this period are strong, sturdy
and practical.

Regional kingdoms
 With the establishment of regional kingdoms in Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan, beautiful buildings having their
own style were constructed.

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 The Jama Masjid, the Sadi Saiyyad Mosque and the shaking towers at Ahmadabad are a few examples of this
architecture
 In Mandu (central India) the Jama Masjid, Hindola Mahal and Jahaz Mahal were built.
 In the Deccan, the Sultans erected a number of buildings. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga, the Madarsa of Mahmud
Gawan at Bidar, Ibrahim Rauza, Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur and the fort at Golconda are just a few famous buildings.
 Gol Gumbaz has the largest dome in the world. All these buildings vary in design and style from the buildings of
north India.
 In Bengal the oblong shape of many structures and the peculiar style of roof construction were some of the
distinctive features of the regional architecture of Bengal like the Adina mosque and the tomb of Jallal-ud-din at
Pandua, Khil Darwaza and Tantipara mosque at Gaur.
 In Jaunpur, the Atala mosque build by the Sharqui rulers had a gigantic screen covering the dome while the tomb
of Hoshang Shah at Malwa is made entirely of marble and is made of yellow and black marble inlay work
beautifully done by craftsmen.
 The Bahamani sultans borrowed from the styles of Persia, Syria, Turkey and the temples of Southern India. The
Jama Masjid at Gulbarga is quite well known. The courtyard of this mosque is covered with a large number of
domes and is the only mosque in India which has a covered courtyard.

Mughals

 The advent of the Mughals brought a new era in architecture.

 Indo-Islamic architecture reached its zenith during this period
 The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi. Red sandstone was used in this building. It has a
main gateway and the tomb is placed in the midst of a garden. Many consider it a precursor of the Taj Mahal
 Akbar built forts at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. The Buland Darwaza reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal
Empire. This building was made following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat
 The tomb of Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, Ibadat Khana, Birbal’s House and other buildings at Fatehpur
Sikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and Indian elements.
 During the reign of Jehangir, Akbar’s Mausoleum was constructed at Sikandra near Agra. He built the beautiful
tomb of Itimad-ud-daula which was built entirely of marble.
 Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. He used marble extensively. Decorative design in
inlay work, (called pietra duro) beautiful arches and minarets were the features of his buildings
 The Red Fort and Jama Masjid of Delhi and above all the Taj Mahal are some of the buildings built by
Shahjahan.

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  The Taj Mahal, the tomb of Shahjahan’s wife, is built in marble and reflects all the architectural features that
were developed during the Mughal period. It has a central dome, four elegant minarats, gateway, inlay work
and gardens surrounding the main building.
 The Mughal style of architecture had a profound influence on the buildings of the later period. The buildings
showed a strong influence of the ancient Indian style and had courtyards and pillars. For the first time in the
architecture of this style living beings- elephants, lions, peacocks and other birds were sculptured in the
brackets

11) Indian Painting

Indian painting like other art forms has a rich history and diversity. The earliest known Indian paintings can be dated
to pre-historic times such as found in places like Bhimbetka rock shelters (Madhya Pradesh)
Indian paintings can be broadly classified as murals, miniatures and paintings on cloth

Prehistoric Paintings
 The term ‘Prehistory’ refers to the distant past when there was no paper or language or the written word, and
hence no books or written documents. Painting and drawing were the oldest art forms practised by human
beings to express themselves, using the cave walls as their canvas.
 Prehistoric paintings have been found in many parts of the world, by the Upper Palaeolithic times we see a
proliferation of artistic activities. Around the world the walls of many caves of this time are full of finely carved
and painted pictures of animals which the cave-dwellers hunted.

53
 The subjects of their drawings were human figures, human activities, geometric designs and symbols. In India the
earliest paintings have been reported from the Upper Palaeolithic times.

Significance of these pain ngs: These prehistoric paintings help us to understand about early human beings, their
lifestyle, their food habits, their daily activities and, above all, they help us understand their mind—the way they
thought.

Discovery of pre-historic rock paintings in India

 The first discovery of rock paintings was made in India in 1867–68 by an archaeologist, Archibold Carlleyle,
twelve years before the discovery of Altamira in Spain. Cockburn, Anderson, Mitra and Ghosh were the early
archaeologists who discovered a large number of sites in the Indian sub-continent.
 Remnants of rock paintings have been found on the walls of the caves situated in several districts of Madhya
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Bihar.
 Some paintings have been reported from the Kumaon hills in Uttarakhand also. The rock shelters on banks of
the River Suyal at Lakhudiyar, about twenty kilometres on the Almora– Barechina road, bear these prehistoric
paintings. Lakhudiyar literally means one lakh caves
 The paintings here can be divided into three categories: man, animal and geometric patterns in white, black and
red ochre.
 Humans are represented in stick-like forms. A long-snouted animal, a fox and a multiple legged lizard are the
main animal motifs. Wavy lines, rectangle-filled geometric designs, and groups of dots can also be seen here
 One of the interesting scenes depicted here is of hand-linked dancing human figures.
 The granite rocks of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh provided suitable canvases to the Neolithic man for his
paintings. There are several such sites but more famous among them are Kupgallu, Piklihal and Tekkalkota

Evolution of pre-historic paintings

I. Upper Paleolithic period:
 Most paintings consist of geometrical patterns.
The green paintings are of dancers and the red
ones of hunters
 The richest paintings from this time period is
reported from the Vindhya ranges of Madhya
Pradesh and their Kaimurean extensions into Uttar
Pradesh. These hill ranges are full of Palaeolithic
and Mesolithic remains. Among these the largest
and most spectacular rock-shelter is located in
 The paintings of the Upper Palaeolithic phase are the Vindhya hills at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh
linear representations, in green and dark red, of  The themes of paintings found here are of great
huge animal figures, such as bisons, elephants, variety, ranging from mundane events of daily life
tigers, rhinos and boars besides stick-like human in those times to sacred and royal images
figures

II. Mesolithic pain ngs

 The largest pre-historic paintings discovered in India belongs to this period
 During this period the themes multiply but the paintings are smaller in size. Hunting scenes
predominate

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 The hunting scenes depict people hunting in groups, armed with barbed spears, pointed sticks, arrows
and bows
 In some paintings these primitive men are shown with traps and snares probably to catch animals.
 The hunters are shown wearing simple clothes and ornaments also
 In some paintings, men have been adorned with elaborate head-dresses, and sometimes painted with
head masks also
 Elephant, bison, tiger, boar, deer, antelope, leopard, panther, rhinoceros, fish, frog, lizard, squirrel and
at times birds are also depicted
 Animals were painted in their naturalistic style, while human beings were depicted in a stylistic manner
 Langhnaj in Gujarat, Bhimbetka and Adamagarh in Madhya Pradesh, SanganaKallu in Karnataka are
prominent Mesolithic sites where paintings are found

III. Chalcolithic pain ng

 The paintings of this period reveal the association, contact, and mutual exchange of requirements
of the cave dwellers of this area with settled agricultural communities of the Malwa plains.
 Many a time Chalcolithic ceramics and rock paintings bear common motifs. Ex: Cross-hatched squares,
lattices, pottery and metal tools are also shown.
 To be noted here is that vividness and vitality of the earlier periods disappear from these paintings.
 The artists belonging to this period used many colours, including various shades of white, yellow,
orange, red ochre, purple, brown, green and black.
 They got red from haematite (known as geru in India). The green came from a green variety of a stone
called chalcedony. White might have been made out of limestone
 The primitive artists seem to possess an intrinsic passion for storytelling. These pictures depict, in a
dramatic way, both men and animals engaged in the struggle for survival
 The paintings of individual animals show the mastery of skill of the primitive artist in drawing these
forms. Both, proportion and tonal effect have been realistically maintained in them.

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 12) MURAL PAINTINGS

Expected Questions
 Write short notes on the following
o Kerala Murals
o Ajanta Cave Paintings
 What are mural paintings? Discuss some of the styles of mural paintings in India
 Trace the stylistic similarities between the paintings found in various caves of India

Mural Paintings - Features

 Mural Paintings differ from all other forms of graphic art in several ways.
 Due to their sheer enormity, the Mural paintings are one-of-a-kind.
 They are too enormous to fit on paper and must be painted on the walls of large structures, such as
caverns and temples.
 Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism are the major themes.
 Their organic relationship to architecture and broad public importance are two major qualities that
distinguish them.
 The expressive practicality of Indian murals is abundant.
 The use of colour, design, and theme treatment in mural paintings has the potential to drastically alter
the perception of the building's spatial dimensions.
 Mural Paintings are the only kind of art that is really three-dimensional, as they alter and share space.
 Natural resources such as terracotta, chalk, red ochre, and yellow ochre mixed with animal fat were
used to create the color pigments used in ancient Indian mural paintings.
 Human and animal figures, hunting, family scenes, court life, deities, and stories from the Buddhist
'Jataka' were among the subjects. The paintings were painted by ancient painters with skillful hands
and keen eyes.

What is a Mural?
 A mural is any piece of artwork that is painted or applied directly on a wall.
 More broadly, mural art also appears on ceilings or any other large permanent surface.
 Mural paintings usually have the distinguishing characteristic of having the architectural
elements of the space they are painted on being harmoniously incorporated into the picture.
 There are many techniques used for mural painting, of which the fresco is just one.
 A mural, therefore, is a general term for a wall painting, whilst a fresco is a specific term.

Ajanta Cave Paintings

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 Ajanta caves, one of the oldest remaining murals on the Indian subcontinent, were sculpted out of
volcanic rocks in the 4th century AD.
 It is made up of 29 caves carved in the shape of a horseshoe.
 These caves are well-known for their stunning mural paintings, which were created during the rule of
the Mauryan Empire and took four to five centuries to finish.
 The Sunga period is represented by the murals in caves 9 and 10, while the Gupta period is represented
by the rest.
 The cave paintings in caverns 1 and 2 are the most recent of Ajanta's caves.
 Murals and fresco paintings can be found on the cave walls (painted on wet plaster). They work in
the tempera style, which involves the use of pigments.
 The paintings depict human ideals and social fabric, as well as period styles, clothes, and accessories.
 Hand gestures are used to express emotions. The paintings are distinguished by the fact that each female
figure has a distinct hairstyle.
 Even animals and birds are depicted as having feelings. Themes in these paintings span from Jataka
stories to Buddha's life to complex flora and fauna decorative patterns.
 The caves' walls are adorned with graceful human and animal positions. Vegetable and mineral dyes were
used as the painting medium.
Scenes from the Jataka stories of
the Buddha's previous lives as a bodhisattva,
the Gautama Buddha's life
Some important
Cave No. 16 - The Dying
paintings Princess

King Shibi gave his flesh to save

the pigeon in the Shibi Jataka
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Ellora Cave Paintings

 The mural paintings in the Ellora caves may be seen in five caverns, with Kailasa temple being the most
famous.
 There were two phases to these murals. The first phase of the paintings took place while the caverns
were being carved, while the second phase took place millennia later.
 Vishnu and his spouse Lakshmi are carried into the sky by Garuda, the celestial bird, in older artwork.
Later paintings feature a procession of Shaiva holy men in Gujrati style.
 All three religions (Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism) are represented in the artworks.
 Images of Goddess Lakshmi and Lord Vishnu are two of the most famous Ellora cave paintings.
 Images of Lord Shiva surrounded by his devotees and Apsaras are other examples of Ellora cave paintings.

Sittanavasal Cave (Arivar Koil) Paintings

 These murals have a striking resemblance to paintings from Bagh and Ajanta. Not only is there artwork
on the walls, but also the ceiling and pillars.
 The paintings are based on the Jain Samavasarana subject (Preaching hall).
 Some academics believe the caverns date from the Pallava period, when King Mahendravarman
I excavated the temple, while others say they date from the 7th century when the Pandya ruler rebuilt
the shrine.
 Vegetable and mineral colors are utilized as the painting medium, which is applied on a thin layer of wet
lime plaster. Yellow, green, orange, blue, black, and white are prevalent colors.
 A pond with lotuses is the focal point of the paintings at Sittanavasal. Monks collect flowers in this pond,
which also features ducks, swans, fish, and other creatures. This image depicts Samavasarana, an
important Jain religious scene.
 After attaining realization, Tirthankaras delivered sermons in Samava-sarana, a particular, gorgeous
audience hall (kevala-jnana).
 This spectacular scene drew bulls, elephants, apsaras, and gods into the audience hall.

Bagh Cave Paintings

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 Bagh caves in Madhya Pradesh are an extension of the Ajanta school, and their excellent work is
comparable to that of the Ajanta caves in terms of design, execution, and ornamentation.
 The figures are more neatly modeled, have a sharper contour, and are more terrestrial and human in
appearance.
 Rang Mahal, Cave No. 4, features exquisite murals on the walls illustrating Buddhist and Jataka tales,
similar to those found in Ajanta.
 These paintings, however sparse and deteriorated now, reflect religious topics in the context of current
people's lifestyles, making them more secular.

Badami cave paintings

 Badami was the capital of the early Chalukyan dynasty which ruled the region from 543 to 598 CE.
 The inscription in Cave No.4 mentions the date 578–579 CE, describes the beauty of the cave and includes
the dedication of the image of Vishnu.
 Paintings in this cave depict palace scenes. One shows Kirtivarman, the son of Pulakesin I and the elder
brother of Mangalesha, seated inside the palace with his wife and feudatories watching a dance scene.
 The paintings found here are stylistically similar to the ones found in Ajanta
 The sinuously drawn lines, fluid forms and compact composition exemplify the proficiency and maturity
the artists had achieved in the sixth century CE.

Evolution of mural painting under various empires

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Murals under Pallavas
 In Tamil Nadu, the Pallavas succeeded the Chalukyas further south.
 They were generous arts patrons.
 Many temples were built by Mahendravarman I (7th century) in Panamalai, Mandagapattu, and
Kanchipuram.
 King Mahendravarman I is given various titles in an inscription at Mandagapattu, including Vichitra Chitta
(curious-minded), Chattakari (temple-builder), and Chitrakar Puli (tiger among artists), indicating his
interest in artistic pursuits.
 Rajasimha, the Pallava ruler, was a patron of the paintings at Kanchipuram's temple.
 Only fragments of a painting of Somaskanda survive – a huge, round face.
 In comparison to the previous phase, this one has more decoration. However, the torso is depicted
similarly, but lightly enlarged.

Murals under Pandyas

 The Pandyas were also patrons of the arts.
 Thirumalapuram caverns and Sittanavasal Jaina caves are two examples.
 Paintings can be found on the shrine's ceilings, verandas, and brackets.
 There are dancing celestial nymphs to be seen.
 The bodies are colored yellow and the contours are vermillion red.
 Dancers have expressive faces and limbs that are supple. Their eyes are elongated and protrude from
their faces at times. This is a distinguishing element in many later Deccan and South Indian paintings.

Murals under Cholas

 From the 9th through the 13th century CE, the Cholas dominated the region.
 In the 11th century CE, the Cholas were at the height of their dominance, and this is when their
masterpieces appeared.
 Brihadeswara Temple at Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and Darasuram were all erected under the
reign of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola.
 Narthamalai is home to Chola paintings. The Brihadeswara Temple houses the most important paintings.
 There were two layers of paint visible. During the Nayaka period, the upper layer was completed (16th
century).
 Narratives and many manifestations of Lord Shiva are depicted in the Chola paintings (original layer),
including Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as Nataraja, and Shiva as Tripurantaka.
 There is also a painting of Rajaraja, his tutor Kuruvar, and other items.

Vijayanagara Murals
 Following the Chola fall, the Vijayanagara Dynasty conquered the region from Hampi to Trichy.
 The capital was Hampi.
 The paintings at Thiruparankundram, near Trichy, are from the 14th century and depict the Vijayanagara
style in its early stages.
 The Mandapa's ceilings are covered in paintings.
 Events from dynastic history as well as the Mahabharata and Ramayana are depicted.
 Paintings depicting Vidyaranya, Bukkaraya Harsha's spiritual teacher, being carried in a palanquin in a
parade; Vishnu incarnations.
 Profiles of people and objects are shown. Frontal eyes are large, and waists are slender.
 Paintings on the walls of the Shiva Temple in Lepakshi, Andhra Pradesh.
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 Vijayanagara paintings have lines that are still but flexible.
 Faces are viewed from the side.

Naayaka Murals
 Vijayanagara styles have been extended.
 Thiruparankundram, Srirangam, and Tiruvarur are among the places where you can see them.
 Episodes from the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Krishna Leela are shown in Nayaka paintings.
 Paintings between the 14th and 17th centuries can be found in Thiruparankundram.
 Scenes from Mahavira's life are depicted in 14th-century paintings.
 There is a panel in Tiruvarur that tells the story of Muchukunda.
 The Ramayana is told in 60 panels in Sri Krishna Temple at Chengam, Arcot.
 Male figures are depicted as having thin waists and lighter abdomens.
 Nataraja's painting at Thiruvalanjuli is an excellent example of Nayaka art.

Kerala Murals
 In this style, many aspects of the Nayaka and Vijayanagara styles were included.
 The artists drew inspiration from current Kathakali and Kalam Ezhuthu traditions.
 Human beings have been rendered in three dimensions using vibrant and vivid colors.
 Paintings on the walls of shrines, temple cloister walls, and palace walls.
 The paintings' subject matter ranges from common Hindu mythology to localized interpretations of
the Mahabharata and Ramayana, as well as oral tales.
the Dutch Palace in
Kochi

Three palaces where

Krishnapuram
these mural paintings
Palace in Kayamkul
are present
am

Padmanabhapuram Palace in
Padmanabhapuram (Travancore, now
in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu)

 Panayannarkavu (temple) in Pundareekapuram, Thrikodithanam Sri Rama temple in Thrikodithanam,

Vadakkunnathan temple in Thrissur are other examples.

Conclusion
From the 2nd century BC through the 8th - 10th century AD, Indian murals have a long and illustrious history.
Murals from this period have been discovered in more than 20 locations around India, mostly natural caves
and rock-cut chambers. The caverns of Ajanta, Bagh, Sittanavasal, Armamalai Cave (Tamil Nadu),
RavanChhaya rock shelter, and Kailasanatha temple in Ellora Caves are among the greatest achievements of
this period.

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13) Folk Painting
Expected Questions
 Discuss the main characteristic features of the Madhubani Paintings.
 Highlight the important features of Madhubani painting with examples
 Highlight the important features of Manjusha art with examples

Folk pain ng is an expression of culture shared by a specific group of people in pictorial form, and it
includes traditions specific to that culture, subculture, or group. For millennia, folk paintings have been a
part of India's traditions. Every region of India has its own folk painting traditions, ranging from the
prehistoric cave paintings of Bhimbetka to Madhubani, which is thought to be as old as the Ramayana, to
the frescoes at Ajanta and Ellora. Indian Folk Paintings are generally pictorial expressions distinguished by
topics drawn from epics such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana, as well as ordinary
village life, birds and animals, and natural phenomena such as the sun, moon, plants, and trees.

Madhubani Painting
Introduction
Madhubani Painting is historical and cultural heritage of Bihar as well as of India. It is also known as the
Mithila Painting. It is practised mainly in the districts of Madhubani, Sitamarhi, Muzaffarpur, Darbhanga,
Saharsa, Madhepura and Supaul in Bihar and bordering districts in Nepal. Although it was started and
dominated by women but now-a-days male painters are also doing Madhubani Painting. It got international
recognition only in recent times.

Historical Background

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 Madhubani Painting traces it's history from the marriage of Sita. At the time of the marriage of Sita,
King Janak ordered to paint the walls of the whole state of Janakpur with colourful paintings, which was
later known as Madhubani Painting or Mithila Painting.
 During the Earthquake Survey (1934), British officials got to know about the Madhubani Painting as a
folk art from the ruins and started researching on it.
 Despite all above, it got the recognition of the state government only in 1969 and that too after a lot of
efforts done by Sita Devi. Initially it was painted on mud walls and plastered walls but now-a-days it is
also painted on canvas, paper and even on clothes.

Types of Madhubani Painting

Types

Aripan Painting
Wall Painting

Wall painting
Wall pain ng is further subdivided into two types:-
(I). Painting of Gosani and
(II). Painting of Kohbar.

I. Pain ng of Gosani
 Gosani is basically the room where religious activities are performed. The paintings of Gosani are
mainly religious in nature. The paintings of gods and goddesses such as Durga, Sita-Ram, Radha-Krishna,
Shiv-Parvati and Vishnu-Lakshmi are painted on the walls of Gosani. In these paintings the contribution
of Brahman and Kayashtha families are most important and significant than any other groups.
II. Pain ng of Kohbar
 Kohbar is the room dedicated to newly wedded couples, that's why the walls of the Kohbar room is
generally painted with the sensuous paintings. These paintings include images of Kamdev, Rati, Yakshini
and Male & Female sex organs.
 Besides above, pictures of leaves, trees, flower, animals, humans and birds are also painted in
background.

Aripan Painting (Rangoli)

 Similar to Rangoli, Aripan is painted in the courtyard and in front of the gate. In Aripan painting, ground
rice mixed with water and colours is used. Aripan paintings are basically of five types:-
o Showcasing vegetation such as trees, flower and fruits.
o Paintings showcasing Animals, brids and human beings.
o Paintings symbolising Magic (Tantrik).
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 o Paintings of gods and goddesses.
o Painting of Swastik, Earthen Lamp etc.

Besides above different types of paintings are done on different occasions. For example, on the occasion of
Tulsi Pujan by unmarried girls, Geometrical figures mainly triangles and rectangles are drawn in Aripan. On
marriage occasions, paintings of leaves ae drawn as Aripan.
Note:- All these paintings are done by using fingers and bamboo brushes. But now-a-days modern paint
brushes are also used for Madhubani Painting.

Features of Madhubani Painting

1. Background of Paintings
 In background of Madhubani Paintings, pictures of trees, flowers, fruits, animals and human images are
painted. But these images are painted only for representation purposes. For example if a brid is to be
painted then only symbols of birds are used.
 If a girl is to be presented then instead of focusing on physical beauty and shape, only their work,
qualities and philosophical aspects are covered.

2.Themes of Madhubani Paintings

 The themes of these paintings are chiefly nature and mythological events. It revolves around Hindu
deities like Krishna, Shiva, Lakshmi, Durga, Rama, and Saraswati.
 The nature-related themes revolve around the Sun, the Moon, and sacred plants such as basil. There
are some paintings with themes based on court scenes and social events.
 If any unfilled space is left after painting the central theme, it is filled up with the motifs of animals,
birds, flowers or geometric patterns.

3. Colours Used in Paintings

 Main colours used in Madhubani Paintings are black, green, yellow, red orange, and violet. But now-a-
days synthetic colours are also used because of their commercial availability and easy to use.
 Colours used in Madhubani paintings are obtained from natural sources. For example
o Black colour is made out of burning Kohl (Kajal), and by mixing soot to cow dung
o Yellow colour is made by mixing lime with the leaves of plum and milk,
o Red colour is obtained from the flower of Kusum,
o Orange is obtained from Palas flower and
o Green colour is obtained from the leaves for 'lima beans'. And color from the wood apple
tree leaves
o White colour is obtained from rice powder
o Blue color from indigo

4.Making Madhubani Paintings

Madhubani paintings use brushes created out of cotton, draped over a bamboo stick. There is no shading in
the application of colors. A double line is drawn for outlines and the gap is filled with either cross or straight
miniature lines.

Notable Madhubani Artists

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 Sita Devi – Though Madhubani paintings were being practiced many years ago by the womenfolk of
Mithila, it was Sita Devi who brought this art form under the limelight. Sita Devi was honored with the
State Award by the government of Bihar in the year 1969 and that is when this art form received
national recognition. The government of Bihar then honored her with the prestigious Bihar Ratna in
1984. In 2006, the government of India conferred on her the title, Shilp Guru.
 Ganga Devi – Ganga Devi is another artist who is credited for popularizing Madhubani painting. Not just
in India, but Ganga Devi popularized this ancient art form in foreign countries as well. Like Sita Devi,
Ganga Devi too was exposed to Madhubani painting right from her childhood as she was born in
Mithila, Bihar.
She travelled to various countries in an attempt to popularize the art form all over the world. She even
participated in ‘Festival of India,’ an event organized in the United States of America.
For her efforts, the government of India honored her with the National Award for Crafts. In the year
1984, Ganga Devi was awarded Padma Shri by the President of India.
 Mahasundari Devi – Also born in Madhubani, Bihar, Mahasundari Devi was a renowned Madhubani
artist. Mahasundari Devi played a key role in supporting and developing not just Madhubani painting
but also various other art forms of Bihar by creating a cooperative society.
 Bhar Dayal – Born in Samastipur, Bihar, Bharti Dayal learnt the traditional art form from her mother
and her grandmother. Bharti strived to take the art form to the world stage and played a key role in the
popularization of these paintings. In order to popularize the art form and propagate it throughout the
world, she started using present day techniques and thereby contemporized the art form. She then
displayed her works in various exhibitions throughout the world. In June 2016, her paintings were
displayed at the Museum of Sacred Art (MOSA), Belgium. The director of MOSA, Martin Gurvich,
appreciated her works and called her the ambassador of Madhubani painting in the modern world.

Conclusion
 Although Madhubani Painting traces it's history from the marriage of Sita, but it got maximum popularity in
recent times.
 Similar to other folk arts, Madhubani Painting is also heavily synced with the daily life Festivals in Maithili
speaking population of Bihar and Nepal.
 Now-a-days there is a very good demand of clothes(especially sarees) painted with Madhubani paintings on
them.
 To promote Madhubani Paintings, Indian Railways and Government of Bihar painted the Sampark Kranti
Express with Madhubani Painting and are planning to paint other trains (bound to Bihar) as well. Indian
Railways also painted the Madhubani Railway Station with the Madhubani Paintings.

Pattachitra
 Pattachitra is a traditional Odisha artwork whose name stems from the Sanskrit words patta, which
means canvas/cloth, and chitra, which means picture.
 The paintings combine classical and folk themes, with a slight preference for the latter.
 The painting's base is treated cotton, and the colors are made from natural materials such as burnt
coconut shells, Hingula, Ramaraja, and lamp black. Instead of using a pencil or charcoal, a brush is used
to draw the outlines in red or yellow, which are then filled in with the colors.
 The paintings feature an intricately wrought frame and the background is covered with greenery and
flowers. After the final lines have been created, the painting is lacquered to give it a glossy sheen.

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 These paintings are based on the Jagannath and Vaishnava religions, with some Shakti and Shiva cults
thrown in for good measure.
 This art form is well-known in Raghurajpur, Odisha. The pattachitra paintings show images that are
reminiscent of the state's historic murals, particularly those at Puri and Konark. Talapattachitra is
pattachitra on a palm leaf.

Patua Arts
 Patua art, Bengali art, dates back over a thousand years. It began as a local custom in which artists would
tell Mangal Kavyas, or auspicious stories about Gods and Goddesses.
 These paintings are done on pats or scrolls, and scroll painters, or patuas, have been traveling to different
towns to sing their stories in exchange for food or money for generations.
 Traditionally, these were painted on fabric to tell religious stories; nowadays, they are painted with poster
paints on sewed-together sheets of paper to make political and social statements.
 These patuas are largely from the state's Midnapur district, while chitrakars are from the state's north
and South 24 Parganas and Birbhum districts.

Kalighat paintings
 It originated in the 19th century in West Bengal, India, in the vicinity of Kalighat Kali
Temple, Kalighat, Calcutta
 From the depiction of Hindu gods, god, and other mythological characters, the Kalighat paintings
developed to reflect a variety of subjects, including many depictions of everyday life
 Paintings on the life of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is also quite common in this form of painting
 Contemporary events like crime were also the subject of many paintings.
 The artists also chose to portray secular themes and personalities and, in the process, played a role in
the Independence movement. They painted historic characters like Rani Lakshmibai, and Duldul the
famous horse of Imam Hussain of Karbala.
 The use of water colours on mill paper, with brushes made of calf and squirrel hair is characteristic of this
school of painting.
 These simple paintings and drawings, which could easily be reproduced by lithography influenced even
modern artists like the late Jamini Roy

Paitkar Paintings
 Paitkar paintings, also known as scroll paintings, are a type of painting practiced by tribal people in
Jharkhand. They are regarded as one of the country's oldest schools of painting. Ma Mansa, one of the
most prominent deities in tribal households, is associated with this ancient kind of painting.
 Giving charity and holding yajnas are among the social and religious customs depicted in these paintings.
'What happens to human life after death is a recurrent theme in Paitkar's paintings.

Kalamkari Paintings
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 The name derives from the word kalam, which means pen, and refers to the pen that is used to create
these beautiful works of art.
 The pen is constructed of sharp-pointed bamboo and is used to control the flow of the colors.
 The fabric is made of cotton, and the colors are made with vegetable dyes.
 The pen is steeped in a solution of fermented jaggery and water, then the vegetable colors are applied
one by one.
 The images were created freehand and were inspired by Hindu mythology. Handcrafted textiles are also
made here. The cartwheel, lotus flower, animals, and interlacing patterns of flowers and leaves are
among the motifs used by the artisans in the latter area.
 The Warli community inhabit the west coast of Northern Maharashtra around the north Sahyadri range
 Married women play a central role in creating their most important painting called Chowk to mark special
occasions.
 Closely associated with the rituals of marriage, fertility, harvest and new season of sowing, Chowk is
dominated by the figure of mother goddess, Palaghat, who is chiefly worshipped as the goddess of
fertility and represents the corn goddess, Kansari.
 The cord goddess is enclosed in a small square frame decorated with ‘pointed’ chevrons along the outer
edges that symbolize Hariyali Deva, i.e., the God of Plants.
 The central motif of Palaghat is surrounded by scenes of everyday life, portraying acts of hunting, fishing,
farming, dancing, mythological stories of animals
 These paintings are traditionally painted with rice flour on earth coloured walls of their homes.
 A very basic graphic vocabulary like a circle, a triangle and a square are used in these rudimentary wall
paintings which are monosyllabic in nature.
 The circle and the triangle come from their observation of nature.The circle represents the sun and the
moon, while the triangle depicts mountains and conical trees.

Thangka Paintings
 Thangkas were originally adopted as a form of veneration, evoking Buddhism's ultimate ideals.
 Traditionally created by Buddhist monks and members of a specific ethnic community, the expertise of
these paintings has been passed down the generations.
 Thangkas are created using paints manufactured from natural vegetable or mineral colors on a cotton
canvas basis (white backdrop). Each of the colors utilized in the artwork has its own meaning.
 The picture is usually framed in colorful silk brocade after it is completed.

Phad Paintings
 It is a scroll-type art that is mostly seen in Rajasthan. It is religious in nature, with depictions of local
deities such as Pabuji and Devnarayan.
 They are 15 feet or 30 feet long and painted with vegetable colors on a long piece of cloth called phad.
 The subjects have round features and wide eyes. They often feature pompous and cheerful narratives, as
well as scenes of the procession.

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MANJUSHA ART
History
 Manjusha art is an ancient folk art of ANG PRADESH. Ang Pradesh is currently known as Bhagalpur city of
Bihar. This art has been prevalent in Bhagalpur for a long time. Manjusha Art came to the forefront
between the time periods of 1931-1948.
 During this period, an ICS officer W.G. Archer and his wife started finding out more about Manjusha art.
He fell in love with the art form and put a collection together followed by an exhibition in The India Office
Library in London. That exhibition became part of the Archer Collection.
 It was at this time that Manjusha art gained international recognition. But at that time, due to the British
rule, artisans could not flourish. After this golden period, Manjusha art seemed to be fading away in the
background. This folk art was being practiced only by some people.

Manjusha Painting - The oldest Indian Painting Art

 In earlier times this art was carved by only two families belonging to the Kumbhakar and the Malakar
communities. Earlier these paintings were drawn on pots by Kumbhakar which were worshipped. And
the Malakars made the actual “Manjusha” and painted Manjusha art on these structures.
 The name of this art form also holds an interesting story. The Sanskrit word Manjusa means a ‘box’. These
boxes were made from bamboo, Jute-Straw, and paper inside which the devotees kept their ceremonial
materials.
 The boxes were illustrated with paintings that tell a tale. And the tale was of Bihula who saved her
husband from the deity’s wrath and a snake-bite and also of Bishahari or Mansa.

 When it comes to Manjusha paintings majorly three colours are used namely pink, green, and yellow.
These colours hold a significance; Pink is for Care, Relation, Victory; Green is for Nature & Health, Dark

68
 green associated with Financial Businesses; Yellow is for Joy, Young, Fun, Happy Feelings, Confidence,
Boost enthusiasm and Optimism.
 With respect to colors, equally important is the art border. Every ‘Manjusha painting’ must contain one
or more borders. Every work must have borders i.e.
1. Belpatr in which the symbol of holy Leafs of Belpatr. In Hindu tradi on, we worship Lord Shiva with
Belpatr Leafs.
2. Lehariya in which symbol of Waves of River is drawn.
3. Mokha in this kind of border design and decora on.
4. Tribhuj in which the triangle symbol borders are drawn.
5. Srp Ki Ladi in which snake pa erns are drawn on a border.

Process of Making the Art Form

 When a painting is started for religious purposes, the artist makes a pile of rice in the room, places a betel
leaf with a betel nut on top of this pile, and prays for permission from the goddesses to start the painting.
The moment the leaf shifts a bit or falls, they consider this as a sign that they have got permission and
can start their work.
 For the painting, first an outline is drawn and then colours filled in. The outline is usually drawn in green,
but today some artists also use black colour.
 In traditional paintings, rulers and other instruments were not used as it was felt that the little
imperfections added to the raw nature of the art; however, nowadays various instruments are used to
make the paintings symmetrical and precise.

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Characters and Motifs in Manjusha art
 All the characters in Manjusha paintings are drawn in a distinct manner. Human forms are depicted in the
form of letter ‘X’ with raised limbs. The main characters are portrayed with big eyes and without ears.
 Bishaharis are represented in the same way except they can be distinguished by what they hold in their
hands: Jaya Bishahari holds a bow and arrow with amrit kalash in one hand and snake in the other, Dhotila
Bishahari has a rising sun in one hand and a snake in the other, Padmavathi Bishahari has lotus in one
hand and a snake in the other, Mynah Bishahari has mynah in one hand and a snake in the other, and
Maya/Manasa Bishahari holds snakes in both hands.

The religious significance of this art –

 The festival of Bisahari’s is celebrated on the 17th and 18th August of every year.
During this pooja, there are two things that are made during this pooja.
 One is the “Kalash” and the other the Manjusa. The Kalash is made by the Kumbhakar and Manjushas by
the Malakars.
 Each is decorated with the art of Manjusha which depicts these stories and are immersed in the lake at
the end of the festival.
 They worship Bisahari as they believe that they will get strength from her and her protection. She
promises that their husbands will be protected from all the snakes. They worship Bihula to gain her
strength and blessings and also to pray for the long life of their husbands.
 There is also a ritual in which the groom before getting married, is asked to go into a small house in which,
in all the four corners of the room/house there is a painting of Bisahari. The groom has to put sindhoor
to all four of the Bisaharis and only then can take his bride to the mandap and all other wedding festivities
and rituals can start. This is done with the belief that since the groom puts sindhoor for bisahari first, he
is married to her first and thus pleases her. The figures are called “nainajogini.”

Revival of the Artform

 Art and culture go hand in hand. One cannot thrive without the other and is bound to perish alone. It is
hard to fathom a civilization without running down a train of thoughts about its art forms. From the
cavemen doodling with rocks and stones to the modern painters with their sand art, mankind has always
made it a necessary hobby to sketch his surroundings.
 These art forms are also the source of ancient knowledge and traditions. The paintings and craftworks
have carried with them the culture over generations and it is owing to them that we know a great deal
about world history. They have also been a source of numerous folklores and a voice to many stories.

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 Art blended with godlore and is just a cherry on top. One such traditional art form has been the Manjusha
art.
 It is also important to mention here that Manjusha and Madhubani both are famous art forms of Bihar
but at the same time are far cry from each other.
 Manjushas are very specific whereas Madhubani is more flexible in its styles. And while Madhubani
received ample attention, the former is still struggling for survival.
 Manjusha art is much more than just an art form. Being the only sequential art form of the country, it is
of considerable cultural value and has a vast heritage appurtenant to it. It vividly reflects the history of
ancient Ang Mahajanpada. It can also be acknowledged as a means of empowering women artist as
women are mostly associated with these paintings.
 And it goes without saying that it is high time that the necessary measures are taken to protect this canvas
from going blank forever.

Importance of Manjusha Art

 It is an ancient and historically significant art form, considered on par with Madhubani art.
 Manjusha Art or Manjusha Kala is often referred to as Snake Paintings by foreigners as swirling snakes in
the art depict the central character Bihula’s tale of love and sacrifice.
 A recent study on Manjusha Art provides an excellent example of how this art reflects the history of
ancient Anga Mahajanapada.

Conclusion
Indian folk art is still alive and well in many sections of the country, having been passed down from generation
to generation. As a result of their cultural diversity and uniqueness, a wide range of art styles have evolved
over time, some remaining unaffected by modernization and others adapting to new paint colors and
materials. Folk paintings are primarily concerned with Indian villages. Village painters' pictorial expressions
are distinguished by topics drawn from epics such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana,
as well as ordinary village life, birds and animals, and natural phenomena such as the sun, moon, planets,
and tree

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 14) Miniature Paintings

Expected Questions
 Discuss the evolution of the paintings from the mural form to the miniature style of painting.
 Distinguish between Mural and Miniature paintings and their significance
 What are Indian Miniatures? Discuss the evolution of the tradition of Indian Miniature Paintings.

Miniature paintings are fine-looking, handcrafted works of art. These paintings are bright and colourful, but
they are small. The elaborate and delicate brushwork that gives these paintings their individual identity is
their best feature. Colors for miniatures are made by hand. Pure gold, silver, minerals, plants, valuable stones,
indigo, and conch shells are the most common sources.

Miniature Paintings in India - Features

 Miniatures are handcrafted paintings with a nice appearance. These paintings are vibrant, although they
are little.
 The complicated and delicate brushwork that gives these paintings their individual identity is the best
feature of them.
 Miniatures are painted using hand-mixed colors. Pure gold, silver, minerals, plants, valuable stones,
indigo, and conch shells are the most common sources.
 There are various prerequisites that must be met in order to create miniature paintings.
 The painting should be no more than 25 square inches in size.
 The painting's subject should be portrayed at a scale of no more than 1/6th of its actual size.
 The human figurine is depicted with a side profile in the majority of Indian miniature paintings.
 Bulging eyes, a sharp nose, and a thin waist are common features.
 The skin color of the characters in Rajasthani miniatures is dark, but they are often paler in Mughal
paintings.
 Furthermore, celestial entities such as Lord Krishna are blue in color.
 The female figurines have long hair, and their eyes and hair are almost always black.
 Men typically dress in traditional attire and wear turban on their heads.

Early Miniature
 They were frequently painted on perishable materials like paper, palm leaves, and fabric for books or
albums.
 The art of miniature painting emerged between the 8th and 12th centuries, virtually as a reaction to the
massive wall paintings.
 This style of painting can be seen in both the eastern and western parts of the country.
 There are two well-known schools.
o Pala School of Art
o Apabhramsa School of Art

Pala School of Art

 During the years 750-1150 AD, this school was thriving.

72
 These paintings were usually done on palm leaf or vellum paper and were found as part of manuscripts.
 They were largely utilized by Buddhist monks, and because their faith preaches nonviolence toward all
living beings, only banana or coconut tree leaves were allowed.
 The background imagery is characterized by sinuous lines and subtle tones in these paintings.
 There are a lot of lonely single characters in the paintings, and group paintings are uncommon.
 They were patronized by several of kings who encouraged Buddhism because of their simple
compositions.
 These paintings were also used and patronized by followers of the Vajrayana school of Buddhism.

Apabhramsa School of Art

 This school can be traced back to Gujarat and the Mewar region of Rajasthan.
 During the 11th to 15th centuries, it was the most popular painting style in western India.
 The Jain religion was the most prominent motif in these paintings, and the Vaishnava School adopted it
afterward.
 They included the concept of Gita Govinda and secular love in these artworks, which had previously been
dominated by Jain imagery.
 The paintings were done on a palm leaf in the early Jain period, but on paper in the later time.
 Despite the fact that the paintings were created as book illustrations, they did not have a distinct style;
rather, they were mural paintings at a smaller scale.
 The colors employed in the paintings were mainly red, yellow, and ochre and they had symbolic value.
They employed bright and gold colors in the final stages.

Miniature Paintings - Deccan

 The colors were applied flat, with the garment and human figures being delineated in black.
 The faces are viewed from a three-quarter angle, giving them a detached look.
 The landscapes are filled with trees, rocks, and other designs that do not attempt to mimic the subject's
natural aspect.

Miniature Paintings - Delhi sultanate

 These paintings attempted to combine Persian motifs from their ancestors with Indian traditional
components.
 They preferred pictorial manuscripts, and the Nimatnama (a book) written under the reign of Nasir Shah,
who ruled over Mandu, is one of the best examples from this period. This book exemplifies the blending
of indigenous and Persian styles.
 Apart from that, a style known as the Lodi Khuladar was popular at this time and was practiced in many
of the Sultanate-controlled districts between Delhi and Jaunpur.

Mughal School of Painting

 The origin of the Mughal School of Painting is considered to be a landmark in the history of painting in
India.
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 With the establishment of the Mughal empire, the Mughal School of painting originated in the reign of
Akbar in 1560 CE who was keenly interested in the art of painting and architecture.
 In the beginning of his rule a studio of painting was established under the supervision of two Persian
masters, Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdul Samad Khan, who were originally employed by his father Humayun.
 A large number of Indian artists from all over India were recruited to work under the Persian masters.
 The Mughal style evolved as a result of a happy synthesis of the indigenous Indian style of painting and
the Safavid school of Persian painting.
 It is marked by supple naturalism based on close observation of nature and fine and delicate drawing and
is primarily aristocratic and secular.
 An illustrated manuscript of theTuti-nama in the Cleveland Museum of Art (USA) appears to be the first
work of the Mughal School.
 The style of painting in this manuscript shows the Mughal style in its formative stage. Shortly after that,
between 1564-69 CE was completed a very ambitious project in the form of Hamza-namaillustrations on
cloth, originally consisting of 1400 leaves in seventeen volumes.
 Some of the famous painters in Akbar’s court other than the two Persian masters already mentioned
are Dasvanth, Miskina, Nanha, Kanha, Basawan, Manohar, Doulat, Mansur, Kesu, Bhim Gujarati, etc.
 Jahangir had great fascination for nature and took delight in the portraiture of birds, animals and flowers.
 Some important manuscripts illustrated during his period are, an animal fable book called Ayar-i-
Danish, the Anwar-i-sunavli, another fable book.
 The famous painters of Jahangir are Aqa Riza, Abul Hasan, Mansur, Bishan Das, Manohar, Goverdhan,
Balchand, Daulat, Mukhlis, Bhim and Inayat.
 The portrait of Jahangir illustrated is a typical example of miniature executed during the period of
Jahangir.

 Apart from portraiture, other paintings showing groups of ascetics and mystics and a number
of illustrated manuscripts were also executed during his period; some noteworthy examples of such
manuscripts are the Gulistanand the Bustan of Sadi, copied for the emperor in the first and second years
of his reign and the Shah Jahan Nama
 Aurangzeb was a puritan and painting declined during his period and lost much of its earlier quality. A
large number of court painters migrated to the provincial courts.
 During the period of Bahadur Shah, there was a revival of the Mughal painting after the neglect shown
by Aurangzeb.
 After 1712 CE, the Mughal painting again started deteriorating under the later Mughals.

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 15) Tribal Revolts in Bihar

Previous Year Question

 Examine the characteristics of tribal protest in the 19th century with suitable examples. Give reasons for their
failure. [64th BPSC/2018]
 Write short note on : [67th BPSC/2022]
o Birsa Munda Movement
o Indigo revolt
 Examine the characteristics of the Birsa movement. [66th BPSC-2021]
 “The underlying object of Birsa Movement was internal purification and desire to remove the alien
government.” Explain. [53-55 BPSC/2012] OR
 ‘Birsa provided a new religious leadership to the tribal struggles against the British’.
 Explain. [44 BPSC/2002] OR
 Write a critique of the Birsa Movement with special reference to its nature and the lesson it left on
tribal administration. [42 BPSC/1999] OR
 Briefly examine the tribal movements of Bihar with special reference to the Birsa movement. [39
BPSC/1993]

Introduc on
 The Tribal Revolts in Bihar were initiated by the Bihar tribes against the British suppression policy of
seizing their tribal land. Tribal revolts boomed during the Revolt Of 1857.
 The primary reason behind the uprising of revolts and protests at a mass level in India was the colonialism
of some sectors within the Indian society. The British parliament transferred the political power from the
East India Company into the hands of the British Crown for him to have the whole responsibility of the
country. The British government decided to decrease the number of Indian soldiers in the army and
preferred the appointment of English soldiers. In this article, we’ll know who the tribals were and how
the colonial approach of the Britishers affected the Bihar tribes.

Factors Responsible For the Tribal Revolts

 The Britishers were ruining the business trade set up amongst the tribals of Bihar of handicraft industries.
The Bihar tribes were frustrated because the British Raj introduced free trade of handicraft products in
India, which sucked down the profits and earning source of the tribal people in India.
 The Britishers imposed tariff charges on the Indian goods transported, which led to poverty amongst the
tribals of Bihar. The artisan community in Bihar was in great trouble to sustain their livelihood.
 The colonization of Britishers has propelled mass industrialization, which devoid the Bihar tribes of their
freedom and isolated life in the forests. The Britishers imposed forest laws that restricted the entry of
tribals and prevented the Bihar tribes from accessing any forest resources.
 When the tribal people couldn’t withstand the torture and ill-treatment from the Britishers, they had to
choose to fight against them to stop the discrimination and rights infringement. They occasionally
attacked the English people, looted their belongings and possessions, and kicked them out of their village.
Overall, tribals were mainly against the Britishers’ annexation of the farming lands and transferring the
land to outsiders.

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List of Tribal Revolts That Occurred In Bihar
Some of the prominent tribal revolts in Bihar were Kol Uprisings, Munda Revolt, Tana Bhagat Movement,
Munda Uprisings, Bhumij Revolt, and the biggest of all the rebellions and movements was the Santhal
Uprising. Santhal Revolt was the most impactful revolt in the history of the Bihar tribes.

Munda Uprising:
 One of the most well-known revolutions against the
pervasive British Rule in the nation was the early
Munda revolt. The Mundas inhabited the
Chotanagpur area.
 This uprising is also known as the Ulgulan
revolt which means “great commotion”.
 Between 1789 and 1832, the Mundas revolted
around seven times against the oppression brought
on by moneylenders and the British Government.
The Khuntka system, which was a joint holding of
land, prevailed among the Mundas. But the advent of
the British and the outsider Zamindars replaced the
Khunkatti with the Zamindari system. This caused
indebtedness and forced labour among the tribals.
 Its movement was known as Sardariladai, or “War of the Leaders,” and their main goal was the eviction
of outsiders, or “dikus.”
 Many Mundas joined the “Evangelical Lutheran Mission” after 1857 in the hopes of a brighter future.
 However, as they realised that these missionaries couldn’t give them any long-term benefits, many
apostates rebelled against this mission and became even more hostile.
 They sought to establish the Munda traditional chiefs’ dominance over their domains. But, every time
they were without a charismatic leader, their movement waned.
 However, the Mundas were able to get an able and charismatic leader in Birsa Munda who proclaimed a
rebellion in 1894.
 He organised his people to revolt openly against the government. He urged people to stop paying debts
and taxes.
 He was arrested and spent 2 years in jail before being released in 1897.
 In December 1899, he launched an armed struggle against the landlords and the government.
 The Mundas torched police stations, houses of the landlords, churches and British property.
 In 1900 Birsa Munda was caught. He died in jail due to cholera aged just 25.

The Kol Uprising

 Kol uprising is one of the most well-known revolutions against the British government.
 The Kols were one of the tribes inhabiting the Chhotanagpur area. They lived in complete autonomy
under their traditional chiefs but this changed when the British came.
 Along with the British came the outsiders. The colonial government also introduced the concept of non-
tribal moneylenders, zamindars and traders.
 The Kols then lost their lands to farmers from outside and also had to pay huge amounts of money in
taxes. This led to many becoming bonded labourers.

76
 To this the British judicial policies also caused resentment among the Kols.
 There was an insurrec on in 1831-32 which saw the Kols organise themselves under Buddho Bhagat and
revolt against the British and the moneylenders.
 They killed many outsiders and burned houses. This armed resistance went on for two years after which
it was brutally suppressed by the British with their superior weaponry.
 The Kol Rebellion was so intense that troops had to be called in from Calcutta and Benares to crush it.

Bhumij Revolt
Bhumij Revolt (1832-33) The Bhumij rebellion started in 1832 AD under the leadership of Ganga Narayan. Its
influence remained in the areas of Birbhum and Singhbhum.
 The rebellion was the result of the complaints of the Bhumij against the Birbhum (Badabhum) king, police
officers, munsifs, salt inspectors, and other dikkus.
 The reason for the rebellion was the imposition of the Company's system of governance on the local
system. At the same time, the discontent arising out of the oppressive rent system of the British was also
working behind it.
 The formal beginning of the Bhumij rebellion took place on April 26, 1832, with the killing of Diwan
Madhav Singh, and the halfbrother of the zamindar of Birbhum Pargana.
 The murder was done by Ganga Narayan Singh. He was the cousin of the zamindar of Birbhum. Madhav
Singh was quite infamous as Diwan. He had devastated the people by lying in various types of taxes.
 Ganga Narayan provided unprecedented leadership to the Bhumij against Madhav Singh. After killing
Madhav Singh, Ganga Narayan had a collision with the Company's army. The Company's forces were led
by Braden and Lieutenant Timmer.
 The Kol and Ho tribes openly supported Ganga Narayan Singh in this rebellion. On February 7, 1833,
Ganga Narayan Singh was killed while fighting against Thakur Chetan Singh of Kharsawan.
 The Thakur of Kharsawan cut off his head and sent it to the British officer Captain Wilkinson. Captain
Wilkinson heaved a sigh of relief at the death of Ganga Narayan Singh.
 A er the death of Ganga Narayan Singh, this rebellion fell into disrepair. Although Ganga Narayan Singh
was ultimately defeated in this rebellion, it made it clear that there was a need for administrative change
in Jungle Mahal.

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Santhal Revolt:

 The Santhal Hul (also known as the Santhal revolt) occurred in the regions of present-day Jharkhand,
Odisha and West Bengal against the British as well the Zamindari system from 1855 until 1856 when the
movement was crushed by the British.
 When the Zamindari system was introduced in the Bengal presidency, the British and the Zamindars
claimed the traditional Santhal land as their own.
 The Santhals were exploited mercilessly by the landlords who charged exorbitant rates of interest
(sometimes as high as 500%) which ensured that the tribals were never able to repay their loan.
 They lost their land and also were turned into bonded labourers. They had to suffer extortions, forceful
deprivation of property, abuse and violence, cheating in business deals, wilful trampling of their crops,
etc.
 The government supported the landlords instead of helping the tribals whose grievances were genuine.
 The rebellion started in June 1855 when two brothers Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu organised 10000 Santhals
and began an armed uprising. Their primary aim was to completely annihilate the alien or British regime.
 The Santhals, who predominately lived in the regions between Rajmahal and Bhagalpur known as
Daman-ikoh, rose up in revolt against the outsiders, whom they referred to as “Dikus.”
 They killed many moneylenders and Company agents. The revolt was very intense and massive in scale.
The Santhal community celebrates the day of rebellion to this day.
 The revolt was violently suppressed by the British with about 20000 Santhals being killed including the
two leaders.

Tamar Revolt
The main reason for the Tamar rebellion was the deprivation of land for the tribals. They were to be exploited
by the English company, tehsildars, zamindars, and nontribals (dikus).
 This rebellion started in 1782 against the exploitation of the landlords by the Oraon tribe of Chotanagpur,
which lasted till 1794.
 This rebellion started under the leadership of Thakur Bholanath Singh. This is famous in history as the
'Tamar Rebellion'.
 1809: the British arranged a Zamindari police force to establish peace in Chotanagpur but to no avail.
Because again in 1807, 1811, 1817, and 1820 the Munda and Oraon tribes raised their voice against the
landlords and Dikus.
 1807: the Mundas revolted under the leadership of Dukh Manki of Tamar and in 181920, under the
leadership of Rugu and Konta.

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Kherwar Movement

The Kherwar movement has a remarkable place in tribal reformist movements in Jharkhand. This movement
initially taught monotheism and social reform, but just before its suppression, it took the form of a campaign
against the activities of revenue endowment. This movement was led by Bhagirath Manjhi of the Kherwar
tribe. That is why it is called the 'Bhagirath Manjhi movement'.
Key facts
 The Kherwar Movement was one of the nonviolent struggles against British rule.
 This movement started in 1874 AD. Its leader was Bhagirath Manjhi. Its form was in no way different from
the Safahor movement which manifested in its true form in later days.
 The credit for articulating this goes to Bhagwan Das (Rajmahal) and Lambodar Mukherjee (Dumka).

79
 Bhagirath had adopted a noncooperative policy towards the British rule and by declaring himself the king
of the village of Bounsi, he started the system of collecting rent himself by not paying rent to the landlords
and the government.
 Later Gandhiji used to aspects to his non-cooperation. Bhagirath Manjhi was born in Taldiha village of
Godda district where he has established a bench.
 The second phase of the Kherwar movement is considered to be the movement led by Dilemma against
the 1881 census. Bhagirath Manjhi was known as 'Baba' among the tribals.

Uprising Sparked by Number of Factors:

 Mainland Tribal Revolts: The land settlements of the British affected the joint ownership tradition among
the tribals and disrupted their social fabric
 As agriculture was extended in a settled form by the Company government, the tribals lost their land,
and there was an influx of non-tribals to these areas.
 Shifting cultivation in forests was curbed and this added to the tribals’ problems.
 Exploitation by the police, traders and money-lenders (most of them ‘outsiders’) aggravated the tribals’
sufferings.
 Christian missionaries came to these regions and their efforts interfered with the traditional customs of
the tribals. Eg. Chuar Uprising, Kol Mutiny, The Santhal Rebellion, Bhil Revolts etc
 Frontier Tribal Revolts (in north-eastern part of India): Their revolts were often in favour of political
autonomy within the Indian Union or complete independence.
 These movements were not forest-based or agrarian revolts as these tribals were generally in control of
land and forest area.
 Continued for a longer time than the non-frontier tribal movements. De-sanskritisation movements also
spread among the frontier tribals.
 Eg. Khasi Uprising, Ahoms’ Revolt, Singphos’ Rebellion, Kukis’ Revolt etc

Characteristics of Tribal Revolts:

 Tribal identity or ethnic ties lay behind the solidarity shown by these groups.
 Not all ‘outsiders’ were seen as enemies: The poor who lived by their manual labour or profession and
had a socially/economically supportive role in the village were left alone; the violence was directed
towards the money-lenders and traders who were seen as extensions of the colonial government.
 Against Foreign Government: A common cause was the resentment against the imposition of laws by the
‘foreign government’ that was seen as an effort at destroying the tribals’ traditional socioeconomic
framework.
 Many uprisings were led by messiah-like figures who encouraged their people to revolt and who held out
the promise that they could end their suffering brought about by the ‘outsiders’.
 Technologically Backward: The tribal uprisings were doomed from the beginning, given the outdated
arms they fought with as against the modern weapons and techniques used by their opponents.

Conclusion
 Civil rebellions began when the Britishers entered the states of Bihar and Bengal to exercise their power
and dominance. The sudden changes in the rules and policies brought by the Britishers in the economic
functioning of the country affected the tribals. The policy change in the land revenue system acted as the
fuel to ignite the tribal people in India. All the tribal revolts weren’t successful, but few of them forced

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 the Britishers to modify their discriminative land revenue policies. The Bihar tribes played a significant
role in uplifting the determination of other tribal people in India

16) Santhal Uprising/Rebellion

Previous Year Question
 Write short note on Santhal uprising.[67th BPSC 2022]
 What were the causes of the santhal revolt? What were its course and outcome? [66th-BPSC-
2021]
 Evaluate the causes and results of Revolt of Santhal [1855-56] in Bihar. [63 BPSC/2019]
 Discuss the main causes of the Santhal Uprising. What were its consequences? [56-59
BPSC/2016]
 Discuss the causes and results of revolt of santhals [1855-56] in Bihar. [48-52 BPSC/2009]
 “Santhal Uprising provides a model of popular armed resistance against British colonialism in
India”. Explain. [45 BPSC/2002]
 The Santhal Uprising was the first fierce reaction of the tribals against British colonial rule in
India’. Elucidate. [43 BPSC/2001]

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Introduction
 The Santhal rebellion (commonly known as Santhal Hool), was a rebellion in present-day Jharkhand, in
eastern India against both the Bri sh colonial authority and Zamindari System by the Santhal people.
 This was the first peasant revolt that occurred in India. The revolt can be attributed to the introduction
of the Permanent Land Settlement of 1793.
 It started on June 30, 1855 and on November 10, 1855 martial law was proclaimed which lasted until
January 3, 1856 when martial law was suspended and the movement was brutally ended by troops loyal
to the British.
 The rebellion was led by the four Murmu Brothers – Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand and Bhairav.
 This was one of the most massive revolts. A determined attempt to expel the outsiders-the dikus and
Proclaimed the complete ‘annihilation’ of the alien regime.

Who were Santhals? (Background)

 Santhals started settling down in the foothills of Rajmahal in around 1780s. Santhals were given land and
persuaded by local Zamindars, Moneylenders (Mahajans and Sahukars) and British administration to
settle down in region and to push Pahariyas (local tribal group) out from the lower hills of Rajmahal.
 Santhals successfully pushed Pahariyas into deep forest in Rajmahal Hills and captured their lands. These
Santhals slowly and steadily grown in population as well as land area and get settled in the region as
peasants. The land on which Santhals were living was declared as Damin-i-Koh (the land of Santhals).
The population and area of Damin-i-Koh was increased tremendously from 40 villages and 3000
population in 1838 to 1473 villages with 82000 population in 1851.
 Initially they were supportive to local Zamindars, Mahajans, Sahukars and Britishers (collectively called
as 'Dikus' or outsiders by Santhals). But soon the situation started changing and Santhals found that the
land they have cleared and brought under the cultivation was slipping away from their hands. The state
was levying heavy taxes on the land that the Santhals had cleared, moneylenders were charging them
high rates of interest and taking over their land on failure of repayment and Zamindars were asserting
control over the Damin-i-Koh area. Hence Santhals found themselves trapped in a conspiracy by Dikus.

Causes
Economic Cause
 Santhals usually taken loan for sowing seeds and for other purposes from
local Sahukars and Mahajans at very high interest rates and on the failure of repayment of
loans Sahukars and Mahajans tend to capture the land are of Damin-i-Koh region started decreasing.
And in the process, British officers and police always supported Sahukars, Zamindars and Mahajans.
 New Forest Policy brought by Britishers for using forest resources restricted the authority of Santhals
over the forest resources. Which created much disappointment among Santhals.

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 Santhals were forcibly used for laying down of railway track between Bhagalpur and Vardhwan without
any pay.

Religious Causes
 The Charter Act of 1813 allowed Christian Missionaries to propagate Christianity in India. The Christian
Missionaries were targeting tribes in India and threatening the traditional beliefs and code of conduct of
Santhals also.
Socio-Political Cause
 The traditional Manjhi System and Parha Panchayat System of Santhals, Which involve group decision
making and Self P decision at village level. Both of these two systems were affected heavily by British
Regulations and laws.
Immediate Cause
 In the month of June,1855, in a minor incident of theft many Santhal peoples were arrested by local
police and brutally beaten up. In response of this incident the inspector of the police station was killed
by a mob of Santhals.
 This incident incited Santhals.

Start and Progress

 On 30th June, 1855, Under the leadership of Sidhu and Kanhu, a group of 6000 Santhals were gathered
in Bhaginidih and took up traditional armours such as Arrow & Bows and bowed to established Swaraj.
Sidhu and Kanhu promised new revenue policy and natural justice based on their traditional system of
justice.
 To stir religious sentiments among the revolutionaries, he said that the God of Santhals (Singh Bonga)
came into their dreams and ordered to fight against Dikus and establish Swaraj over Damin-i-Koh region.
 During the uprising, Santhals were attacked on police and the British Authorities. Besides these they also
looted and murdered Mahajans and Sahukars. In a short span of time it spread all across the Damin-i-
Koh region as well as Dhanbad, Bhagalpur, Singhbhum/Virbhum areas. The number of revolutionaries
increased almost 10 times from 6000 to 60000.

Decline of the Movement

 Seeing the scale of the revolt, British administration immediately ordered for the Marshal Law in Damin-
i-Koh region. Major Baro was sent with 10 battalions of Army to contain the revolt but they remained
unsuccessful in the their attempt.
 After the failure of Major Baro and his Battalions , British administration sent a big unit of Army under
the leadership of Captain Alexander and Lieutenant Thomson to suppress the revolt. This time they
became successful to contain the revolt. During the process more than 15000 Santhals including Sidhu
and Kanhu were killed and many were arrested. The revolt hence finally declined.

Consequences of the Revolt

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1. Administra ve
 The region between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal Hills in Singhbhum district were carved out and named as
Santhal Pargana and declared as Non-regulation district.
2. Legal
 Tenancy Law was enacted in Santhal Pargana, which provided for village head and village officers, who
were entrusted with judicial and policing powers.
3. Social
 The traditional Manjhi system was again became operational in the region.

Importance of the Revolt

 In terms of aim, Santhal Uprising was the first revolt which set it's aim for attaining Swaraj or Self rule in
the Santhal region, which later became the aim of National Movement as well.
 In terms of leadership, Sidhu and Kanhu performed very well. He touched every aspects which influenced
the movement and let it quickly spread in very wide spectra of region.
 Due to coverage of all aspects by the leaders of the revolt, the movement touched every aspects of
society which resulted into huge co-operation among revolutionaries and the leaders of the movement.
 In terms of outcome, the revolt became partially successful and achieved some of it's goals. Despite of
the fact that it could not able to achieve Swaraj but it became somewhat successful as Santhal Pargana
was declared as Non-Regulation District and gave a certain amount of autonomy at village level.

How Was the revolt, different From the Other Revolts?

Organized movement
 The Santhal uprising was an organized movement with good leadership qualities. In a short period of
time, it was successful in uniting about 60,000 people.
 If we look at the other spontaneous movement of that time, we find that none of the movements was
that well-arranged as the Santhal revolt. The unity of the Santhals shook the nerve of the Britishers.
Use of weapons & Tac cs
 Despite the Santhal using bows and arrows against the weapons and artillery used by the Britishers, the
guerrilla tactics, which was a new occurrence for Bihar to fight against the Britishers, gave Santhals an
upper hand.
Trained leadership
 The prominent leaders of the war, Sidhu, and Kanhu in a short span of time, were successful in
mobilizing a huge number of people to fight against the cause.
Blow on Bri sh powers
 The Santhal rebellion was a blow on the British powers. It was such a fierce movement that Britishers
had to implement martial law to quell the powers of Santhals
Growth of Revolu onary Na onalism
 The Santhal revolt fostered a sense of unity among the Santhal tribes.
 It was seen as the beginning of larger wars to free the people from the oppressive British rule.
 This movement resulted in a feeling of nationalism which helped to mobilize people for further
wars, like the Revolt of 1857.
Iden ty of the tribal people
 The Santhal rebellion gave birth to the modern Santhal identity.
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 It also promoted the tribal people to protect their culture and tradition from any kind of destruction
and interference.
Successful movement
 It was seen that the Britishers did acknowledge their follies, despite the Santhals being defeated
 Further, after the end of the war, the Santhal Paraganas Tenancy Act was enacted which provided the
tribes some protection against the oppressive British Rule.
 This was successful in inculcating nationalist feelings among the people.
 Thus, the Santhal uprising is not only a movement of great Historical importance. It rather, is the root
cause behind it, the rights to tribal lands that finds mention, which becomes relevant in present
context. Thus, History truly is a continuum and it is important to understand the past, to make sense of
the present, in order to deal with current Tribal related issues in India.

17) Munda Rebellion

The Munda Ulgulan (rebellion) is one of the most prominent tribal revolts in the history of Indian
Independence.
Even though the end was not favourable, it sent a message across the borders that the tribal people know
how to raise their voice and to what extent.

Causes of Munda Rebellion

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Economic Causes
The prime concern for Munda tribe, Khuntka System was a system of common land holding, in which every
members of the Munda tribe had shared/common rights over all the land area of the Tribe. The British
government with the view of increasing the revenue collection, changed this common holding system to
individual holding. Due to this change, the tribal community found themselves trapped into a vicious cycle of
loan, default and annexation over their lands by moneylenders and the British Administration.
Besides this the tribal community was also facing the issue of unemployment and forced labour.
Religious Causes
The Charter Act of 1813 allowed Chris an Missionaries to propagate their agenda in India. The Christian
Missionaries were primarily targeted the tribal groups including Munda tribe, and tried to change the
traditional faiths and beliefs. This issue created unhappiness among leaders of the community and started
raising against the Missionaries.
Political Causes
The traditional system of taking group decisions(like Panchayat) on both civil and criminal matters of
the community as well as policing powers of the tribal community were taken over by the British
Government.
Besides above internal problems such as blind-faiths, alcoholism, the tradition of animal sacrifices etc. within
the community instigated Birsa Munda to the Purification Movement which ultimately turned into a revolt
against the British administration.

Inception, Expansion and Decline of the Movement

Birsa Munda Movement can be divided into three phases.
1. Phase - I (1890-1894)
Birsa Munda was born in 1875 in Chalkand village, under Tamar Police Station in Ranchi district(now in
Jharkhand).
In the early period of his life he was under the influence of Christian Missionaries. But after coming into the
contact of Anand Pandey (religious teacher), he turned into a Vaishnav. In the first phase he focused on
broadly three things:-
 Purifica on of the members of the Munda Community and to free them from fanaticism, alcoholism and
the practise of animal sacrifices.
 Inner Purifica on of the members of the community by inculcating ethical, integral and spiritual purity.
 Focus on oneness of god. For this purpose, he propagated that there is only one god for Mundas i.e. Singh
Bonga. And Birsa Munda declared himself as the ambassador of Singh Bonga. He further preached that
only he could free the community from the shackles of the outsiders and establish Munda Raj.
From above points it is clear that in this phase, he only focused on religious and social purification of
the Community, and united them with the monotonous thought process.
2. Phase - II (1895-97)
 In this phase Birsa Munda gathered and united a group of 6000 members of the community in 1895. The
three important aims for this group were:-
o End of Bri sh Influence.
o Independence from outsiders.
o Establishment of Munda Raj.

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 To achieve the prescribed aims he called the members of the community to not pay the land revenue and
neglect the authority of the Britishers over the Munda Tribe.
 For these activities, he was arrested by the police on 24th August, 1895. But he was released from the
jail in 1898 on the occasion of the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria.
3. Phase - III (1898-1900)
 This was the most violent and volatile phase of the movement, due to which this phase is known as a
revolt and more popular.
 After the release of Birsa Munda in 1898, he again became actively involved in the activities against the
government and outsiders. The members of the tribe attacked on British officials, Police Stations,
Mahajans and Sahukars (Moneylenders), Christian Missionaries.
 Munda Revolt was mainly spread in the Khunti, Gumla and Ranchi regions. To contain the Revolt, British
government started and administrative lockdown in the region. And suppression of the movement was
carried on by the Deputy Commissioner, Street Field and within months the Revolt declined.
 For his active involvement in the movement, he was again arrested on 3rd February, 1900 and after that
on 30th June, 1900, he died from Dysentery in jail.

Consequences/Impacts
Birsa Munda Revolt remained most impactful than all other tribal movements, as it produced many fruitful
results for the Munda community.
 1903 - The Khuntka System was reinstated.
 1905 - For administrative easiness, Khunti and Gumla were declared Sub-divisions.
 1908 - The Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act was enacted to secure tribal lands from Land Reform Acts.
On economic perspective, the exploitative, forced labour was restricted in the region.

Importance of Munda Rebellion:

 It compelled the colonial regime to instruct ordinances so that the territory of the tribals could not be
handily taken over by dikus under Chotanagpur Tenancy Act, 1908.
 It indicated that the tribal people could fight against injustice and convey their resentment against the
colonial statute.
 Jharkhand Founda on Day: The term “Jharkhand” implies “The Land of Forests.” The district was given
rise to presence by the Bihar reorganization Act on 15th November 2000 – the birth anniversary of the
fictitious Bhagwan Birsa Munda. Jharkhand shares its border with the provinces of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh
and Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and West Bengal.

Significance of the Movement

 Although the rebellion could not reach the desired end, it left a significant impact on the tribal
movement of India.
o It showed that the tribal people had the capacity to protest against injustice and express their
anger against colonial rule.

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 The British enacted the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act, 1908 which restricted the transfer of tribal land to
non-tribal people.
o The “Khuntkatti” rights were recognised and ”Beth begari” was banned.
o Consequently, tribals won a degree of legal protection for their land rights.
 Most importantly, Birsa Munda, in just 25 years of age, left a legacy behind him, and he is named
among the exceptional freedom fighters of India.
Thus, the sacrifices, devotion and hope poured in the revolt by Munda tribe have its own legacy followed by
the people of India.

End of Dedicated Life

Birsa was resisted in jail along with several of his supporters. On 20th May 1900, he was put up in front of
the court along with his compatriots, but he dropped ill on the path and was taken back to jail. He was
analysed to be enduring cholera, his situation worsened.
On June 9, 1900, he died in prison. Birsa Munda’s death is encircled in a dilemma. Some doubtful food
poisoning could be the reason, but the British councils contended cholera as a reason for his death.
In the prosecution of the Birsaites, Gaya Munda, his son, and Sukhram were given ca chief penalty. Donka
Munda Manjhia Munda and 34 other Birsaites subsisted sentenced for conveyance. Other Birsaites were
given some years of brutal imprisonment. Thus, the life of an extraordinary individual, along with the
movement, appeared to a verge. But Indian Freedom Movement pulled out motivation from it in the
previous days.

18) Revolt of 1857

Previous Year Question

 What were the causes of the Revolt of 1857? What effect did it have on Bihar? [65th BPSC/2020]
 Discuss the contribution of Bihar to the Uprising of 1857 AD. [63rd BPSC/2018] Critically examine
the significance of the Revolt of 1857 with special reference to Bihar. [56-59 BPSC/2016]
 Critically examine the role of Kunwar Singh in the revolt of 1857. [53-55 BPSC/2012]
 Discuss the causes of the Outbreak of the revolt of 1857 in Bihar and account for its failure? [47
BPSC/2007]
 Evaluate the role of Kunwar Singh in the revolt of 1857. [43 BPSC/2001]
 “It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the so-called first national war of independence of
1857 is neither first, nor national, nor a war of independence.” Comment. [41 BPSC/1997]

The Revolt of 1857, also known as the "First War of Independence," was the first significant attempt by
Indians to end British imperialism. It started on 10 May 1857, first in the form of sepoy mutiny and later as
a concerted effort by Indian rulers under the de jure supervision of the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah
Zafar. As the Revolt of 1857 posed a considerable threat to British power, it was proved as a watershed
movement for the British perspective towards India. They became more cautious in their approach towards
administration, the nature of the army, differential treatment of the vast Indian communities, etc.
The Revolt of 1857 was mainly concentrated across the vast portions of northern India, engulfing the
peasantry and other civilian populations that stood side-by-side with their leaders. Many prominent leaders
of the Revolt and common mass fought bravely with the British forces.
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Causes of The Revolt
Political Cause
 Bri sh policy of expansion: The political causes of the revolt were the British policy of expansion through
the Doctrine of Lapse and direct annexation.
 A large number of Indian rulers and chiefs were dislodged, thus arousing fear in the minds of other ruling
families who apprehended a similar fate.
 Rani Lakshmi Bai’s adopted son was not permitted to sit on the throne of Jhansi.
 Satara, Nagpur and Jhansi were annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse.
 Jaitpur, Sambalpur and Udaipur were also annexed.
 The annexation of Awadh by Lord Dalhousie on the pretext of maladministration left thousands of nobles,
officials, retainers and soldiers jobless. This measure converted Awadh, a loyal state, into a hotbed of
discontent and intrigue.

Doctrine of lapse:
 The notable British technique called the Doctrine of Lapse was first perpetrated by Lord Dalhousie in
the late 1840s.
 It involved the British prohibiting a Hindu ruler without a natural heir from adopting a successor and,
after the ruler died or abdicated, annexing his land.
 To those problems added the growing discontent of the Brahmans, many of whom had been
dispossessed of their revenues or had lost lucrative positions.

Social and Religious Cause

 The rapidly spreading Western Civilisa on in India was alarming concerns all over the country.
 An act in 1850 changed the Hindu law of inheritance enabling a Hindu who had converted into Christianity
to inherit his ancestral properties.
 The people were convinced that the Government was planning to convert Indians to Chris anity.
 The aboli on of prac ces like sa and female infan cide, and the legislation legalizing widow
remarriage, were believed as threats to the established social structure.
 Introducing western methods of educa on was directly challenging the orthodoxy for Hindus as well as
Muslims
 Even the introduction of the railways and telegraph was viewed with suspicion.

Economic Cause
 In rural areas, peasants and zamindars were infuriated by the heavy taxes on land and the stringent
methods of revenue collec on followed by the Company.
o Many among these groups were unable to meet the heavy revenue demands and repay their
loans to money lenders, eventually losing the lands that they had held for generations.
 Large numbers of sepoys belonged to the peasantry class and had family ties in villages, so the
grievances of the peasants also affected them.
 After the Industrial Revolution in England, there was an influx of Bri sh manufactured goods into India,
which ruined industries, particularly the textile industry of India.
o Indian handicraft industries had to compete with cheap machine- made goods from Britain.

Military Causes
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 The Revolt of 1857 began as a sepoy mu ny:
o Indian sepoys formed more than 87% of the British troops in India but were considered inferior to
British soldiers.
o An Indian sepoy was paid less than a European sepoy of the same rank.
 They were required to serve in areas far away from their homes.
 In 1856 Lord Canning issued the General Services Enlistment Act which required that the sepoys must be
ready to serve even in British land across the sea.

Immediate Cause
 The Revolt of 1857 eventually broke out over the incident of greased cartridges.
o A rumour spread that the cartridges of the new enfield rifles were greased with the fat of cows and
pigs.
o Before loading these rifles the sepoys had to bite off the paper on the cartridges.
o Both Hindu and Muslim sepoys refused to use them.
 Lord Canning tried to make amends for the error and the offending cartridges were withdrawn but the
damage had already been done. There was unrest in several places.
 In March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a sepoy in Barrackpore, had refused to use the cartridge and attacked
his senior officers.
o He was hanged to death on 8th April.
o On 9th May, 85 soldiers in Meerut refused to use the new rifle and were sentenced to ten years’
imprisonment.

Course of the Revolt of 1857

 Barrackpore: On 29th March 1857, Mangal Pandey, stationed at Barrackpore, revolted against his British
officers. He was hanged, which created anger and resentment amongst the sepoys.
 Meerut: On 24th April, ninety men of the Third Native Cavalry stationed at Meerut refused to use the
greased cartridges. Eighty-five of them were dismissed and sentenced to ten years imprisonment on
9th May.
o The rest of the Indian sepoys reacted strongly to this, and the next day, on 10th May, the
entire Indian garrison revolted.
o March to Delhi: After freeing their comrades and killing the British officers, they decided to march
on to Delhi.
o It was clear that it was not merely an army mutiny, as people from surrounding areas began to loot
the military bazaars and attacked and burnt the bungalows of the British as soon as they heard the
shots fired by the sepoys on their officers.
 Hindu-Muslim unity: In Meerut and Delhi, the Hindu sepoys overwhelmingly declared Bahadur Shah to
be their Emperor. As a sign of respect for the Hindus' religious beliefs, cow slaughter was banned
wherever the sepoys arrived.
 Spread of Revolt: In the next month, the entire Bengal Army rose in revolt. The Whole of North and
North West India was up in arms against the British.
o Central India: Thousands of Indore's soldiers joined the sepoy rebels in Indore. Gwalior's
troops went over to Tantya Tope and Rani of Jhansi.
o In East Punjab, Mainpuri, Bulandshahr, Danapur, Mathura. Agra. Lucknow, Allahabad, Banaras,
Shahabad, Etwah, and Aligarh, wherever there were Indian troops, they revolted

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 o With the revolt in the army, the police and local administration also collapsed.
 Effects of 1857 revolt: Wherever a revolt erupted, the government's treasury was taken away, the
magazine was ransacked, barracks and courthouses were set on fire, and prison gates were thrown
open.
o Telegraph lines were severed, and horsemen carrying alerts to Delhi were stopped.
o Peasants and dispossessed zamindars attacked the moneylenders and new zamindars who had
displaced them from the land.
o Destroyed the government files and the accounting records of the moneylenders.
o Attacked the British-established law courts, revenue offices, revenue records and police stations.

Leaders of Revolt of 1857

The storm centres of the uprising were located in Arrah, Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, and Lucknow.
Even though they acknowledged Emperor Bahadur Shah's suzerainty, all of these locations decided their
own rulers and continued to be independent.
Leaders Their contribu on
Bakht Khan at Bahadur Shah served as the leader of Delhi. However, the soldiers held true
Delhi power.
On July 3rd, 1857, Bakht Khan, who had organised the soldiers' uprising in
Bareilly, arrived in Delhi and assumed real power.
He assembled a Court of soldiers made up of both Muslim and Hindu rebels.
Begum Hazrat Begum of Awadh provided the leadership and proclaimed her son, Birjis Kadr, the
Mahal at Lucknow Nawab of Awadh.
But, Maulavi Ahmadullah of Faizabad, who organised rebellions and fought the
British, was the most popular leader.
Rani Lakshmi Bai She believed that she had been robbed of her ruling rights in defiance of
at Jhansi recognised Hindu law and fought valiantly.
Led the rebels in the region of Bundelkhand against the British.
Battle: East India Company’s forces under Hugh Rose encircled the fort of Jhansi.
Tatya Tope and Lakshmibai successfully assaulted the British in Gwalior and
proclaimed Nana Sahib as the Peshwa.
Nana Saheb at Nana Saheb was the leader of the Kanpur regiment.
Kanpur He attacked the British soldiers of the 53rd Native infantry at Kanpur with Tatya
Tope in June 1857.
Attack on the British East India Company’s entrenchment under General Sir Hugh
Wheeler.
Sir Hugh Wheeler surrendered to Nana Saheb in exchange for a secure passage
to Allahabad.
Nana Saheb announced himself as the Peshwa or the ruler after expelling
the British from Kanpur.
Kunwar Singh at He marched hundreds of miles to reach Mirzapur, Banda, and the area around
Bihar Kanpur with a war band of Danapur sepoys and the rebel Ramgarh state battalion.
He reached up to Rewa state and returned to Banda and then back to Arrah, where
he engaged and defeated the British troops.

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 He suffered severe injuries and passed away on April 27, 1858, in his ancestral
home in the Jagdishpur village.
Tatya Tope at Rebelled against the British at Kanpur and later at Gwalior.
Kanpur He’s known for his fearsome guerilla tactics.
In 1857, he captured Kanpur and established the authority of Nana Sahib there.
But after being forced to retreat by the British at the Second Battle of Kanpur, he
went to Gwalior.

Suppression and The Revolt

The Revolt of 1857 lasted for more than a year. It was suppressed by the middle of 1858.
On July 8, 1858, fourteen months after the outbreak at Meerut, peace was finally proclaimed by Lord Canning.
Places of Revolt Main Indian Leaders British Officials who suppressed the revolt
Delhi Bahadur Shah II John Nicholson
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal Henry Lawrence
Kanpur Nana Saheb Sir Colin Campbell
Jhansi & Gwalior Lakshmi Bai & Tantia General Hugh Rose
Tope
Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan Sir Colin Campbell
Allahabad and Maulvi Liyakat Ali Colonel Oncell
Banaras
Bihar Kunwar Singh William Taylor

Why did the Revolt Fail?

 Limited uprising: although the revolt was fairly widespread, a large part of the country remained
unaffected by it.
o The revolt was mainly confined to the Doab region.
o The large princely states, Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones
of Rajputana, did not join the rebellion
o The southern provinces did not take part in it.
 No effec ve leadership: the rebels lacked an effective leader. Although Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope and Rani
Lakshmi Bai were brave leaders, they could not offer effective leadership to the movement as a whole.
 Limited resources: the rebels lacked resources in terms of men and money. The English, on the other
hand, received a steady supply of men, money and arms in India.
 No par cipa on of the middle class: The English educated middle class, the rich merchants, traders and
zamindars of Bengal helped the British to suppress the revolt.

Results of The Revolt

 End of company rule: the great uprising of 1857 was an important landmark in the history of modern
India.
The revolt marked the end of the East India Company’s rule in India.
 Direct rule of the Bri sh Crown: India now came under the direct rule of the British Crown.
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 o This was announced by Lord Canning at a Durbar in Allahabad in a proclamation issued on 1
November 1858 in the name of the Queen.
o The Indian administration was taken over by Queen Victoria, which, in effect, meant the British
Parliament.
o The India office was created to handle the governance and the administration of the country.
 Religious tolerance: it was promised and due attention was paid to the customs and traditions of India.
 Administra ve change: the Governor General’s office was replaced by that of the Viceroy.
o The rights of Indian rulers were recognised.
o The Doctrine of Lapse was abolished.
o The right to adopt sons as legal heirs was accepted.
 Military reorganisa on: the ratio of British officers to Indian soldiers increased but the armoury
remained in the hands of the English. It was arranged to end the dominance of the Bengal army.

Conclusion
The revolt of 1857 was an unprecedented event in the history of British rule in India. It united, though in a
limited way, many sections of Indian society for a common cause. Though the revolt failed to achieve the
desired goal, it sowed the seeds of Indian nationalism.

Contribution of Bihar to the uprising of 1857

Beginning of the Revolt in Bihar:
At Patna on July 3 1857, a bookseller Pir Ali along with his associates killed Deputy opium Agent of the Patna
Opium Agency, Dr Lyell. Later Pir Ali was convicted and hanged on July 7, 1857. William Tayler was the
commissioner of the Patna division and had carried out operations against Pir Ali and his associates.
After the uprising of Patna, three of the regiments at Danapur rose up against the company. On 26th July they
marched into the district of Shahabad to join a well-organized movement against British administrative
authority under the able leadership of 80-year-old Kunwar Singh of Jagdishpur.
The spread of the Revolt in other areas of Bihar:
 Hazaribagh: The companies of infantry at Hazaribagh revolted towards the end of July 1857. Madhab
Singh was their leader. Soon they moved to Ranchi. In Ranchi, rebel sepoys revolted against Jaimangal
Singh.
 Palamau: Under the leadership of Nilamber and Pitamber in alliance with Chero Zamindars made
Palamau a centre of serious popular agitation during the revolt.
 Singhbhum: Raja Arjun Singh of Porhat and his brother led a formidable rising of the Kols of Singhbhum.
Besides these events, there was an uprising in Gaya where rebel troops along with disaffected villagers
participated.
The revolt of 1857 was an unprecedented event during the British rule in India which saw the participation
of people of Bihar with great enthusiasm which later enhances the sense of nationalism among the diverse
sections of the society.

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Role of Kunwar Singh in 1857 Revolt
The revolt of 1857 was a the most formidable challenge faced by British rule in 19th century. It was a
cumulative effect of British expansionist policies, economic exploitation and administrative innovation of
British which had affected almost all section of the society. e.g. Peasants, Zamindar, traders, artisans etc.
Kunwar Singh was a Zamindar family of the Ujjainiya clan of the Parmar Rajputs of Jagdispur, currently a part
of Bhojpur district, Bihar. He is known for the remarkable role he played during the revolt of 1857. He was
the chief organizer of the revolt against the British in Bihar. He is popularly known as Veer Kunwar Singh.

His role during the revolt of 1857:

Pre-planning:
 Being deprived of his estates by British, he already had his grievances against British rule. Even before
outbreak of revolt in Bihar, Kunwar Singh had started preparation for the revolt.
 Had got his fort repaired. Set up factory for production of arms and ammunition.
 Had arranged a select band of armed soldiers of 10,000.
Provided leadership:
 Kunwar Singh was looked upon as natural leader by most rebel in Bihar. On 25 July 1857, three regiments
of Danapur revolted. Next day, the troops crossed river Sone and reached Shahabad in an effort to
organised themselves under leadership of eighty years old Kunwar Singh, who had already launched a
movement against the British.
 When some Bihar rebels were being tried in 1857, one of them declared, ‘the supremacy of the English
and the Company is at an end, and it is now Kunwar Singh’s reign’
 Kunwar Singh had large number of followers including his brother Amar Singh, Ritnarain Singh; his
nephews Nishan Singh and Jai Krishna Singh as well as some other Zamindars.
 The rebels of Danapur, Chhotanagpur, Manbhum, Singhbhum and Palamu wanted to carry on the struggle
under his common leadership.
He captured Ara on 27th July 1857 and declared himself the ruler of Ara.
 Captain Denver was dispatched from Danapur and was defeated. The victory of Kunwar Singh was
celebrated by the people.
 Major Vincent Eyre, attacked Kunwar Singh and a fierce battle followed. on August 3, Kunwar Singh
realizing his adverse situation started guerilla warfare and shifted out of Bihar.
Used guerilla technique of warfare and keeping his men mobilised:
 He avoided fixed position and moved around extensively in areas like Mirzapur, Rewa, Banda, Lucknow
and Kanpur.
 This was the reason why his rebellions could be sustained for such a long time.
 He tried to forge alliance with other rebel leaders to give the revolt a pan-Indian character:
 At Kanpur, he met peshwa Nana Saheb. Along with Tatya Tope and Nana Saheb, he participated in fight
of Nana saheb and Kanpur was re-captured.
 At Lucknow, he met with rebel leaders and occupied Azamgarh defeating Colonel Millman and Danes. He
managed to repel the initial British attempts to take the area.
 At Lucknow, he was offered a rob of honour, 12,000 rupees and Azamgarh fort.
Showed utmost bravery and con nuously annoyed Bri sh:
 When he was at Azamgarh, Lord Canning sent Lord Luggard. But, timely informed Kunwar Singh decided
to leave Azamgarh and proceeded to Gazipur.
 Luggard couldn’t capture Kunwar Singh. People of Gazipur accorded him a heroic welcome. Now, Luggard
send Douglas after him. Prize of 25,000 was announced for his arrest.
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 On 17 April, 1858, Douglas attacked him but was forced to retreat. In this fight, a bullet shattered Singh’s
left hand. Kunwar Singh drew his sword and cut off his left hand near the elbow and offered it to the
Ganges. Pursued by Brigadier Douglas, he retreated towards his native village Jagdishpur on 22 April,
1858.
 Lee Grand was just awaiting him. Despite injury, Kunwar Singh defeated British army.
 Thus, all the places, he gave a good fight to British and remained invincible until the end. His tactics left
the British puzzled. 3 days later, on 26 April 1858, Kunwar Singh yield to his injury.
 Inspired the other leaders in Bihar:
 Kunwar Singh inspired the leaders in Chhotanagpur, Santhal Parganas and other parts of Bihar to carry
on the struggle After his death, his brother Amar Singh continued the fight with British
Cri cs has pointed to some limita ons for the role played by him:
 Some historians like Judith Brown, Erick stroke have viewed the revolt having feudal and elitist character
because of the leadership provided by feudal lord. They have named Kunwar Singh also as an example
for such feudal lords.
 It has been pointed that Kunwar Singh was deprived of his estates by British and he was partly motivated
by his personal interest.
 His actual own force was small. He had with him about twelve hundred Sipahis, trained in the Indian
army, and a few hundreds of untrained adherents, dependents of himself, his brother, and other
discontented landowners of the province. With such a force he could not hope to make a serious
impression.
 Violent nature of his role had its own limitations. Like other leaders of that time, he too was unaware
about the idea of non-violence.
 Overall the movement was backward looking and traditional in outlook. His resistance represented no
societal alternative.
Despite few limitations, Kunwar Singh led a remarkable movement against the British rule. He showed highest
level of bravery, foresightedness, discipline, diplomatic and strategic skills as well as value of patriotism.
Commenting on his role played during revolt of 1857, a British historian remarked, ‘if he would have been
young, British would have to leave India‘.

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 19) Bihar Peasants In Modern History

Previous Year Questions

 Write short note on Champaran Satyagraha [67th BPSC/2022]
 “Champaran Satyagraha was watershed in the freedom struggle.” Explain. [66th BPSC/2021]
 Describe the causes and results of Champaran Satyagraha in Bihar [1917]. [63 BPSC/2019]
 “Champaran Satyagraha is a watershed in the freedom struggle.” Elucidate. [64th BPSC/2018]
 What was the significance of Champaran Satyagraha for Peasant Uprisings? [56-59 BPSC/2016]
 Do you agree with the view that the Champaran satyagraha was a turrning point in the history of freedom
struggle in India? [47, BPSC/2007]
 The Champaran Satyagraha is an important milestone in the history of freedom movement of India.
Elucidate. [42 BPSC/1999]
 Discuss the peasant movements of Bihar in general and the intervention of Gandiji particularly in the
champaran movement. [39 BPSC/1993]

Peasant struggles are by no means a twentieth century phenomenon in the history of Bihar. In the
nineteenth century itself Bihar had witnessed scores of heroic struggles of the peasantry, the Santhal
Insurrection of 1855-56, the Munda Uprising of 1899-1901 and the Indigo Revolts in the latter half of the
nineteenth century being the most notable among them. However, these were all isolated instances of
peasant uprising with the leadership being provided by the local peasant leaders themselves without any
national perspective and modern ideas. In contrast, peasant struggles in the present century are marked by
outside intervention right from the days of the Champaran Satyagraha of 1917 when Gandhi first began his
experiments with the peasantry.

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Champaran Satyagraha, 1917

Champaran Satyagraha- (India’s First Civil Disobedience

Movement)
The Champaran Satyagraha is considered to be a vital event in the history of India’s freedom struggle. It
was India’s first Civil Disobedience movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi to protest against the injustice
meted out to tenant farmers in the Champaran district of Bihar. Let us read in detail about Champaran
Satyagraha.
The Champaran Satyagraha was the combination of elements of extra-constitutional struggle as well as the
employment of moral force against an adversary, an exemplar of the rule of law; and the use of
compromise as a gambit. It is marked as India’s first Civil Disobedience Movement launched by Mahatma
Gandhi to protest against the injustice meted out to tenant farmers in Champaran district of Bihar.
Champaran district was the part of permanent settlement area which consisted of the large zamindari
estates under rich and influential landlords. Most of the villages were leased out by the zamindars to
thikadars of whom the most influential were European Indigo Planters. Though the planters were
temporary tenure holders, they not only extracted rent from the peasants but also exercised civil and
criminal jurisdiction.

Historical background of Champaran Satyagraha

Before Champaran Satyagraha, the farmer of Champaran used to follow the "panchkathiya" system, whereby
five ka has of land in a bigha had to be planted with indigo. The local agitators and leaders like Sheikh Gulab,
Harbans Sahay, Pir Mohammed Munsi, Sant Rawat and Lomrah Singh agitated against the "panchkathiya"
system and managed to extract some concession and the system that came to be practiced was
the " nkathiya" system (three, instead of five, katthas of land was to be planted with indigo).Raj Kumar
Shukla was not happy with the concession and wanted to change the obnoxious system of agricultural labour

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prevailing in Champaran. They could not grow the food they needed, nor did they receive adequate payment for
the indigo.
It was Ganesh Vidyarthi who had mentioned Gandhi's work in Africa to Shukla. Brajkishore Prasad and Rajendra
Prasad who were the sympathetic lawyers of Patna suggested him to meet Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who
was attending the 31st Session of the Congress in Lucknow (held between December 26 and 30, 1916).
Therefore, Raj Kumar Shukla and Sant Raut persuaded Gandhi to go to Champaran, and thus, the Champaran
Satyagraha began. Gandhi arrived in Champaran 10 April 1917 and stay on the house of Sant raut in Amolwa
village with a team of eminent lawyers: Brajkishore Prasad, Rajendra Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha
Ramnavmi Prasad, and others include J. B. Kripalani.

Gandhiji and Champaran Satyagraha

Gandhiji reached Champaran in 1917 with Raj Kumar Shukla. On his arrival, the District Magistrate served him
with a notice saying that he was not to remain in the district of Champaran but must leave the place by the first
available train.
Gandhi disobeyed this order. He was summoned to appear before the court. The magistrate said, ‘If you leave
the district now and promise not to return, the case against you will be withdrawn.’
‘This cannot be.’ replied Gandhi. ‘I came here to render humanitarian and na onal service. I shall make
Champaran my home and work for the suffering people.’
The charismatic attributes of Gandhi can be judged when he appeared before the crowd and said, ‘You must
show your faith in me and in my work by remaining quiet. The magistrate had the right to arrest me because I
disobeyed his order. If I am sent to jail, you must accept that as just. We must work peacefully. And a violent
act will harm our cause.’
The crowd dispersed peacefully. The police stared at Gandhi in admiration as he went inside the court.
The Government withdrew the case against Gandhi and allowed him to remain in the district. Gandhi stayed
there to study the grievances of the peasants.
He took up residence at Hazarimal Dharmashala in Be ah village. He then visited many villages in the region to
study the grievances of the peasants. He recorded the statements and testimonies of 8,000 indigo cultivators to
understand their issues and the causes underlying them.
He came to the conclusion that the ignorance of the cultivators was one of the main reasons why it was possible
for the European planters to repress them.
He established the first-ever basic school at Barharwa Lakhansen village, 30 km east from the district
headquarters at Dhaka, East Champaran, on November 13, 1917, to improve the economic and educational
conditions of the people. He also set up two more basic schools at Bhi harwa with the help of Sant Raut in
West Champaran and Madhuban in this district on November 30, 1917, and January 17, 1918, respectively.
Then, he led organized protests and strike against the landlords, who with the guidance of the British
government, signed an agreement granting more compensation and control over farming for the poor farmers of
the region, and cancellation of revenue hikes and collection until the famine ended. It was during this agitation,
that the first time Gandhi called Bapu (Father) by Sant Raut and Mahatma (Great Soul).
For the first time in India, Gandhi was displaying that magnetic personality, which was to draw multitudes to him
and to earn him the title of Mahatma and the nickname of Bapu. Under pressure from the Government of India,
the Government of Bihar appointed a committee of inquiry (June 1917).
The recommendations of the committee were implemented, partly by the Champaran Agrarian Act of 1917 and
partly by executive orders which contains several concessions and prescription of limits for enhancement of
rents.

Significance
Oppression: It ended the long oppression of the peasant by the hands of planters in terms of forced cultivation
and poor returns.
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Assessment: A through assessment of the conditions was presented to the British.
Champaran Agrarian Act,1918:Based on the assessment, the legislation was made to protect the interests of the
peasants.
Gandhi Proved: Gandhi hitherto, had not involved actively in grassroot activity in India, saw him gaining all
attention due to success of the Champaran attempt to restore justice.
Team developed: It saw Gandhi adding to his team, powerful leaders like Kriplani, and Rajendra Prasad who later
were his powerful itinerants.
Fact based fight: Gandhi here relied on collecting documentary evidence, from the exploited peasants, which
helped him build a case for them, this proved that data based disproval of British policies have greater chance of
winning
Denying Authority: Gandhi, when he landed in Champaran was asked to leave but he said he would court an
arrest than leave, and went on with his task. This is a major initial example of civil disobedience and satyagraha
practised first hand.
Satyagraha: Convinced people of the power of Satyagraha to counter injustice.
Future Struggles: Set the stage for future struggles that ultimately culminated into India’s independence.

Outcomes
Champaran Agrarian Commi ee was formed and following the recommenda ons the government end the
teen kathia system and return the 25% of illegal cess collected to the ryots. Within a decade, the planters le
Champaran.
Thus Champaran movement was the watershed event in the India struggle for Independence.
Beginning of the Gandhian Era: Success at Champaran established Gandhiji as a strong leader in India’s struggle
for freedom. It was during this movement that he was called ‘Bapu’ and ‘Mahatama’ for the first time. Credit
goes to him for the abolish of the exploitative Tinkathia system.
Beginning of the Mass movement Era: Gandhiji’s ability to efficiently mobilize the oppressed peasants at
Champaran, convinced the otherwise reluctant Congress to start a mass movement against the British rulers.
Thus, Champaran Movement marked the beginning of the mass movement era as from now onwards masses
became a part of the national movement.
Emergence of Gandhiji as a Mass leader: Building on his experience in South Africa and establishing his
reputation as a leader of the masses, firstly during the Champaran Satyagraha and later on in Ahmedabad and
Kheda Satyagraha, Gandhiji found his feet among the masses. He now understood the strengths and weaknesses
of the masses better.
First demonstra on of Non- violent Satyagraha: Through Champaran Satyagraha, Gandhi demonstrated to
the people that even the strongest oppressor can be overthrown without the use of violence.

Conclusion
Gandhi’s win in Champaran, made him a hero among the masses and existing leadership, who were already
his admirers for his work in South Africa, so this set a stage for him to take batons of movement until its
success.

Role of Rajkumar Shukla in Champaran Movement and Na onal Movement

The foundations for the success of the Champaran satyagraha were laid by Rajkumar Shukla, a sharecropper who
refused to give irrigation cess and the man who was instrumental in bringing Gandhi to the district.
Contribu on to Champaran:
 He was engaged in oppposing the planters for the exploitative means adopted by them and was fighting many
cases in courts against the planters.

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 In any event, towards the end of 1916, unable to muster adequate local support for action, Shukla headed to
Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress.
 Raj Kumar Shukla- an illiterate but resolute hence followed Gandhiji Lucknow, Cawnpore, Ahemdabad,
Calcutta, Patna, Muzzafarpur & then Champaran to invite him.
 He mobilised the Champaran peasantry and exhorting them to join hands in a common fight before Gandhiji's
arrival.
 Shukla present in court to lend his support to these unfortunate individuals in their moments of hardship.
Contribu on to Na onal movement:
 Independent of Gandhi's activities, throughout the year, we find Shukla constantly attending court and
judicial proceedings in multiple locations to create fear among government.
 Spread the non-violent methods to fight with Britishers.
 It was in champaran only that J B Kriplani and Rajendra Prasad entered the freedom movement thus an
opportunity for them also was created by Shukla.
 Champaran was provided as a base to Gandhiji to establish strong roots among peasants and gave much
recognition to him all over India.
Thus directly and indirectly Shukla was a prominent contributor to the freedom movement.In seeking redress for
himself, Shukla quickly widened the meaning of his life's work. In championing the cause of justice for others in a
similar predicament, he became a lightning rod of the planters’ and paid a great personal price.

SWAMI SAHAJANAND SARASWATI

Recognized as one of the principle and significant leaders of peasantry in Bihar, Swami Sahajanand Saraswati was
a brilliant intellectual and a striking master of debate. Gifted with numerous qualities of mass leadership,
Sahajanand grew as a social reformer and politician and won a circle of several admirers. However, to his ill-fate,
all his contributions towards the freedom movement of India and raising consciousness of peasants are forgotten
today, except amongst a small number of historians and social scientists. The most attractive and instructive
respect that he earned during his life was his intellectual transformation, which makes him distinguished even
today, though with a small population. He was a versatile genius with performing several roles during

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his entire working career, such as linguist, polymath, sociologist, historian, philosopher, writer, grammarian,
ascetic, revolutionary, Marxist, and politician.

Early Life
 Swami Sahajanand Saraswati was born as Naurang Rai on February 22, 1889 in the village of Deva, Dullahpur
in Ghazipur district of Uttar Pradesh state. He was born as the sixth and last son in a Jijhoutia Bhumihar
Brahmin family. His father, Beni Rai, was a cultivator and hence, stood away from priestly functions. His mother
died when he was kid and was raised by his aunt. The family survived on a small zamindari income that was
carried from his grandfather’s time. However, with time and extension of the family, the land was divided and
the family had to take up cultivation to earn its living. However, this did not stop the family from sending
Sahajanand to school. After receiving formal education in a primary school, he went to German Mission High
School where he obtained his education in English medium.
 Since childhood, he was attracted towards religious practices. He objected on people believing in fake religious
rituals and hence, opted for studying religious texts in order to find real spiritual solace by biding goodbye to
the world. To prevent him from doing this, his family got him married to a child bride, but his wife died in 1905
or early 1906, even before the marriage could even stabilize. On his last attempt to adopting the sanyas, he
was initiated into holy orders and took the name of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati. By adopting sanyas, he was
abandoned from sitting in the matriculation examination. But he spent the first seven years studying religion,
politics, and social affairs.

Political Career
 Beginning his public appearance from Bhumihar Brahmin, he graduated towards Indian National Congress and
Peasant Movement, initially in Patna, Bihar, and later across India. Influenced by Mahatma Gandhi, he took
up political schooling under him and started serving in the Congress as a true Gandhian. By 1920, Sahajanand
was ready to plunge himself into the nationalist movement under Gandhi. But he was not satisfied with the
working of Gandhians. The final break up with Gandhi came in 1934 when Bihar was affected with a massive
earthquake. Although relief operations were carried out, Sahajanand found that people were actually suffering
due to the cruelty of the landlords rather than the earthquake.
 After the break up, he kept away from party politics though he shifted his interest towards mobilizing the
peasants. He was a Dandi sanyasi and hence, carried a long bamboo stick with him. Later on, this stick became
the symbol of peasant resistance. He gave the Bihar peasants the slogan “Danda Mera Zindabad” (Long live
my stick) which was assumed to be “Long live the danda (lathi) of the Kisans” and became an important motto
in the movement. In response to this, the peasants took up “Swamiji ki Jai” (Victory to Swamiji) and “Kaise
Logey Malguzari, Latth Hamara Zindabad” (How will you collect rent as long as our sticks are powerful?).

Posthumous Honours
 A commemorative stamp was issued by the Government of India in memory of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati
which was officially released by the then minister of Communications, Ram Vilas Paswan on June 26, 2000.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research has instituted the Swami Sahajanand Saraswati Extension
Scientist/Worker Award in his honor.
 An agrarian economy, India is considered the land of farmers. Even the current narrative and political discourse
primarily revolves around farmers and their key challenges. In this context, Swami Sahajanand

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 Saraswati’s teaching and preaching for the welfare of India’s farmers continues to be relevant. Subhash
Chandra Bose, the leader of the Forward Bloc had this to say: “Swami Sahajanand Saraswa is, in the land of
ours, a name to conjure with. The undisputed leader of the peasant movement in India, he is today the idol
of the masses and the hero of millions.”
 Swamiji continues to inspire millions who dream of an inclusive society with farmers at its centre. He was not
only the voice of the farmers of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh but also protected farmer-peasants against
exploitation by British rule.

20) Partition of Bengal

Lord Curzon served as Governor General and Viceroy of India from 6 January 1899 to 18
November 1905. Important events during his tenure include Famine of 1899-1900 {Chappania
Akal}, Appointment of Famine Commission {under Sir Anthony McDonnell}, Commission on
Irrigation {under Colin Scott Moncrieff}, Police Commission {under Andrew Frazer}, Education
Commission {aka Raleigh Commission}, enactment of Indian Universities Act, 1904, Land Resolution
of 1902, Punjab Land Alienation Act 1900, Establishment of Imperial Departments of Agriculture
and Commerce, Industry; Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act, 1899; establishment of a training
college for army officers at Quetta; Calcutta Corporation Act, 1899; Ancient Monuments Protection
Act, 1904; Military expedition to Tibet, Occupation of Chumby Valley and the most hated Partition
of Bengal. His policy resulted in deep discontent and the upsurge of a revolutionary movement in
the country, due to which he can be called most unpopular Viceroy of India. His tenure is called
Curzonshahi {akin to Nadirshahi}.

Bengal province consisted of West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Bangladesh, Southern Assam(Golpara,
Kachaar and Silhat)

Bengal Province

In terms of area: 20%

In terms of popula on:
 7 crore 80 lakhs(1901 census)
 Nearly 25% of the total
population of the country

 Assam(Golpara, Kaachar and Sylhet) was made independent state.

 On 19 July 1905 – Proposal of Partition of Bengal was presented.
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 On 20 July 1905 – Proposal of Partition of Bengal passed.
 On 7 August 1905 – Rabindra Nath Tagore called a meeting at Calcutta town hall in which extremist,
moderates and all sections of society participated. In this meeting proposal of Swadeshi and Boycott
was passed.

The Partition:
 Viceroy : Lord Curzon
 Secretary of State : Ridley
 Date of implementation : 16 October 1905
 Reason : Partition was done on administrative grounds.
 Bengal was divided into 2 parts – East Bengal and Bengal.
 East Bengal
 Population : 3.1Crore; in which Hindus were 1.2 Crore and Muslims were 1.8 Crore. It
became a Muslim majority area. The capital was made Dhaka.
 Bengal
 Population : 5.4Crore; in which Hindus were 1.2Crore and Muslims were 0.9Crore. It
became a Hindu majority area. The capital was made Kolkata.
 16 October 1905 was celebrated as Raksha Bandhan Diwas, Friendship Day, Mass-Unity Day
and mourning day.

Figure : Par on of Bengal

Swadeshi and Boyco Movement

Background:

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 The movement had its roots in the an -par on movement which was started to oppose Lord
Curzon’s decision of dividing the province of Bengal.
 The An -Par on Campaign was launched by Moderates to exert pressure on the government to
prevent the unjust partition of Bengal from being implemented.
 The petitions were written to the government, public meetings were held and the ideas were
spread through newspapers such as Hitabadi, Sanjibani and Bengalee.
 The partition led to protest meetings in Bengal under which the pledge to boycott foreign goods was
first taken.

Swadeshi Movement Proclamation:

 In August 1905, at Calcu a Townhall, a massive meeting was held and the formal proclama on of the
Swadeshi Movement was made.
 The message was propagated to boycott goods such as Manchester cloth and Liverpool salt.
 After the partition came into force, widespread opposition was shown by the people of Bengal by
singing Vande Mataram.
 Rabindranath Tagore also composed Amar Sonar Bangla.
 People tied Rakhis on each other’s hands as a symbol of unity.
 Although the movement was confined majorly to Bengal, it spread to a few different parts of India:
 In Poona and Bombay under Bal Gangadhar Tilak
 In Punjab under Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh
 In Delhi under Syed Haider Raza
 In Madras under Chidambaram Pillai.
 In Calcu a under Surendra Nath Banerjee and Rabindranath Tagore

Other important facts:

 Krishna Kumar Mitra was an Indian freedom fighter, journalist, and leader of Brahmo Samaj. He was an
active leader and was against the partition of Bengal (1905 to 1911). On 13 July, 1905, In his Nationalist
Bengali weekly Magazine titled ‘Sanjibani’ he boldly advocated for the freedom of the press. In his
opinion, the manufacturing of British goods should be abolished. He called for a boycott of foreign
goods, government officials and organisations by breaking all connections, people should mourn etc.
His ideas were supported by a gathering in Bagerhut (District-Khulna) on 16 July, 1905.
 Sir Andrew Henderson Leith Fraser, was an Indian Civil Servant who served as Lieutenant Governor of
Bengal between 1903 and 1908. Sir Andrew Fraser was very actively involved in framing the Bengal
partition
 The Swadeshi movement was the outcome of Bengal partition. This concept was mainly presented by
Aurobindo Ghosh, Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai. They wanted to implement Swadeshi
Movement in whole of India, but Moderates were against it.
 To collect the public support, Aswani Kumar Du organized the committee which is known as (Swadesh
Bandha’s Society). Lala Lajpat Rai and Aurobindo Ghosh played leading role in the fabrication of the
Movement's character. In this Movement, women actively participated but farmers and Muslim were
not involved in this Movement.
 Henry Woodd Nevinson was a British journalist and was related to the Swadeshi Movement.
Nevinson’s brief was to “discover the causes of the present discontent and to report, without prejudice
the opinion of leading Indians as well as officials.” Nevinson travelled across India for four months, and
his reports were carried by Manchester Guardian, Glasgow Herald, and Daily Chronicle. He re-edited
these pieces into a book. 'The New Spirit in India'.

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 Abanindranath Tagore founded the ‘Indian Society of Oriental Art’ to revive ancient art traditions of
India.

Annulment of Participation of Bengal

 The partition of Bengal was cancelled on the recommendation of Arundel committee.
 In December 1911, a grand Delhi Darbar was organized to welcome British King George V and Queen
Mary. George V annulled the Partition of Bengal on 12th December, 1911, and shifted the capital to
Delhi from Calcu a. It was announced that Bengal would be reconstituted as a new province. Orissa
and Bihar were separated. The Bengal got the identity of a new province in 1912. Assam was restored
to its previous position of 1874.

Delhi durbars:
Durbars Year Viceroy
First 1877 Lord
Lytton
Second 1903 Lord
Curzon
Third 1911 Lord
Hardinge

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21) ADMINISTRATIVE & ECONOMIC POLICIES UNDER
BRITISH RULE

Expected Question
Write short note on Government of India Act 1858

British rule in India can be divided into two phases:

 Phase One 1773-1857 (The Company Rule)
 Second Phase 1857-1947 (The Crown Rule).

Acts and Amendments Under British Rule

Major Acts and amendments of British Era are described below :

Phase 1 Company Rule (1773-1857)

 After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the East India Company got the Diwani (right to collect revenue) of
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
 An annual subsidy was to be paid to the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II and an annual pension to the
Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-Daula.
 The Company appointed two Indians as the Deputy Diwans—Mohammad Reza Khan for Bengal and
Raja Shitab Rai for Bihar.
 In 1767, British for the first time attempted to intervene in economic affairs and demanded 10% share
in the plunder amounting to 4 million pounds annually.
 From the year 1765 to 1772, the dual system of government continued, where the Company had the
authority but no responsibility and its Indian representatives had all the responsibility but no authority.
 This period was characterised by :
 Widespread corruption among servants of the Company who made full use of private trading to
enrich themselves.
 Excessive revenue collection and oppression of peasantry.
 The Company’s bankruptcy, while the servants were flourishing.
 By now the British government decided to regulate the Company to bring some order into its business.
From now, there would be a gradual increase in controlling laws.

Regula ng Act of 1773

 The Governor of Bengal was designated as the Governor-General of Bengal and he was nominated as
Governor-General for all the three Presidencies of Bengal, Madras and Bombay.
 Executive Council of four members was created to assist Governor-General in the administration.
Supreme Court at Calcutta was established in 1774.
 It comprised of One Chief Justice and three other judges.
 Court of Directors (governing body of the Company) had to report on its revenue, civil and military
affairs in India to British Government.

Amending Act of 1781 (Act of Se lement 1781)

 This act was passed in order to rectify the loopholes in the Regulating Act of 1773.

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 It was also known as Act of Settlement. The activities of the Governor-General, his Executive Council
and the servants of the Company were exempted from the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
 Supreme Court had to consider religious and social customs of Indians while administering the law. Act
laid down that the appeals from the Provincial Courts could be taken to the Governor-General-in-
Council and not to the Supreme Court.

Pi s India Act of 1784

 The act made distinction between commercial and political functions of the Company. Board of Control
was created to manage the political affairs of the Company.
 Board of Control were empowered to manage political affairs and the civil and military government or
revenues of the British possessions in India.
 Court of Directors was empowered to manage commercial affairs.
System of Dual Government was also established.

Act of 1786
Lord Cornwallis was appointed as Governor-General of Bengal in 1786 and the act was enacted to endorse
his demands. He demanded power to supersede decision of his council and would operate as Commander-
in-Chief.

Charter Act of 1793

 Governor-General of Bengal was given more power over governments of Bombay and Madras and
trade monopoly of the Company was extended for another twenty years.
 Board of Control and their staff were to be paid out of Indian revenues.

Charter Act of 1813

 Charter act of 1813 ended the monopoly of the East India Company in India, the company’s
monopoly in trade with china and trade in tea with India was kept intact.
 The company’s rule was extended to another 20 years.
 The act granted permission to the persons who wished to go to India for promoting moral and religious
improvements. (Christian Missionaries)
 This act regulated the company’s territorial revenues and commercial profits. It was asked to keep its
territorial and commercial accounts separate.
 The company’s dividend was fixed at 10.5% per annum.
 There was also a provision that Company should invest Rs. 1 Lakh every year on the education of
Indians.
 It empowered the Local Governments in India to impose taxes on persons and to punish those who did
not pay them.

Charter Act of 1833

 The charter act of 1833 legalized the British colonization of India. It ended the activities of the East India
Company as a commercial body, it became a administrative body. It provided that the company’s
territories in India were held by government ‘in trust for His Majesty, His heirs and successors’.
 It made the Governor-General of Bengal as the Governor-General of India and vested in him all civil and
military powers. This made Lord William Bentinck the first Governor-General of India { centralization of
the administration of India}

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 The Governors of Bombay and Madras lost their legislative powers. Governor-General of India had
legislative powers over entire British India.
 The laws made under the previous acts were called as Regulations while laws made under this act were
called as Acts.
 This Act introduced a system of open competition for selection of civil servants, and stated that the
Indians should not be debarred from holding any place, office and employment under the Company. It
also provided the Hailey bury college of London should make quota to admit the future civil servants.
However, this system of an open competition was not effectively operated in near future.
 The Governor-General in council had the authority to amend, repeal or alter any law British Indian
territories . The Governor-General’s council was to have four members again, fourth member had
limited powers only.
 For the first time, the Governor-General’s government was called Government of India and the council
was called India Council.
 Indian Law Commission was established to codify all Indian laws. The first Law Commission had Lord
Macaulay as its chairman.
 This act also directed the Governor General-in-Council to adopt measures to mitigate the state of
slavery, persisting in India since sultanate Era.

Charter Act of 1853

 Legislative and Executive functions of Governor-General’s Council were separated and established
Governor-General’s Legislative council known as Indian Central Legislative Council.
 Macaulay Committee was appointed on Indian Civil Services was appointed in 1854 for recruitment and
selection of Civil Servants. Local Representation of in Central Legislative Council was introduced. Four
members were appointed from governments of Bengal, Madras and Agra.

Phase II Crown Rule (1858-1947)

After the revolt of 1857, Britishs were compelled to bring about some drastic change in Administrative,
Economic and Social Structure.

Government of India Act, 1858

 This act was passed due to Revolt of 1857. It was also known as Act of Good Governance of India.
 The Act also abolished the East India Company and transferred all its powers and possessions to the
Crown.
 Power was now to be exercised by Secretary of State for India aided by a Council. Secretary was a
member of British Cabinet and was responsible to British Cabinet.
 System of Dual Government was put to an end by abolishing Board of Control and Court of Directors.
 Designation of Governor-General of India was changed to Viceroy of India (direct representative of
British Crown).
 Governor-General was to have an Executive Council member who were to act as heads of different
departments and their position was similar to that of Cabinet Ministers.

Indian Councils Act, 1861

 It enlarged Governor-General’s Council for purpose of making laws known as Imperial Legislative
Council.

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 It was authorised to add six to twelve members out of which at least half were to be Indians and it only
acted as an advisory body. It provided that the Viceroy should nominate some Indians as non-official
members of his expanded council.
 In 1862, Lord Canning, the then Viceroy, nominated three Indians to his legislative council–the Raja of
Banaras, the Maharaja of Pa ala and Sir Dinkar Rao.
 It initiated the process of decentralisation by restoring the legislative powers to the Bombay and
Madras Presidencies.
 It created New Legislative Councils for Bengal, North-Western Provinces and Punjab in 1862, 1886 and
1897 respectively.

Indian Councils Act, 1892

 Under this act number of non-official members were increased but maintained official majority in
them. Functions of Legislative Council were increased and was conferred power to discuss budget and
asking questions to executive.
 Under this Act, system of elections was introduced.

Indian Councils Act, 1909

 It is also known as Morley Minto Reforms.
 It increased the size of both Central (from 16 to 60) and Provincial Legislative Council and retained
official majority in the Central Legislative Council, but allowed the provincial legislative councils to have
non-official majority.
 For the first time, it provided for the association of Indians with the executive councils of the Viceroy
and Governors. Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the first Indian to join the Viceroy’s executive council.
He was appointed as the ‘Law Member’.
 It introduced a system of communal representation for Muslims by accepting the concept of ‘separate
electorate’.
 Thus, the Act ‘legalised communalism’ and Lord Minto came to be known as the Father of Communal
Electorate.

Government of India Act, 1919

 It is also known as Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms.
 The central and provincial legislatures were authorised to make laws on their respective list of subjects.
Dyarchy system of government was introduced.
 It divided the provincial subjects into two parts– transferred and reserved.
 The transferred subjects - administered by the Governor with the aid of Ministers responsible to the
legislative council.
 The reserved subjects - administered by the Governor and his executive council without being
responsible to the legislative council.
 Bicameralism and direct elections were introduced in the country. Indian Legislative Council was
replaced by a Bicameral Legislature consisting of an Upper House (Council of State) and a Lower House
(Legislative Assembly).
 The majority of members of both the Houses were chosen by direct election.
 A Central Public Service Commission was set up in 1926 for recruiting civil servants.

Indian Independence Act, 1947

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 British rule in India came to an end and India was declared as an independent and sovereign state from
15th August, 1947.
 India was partitioned of India independent dominions of India and Pakistan were created.
 Act abolished the office of the Secretary of State for India and transferred his functions to the Secretary
of State for Commonwealth Affairs.
 Act designated the Governor-General of India and the provincial governors as constitutional (nominal)
heads of the states.

Provincial Administration
 For the administrative convenience, the British had divided India into provinces three of which –
Bengal, Madras and Bombay were known as Presidencies.
 They were administered by a Governor and his three executive councils, who were appointed by the
crown.
 The Central government exercised authoritarian control over the provincial expenditure.
 But this system proved quite wasteful in practice.
 In 1870, Lord Mayo had taken the first step in the direction of separating central and provincial
finances.
 Lord Mayo’s scheme was enlarged in 1877 by Lord Lytton who transferred to the provinces certain
other heads of expenditure such as Land Revenue, Excise, General Administration and Law and Justice.
 The financial arrangements between the centre and the provinces were to be reviewed every five years.

Local Bodies
Local bodies were first formed in the period between 1864 and 1868, but in most cases consisted of
nominated members and were headed by district magistrates. In 1882, the Government of Lord Ripon
desired the provincial government to apply the same principle of financial decentralisation in case of local
bodies implemented by Lord Mayo’s government. For his contributions, Lord Ripon is called ‘Father of
Local-self Government in India’.

Land Revenue System

Three major systems of land revenue collection existed in India. They were – Zamindari, Ryotwari and
Mahalwari.

Zamindari System (Permanent Land Revenue Settlement)

 Zamindari System was introduced by Cornwallis in 1793 through the Permanent Settlement Act.
 It was introduced in the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Varanasi.
 Also known as Permanent Se lement System.
 Zamindars were recognized as the owner of the lands. Zamindars were given the rights to collect the
rent from the peasants.
 While the zamindars became the owners of the land, the actual farmers became tenants.
 The tax was to be paid even at the time of poor yield.
 The tax was to be paid in cash. Before introducing this system, the tax could be paid in kind.
 The realized amount would be divided into 11 parts. 1/11 of the share belongs to Zamindars and
10/11 of the share belongs to East India Company.

Ryotwari System
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 A system that came to be known as the Ryotwari System, was devised by Captain Alexander Read and
Sir Thomas Munro at the end of the 18th century and introduced by the latter when he was governor of
Madras Presidency (1819–26).
 This was the primary land revenue system in South India.
 Major areas of introduction include Madras, Bombay, parts of Assam and Coorg provinces of British
India.
 In Ryotwari System the ownership rights were handed over to the peasants. British Government
collected taxes directly from the peasants.
 The revenue rates of the Ryotwari System were 50% where the lands were dry and 60% in irrigated
land.
 Though ownership of land was vested with the farmers, excessive tax impoverished them. Furthermore,
the tax rates were frequently increased.

Mahalwari System
 By the early 19th century, the Company officials were convinced that the system of revenue had to be
changed again.
 The revenues cannot be fixed permanently at such a time when the Company needed more money
to meet its expenses of administration and trade.
 In 1822, Englishman Holt Mackenzie devised a new system known as the Mahalwari System in
the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency (most of this area is now in Uttar Pradesh).
 Under the Mahalwari system, the land revenue was collected from the farmers by the village
headmen on behalf of the whole village (and not the zamindar).
 The entire village was converted into one bigger unit called ‘Mahal’ and was treated as one unit for the
payment of land revenue.
 The revenue under the Mahalwari system was to be revised periodically and not fixed permanently.
 The system was popularised by Lord William Ben ck in Agra and Awadh and was later extended
to Madhya Pradesh and Punjab.

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Some Other Systems

Taluqdari System
 The term ‘taluqdar’ has different meanings in different parts of India. In Oudh, taluqdar is a great
landholder.
 But in Bengal, a taluqdar is next to zamindar in extent of land control and social status.
 The big zamindars themselves had created many taluqs under several denominations, such as, junglburi
taluq, mazkuri taluq, shikimi taluq, and so on.
 These were created partly as a strategy of zamindari management and partly as a fiscal policy
measure for raising zamindari funds for specific purposes.
 After the Permanent Settlement, new varieties of taluqs were created by zamindars.
 Under the pressure of the Permanent Settlement, many zamindars were creating dependent taluqs
denominated as pattani taluq, noabad taluq and osat taluq.

Malguzari System
 The land tenure prevailing in the erstwhile Central Provinces was known as Malguzari system in
which the Malguzar was merely a revenue farmer under the Marathas.
 When the Marathas came into power in this region, they farmed out the revenues of villages to
persons of influence and wealth, who were called Malguzars.
 During the British Rule, they were given proprietary rights and were held responsible for payment of
revenue.
 If the headman of a village was weak or was for any other reason, unable to answer for the sum the
authorities expected, or if a court favourite wanted the village, the headman was replaced without
hesitation by a farmer.
 The farmer, or manager was at first called Mukaddam (the Hindi or Marathi form of Arabic Mugaddam).
 Under the Malguzari system, the Lambardar/Sadar Lambardar appointed from among the Malguzars,
was the revenue engager.
 Other cultivators were either Absolute occupancy tenant, Occupancy tenant, Sub-tenant, Raiyat-Malik
or lessees, who could be ejected from their holdings on various grounds. Malguzar (proprietor or co-
sharer) held land under special description, namely, Sir land and Khudkasht land.

Progress Made Under Lord Macaulay

 The Charter Act of 1833, allowed native Indians to be part of administration in British India.
 The Charter set up India’s First Law Commission under the Chairmanship of Lord Macaulay which
recommended codification of the Penal Code, the Criminal Procedure Code and other legal provisions.
 The concept of a merit based modern Civil Service in India was introduced in 1854 after submission of
Lord Macaulay’s Report of the Select Committee of British Parliament.
 The Report recommended that patronage based system of East India Company should be replaced by a
Permanent Civil Service based on a merit-based system with entry through competitive examinations.
 Recommendations of Lord Macaulay (in the backdrop of Charter Act of 1853, along with Queen’s
Proclamation of 1858) led to the enactment of Indian Civil Services Act, 1861.
 It allowed Indians to compete at par with the Britishers in an open merit-based recruitment.
 In 1864, Satyendra Nath Tagore became the first Indian to succeed at the exam.

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Reforms Under Lord Dufferin
 Formation of Indian National Congress in 1885, led to a growing demand for simultaneous examination
both in India and London including the demand for raising the upper age limit.
 On the basis of these rising demands by the Moderate faction of Indian National Congress, Lord
Dufferin appointed Aitchison Committee on Public Services in 1886.
 It aimed to investigate into the problems of civil services in India.
 The Commission rejected the idea of simultaneous examination but rather proposed setting up of
provincial civil service.
 The members of this service would be separately recruited in every province either by promotion from
lower ranks. The recommendations of Aitchison Committee were accepted and the covenanted civil
service came to be known as Civil Service of India.
 The provincial service was called after the particular province.

Royal Commission on the Superior Civil Services in India : Lee

Commission, 1923
 The next major development in the permeation of civil services in Indian roots was the appointment of
Royal Commission on the Superior Civil Services in India.
 It was also known as Lee Commission. The Commission was appointed by the British government in
1923 to consider the ethnic composition of the superior Indian public services of the Government of
India. It had equal numbers of Indian and British members.
 Earlier, Islington Commission (1917) in its report of 1917 had recommended that 25% of the higher
government posts should go to the Indians.
 The Lee Commission examined the recommendations of the Islington Commission report and reviewed
the existing position of two groups of services i.e., All India Services and the Central Services.
 The Provincial Services were not considered as they had already come under the control of the
provincial governments.
 On the basis of Islington Commission’s report, the Lee Commission proposed in 1924 that 20% of the
superior posts should be filled by promotions from provincial civil services.
 The out of remaining 80%, 40% should be British and 40% should be directly recruited Indians.
 The Lee Commission, in its report in the year 1924, recommended that the statutory Public Service
Commission contemplated by the Government of India Act, 1919, should be established without delay.
 So, on 1st October, 1926, for the first me the Public Service Commission was set up in India.

Transport and Communication System

 Under British Rule upto the middle of the 19th century, the means of transport in India were backward.
They were confined to bullock-cart, camel and packhorse.
 The British rulers soon realised that a cheap and easy system of transport was a necessary if British
manufactures were to flow into India on a large-scale.
 The British rulers introduced steamships on the rivers and also improved the roads.
 Work of the Grand Trunk Road from Calcu a to Delhi began in 1839 and completed in the 1850s.
 Efforts were also made to link by road the major cities, ports and markets of the country.

Development of Railways

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 The first railway engine designed by George Stephenson was put on the rail in England in 1814.

22) Non-Cooperation Movement in India and Bihar

The non-cooperation movement was launched on 1st August 1920 by the Indian National Congress (INC)
under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. It signified a new chapter in the history of Indian freedom
struggle.

Causes of the non-cooperation movement:

Resentment at the Bri sh a er the war:
Indians thought that in return for the extensive support of manpower and resources they had provided to
Britain during the First World War, they would be rewarded by autonomy at the end of the war. But the
Government of India Act passed in 1919 was dissatisfactory. In addition, the British also passed repressive
acts like the Rowlatt Act which further angered many Indians who felt betrayed by the rulers despite their
wartime support.
Home Rule Movement:
The Home Rule Movement started by Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak set the stage for the non-
cooperation movement. The extremists and the moderates of the INC were united and the Lucknow Pact
also saw solidarity between the Muslim League and the Congress Party. The return of the extremists gave
the INC a militant character.
Economic hardships due to World War I:

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India’s indirect participation in the war caused a lot of economic hardships to the people. Prices of goods
began to soar which affected the common man. Peasants also suffered because the prices of agricultural
products did not increase. All this led to resentment against the government.
The Rowla Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre:
The repressive Rowlatt Act and the brutal massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar had a profound effect on
the Indian leaders and the people. Their faith in the British system of justice was broken and the whole
country rallied behind its leaders who were pitching for a more aggressive and firmer stance against the
government.
The Khilafat Movement:
During the First World War, Turkey, which was a German ally, had fought against the British. After Turkey’s
defeat, the Ottoman caliphate was proposed to be dissolved. The Khilafat movement was launched by
Muslims in India to persuade the British government not to abolish the caliphate. The leaders of this
movement accepted the non-cooperation movement of Gandhiji and led a joint protest against the British.

Features of the non-cooperation movement in Bihar:

 Teachers and students left schools and colleges and the lawyers abstained from attending courts. Many
officials left their jobs. Foreign goods were boycotted.
 There was a boycott of auctions for settlement of ferries and pounds in Munger and Bhagalpur.
 There was a strike in the Government press in Patna.
 There was a police strike in March-April, 1921 which spread to Patna, Purnea, Munger and Champaran.
 When the Prince of Wales landed in Bombay on November, 17, there was hartal in whole of Bihar.
When the Prince visited Patna on December, 22, there was a complete boycott.
 The arrest of Gandhiji in March, 1922 was marked by state-wide protest meetings.
 The Civil Disobedience Enquiry Committee of the Congress visited Bihar in 1922.
 Bihar Vidvapeeth was established on February 6, 1921, which was inaugurated by Gandhiji. Maulana
Mazharul Hague and Braj Kishore Prasad were made its Chancellor and Vice-Chancellor respectively.
Rajendra Prasad was made Principal at National School, Patna.
 Mazharul Haque established Sadakat Ashram near Digha in Patna which became the main centre of
national movement. He also started a newspaper called Motherland from September 30, 1921.
The most significant event was the 37th session on the Congress at Gaya in 1922 presided over by C.R. Das,
which voted for the continuance of the boycott of legislatures. In this session Rajendra Prasad was elected
secretary of the Congress and the office of AICC was shifted to Patna. The Tana Bhagats also attended the
Gaya Congress. Rajendra Prasad himself participated in the famous flag Satvagraha at Nagpur in 1923 along
with a group of volunteers from Bihar.

Suspension of the non-cooperation movement:

 Gandhiji called off the movement in February, 1922 in the wake of the Chauri Chaura incident.
 In Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, a violent mob set fire to a police station killing 22 policemen during a
clash between the police and protesters of the movement.
 Gandhiji called off the movement saying people were not ready for revolt against the government
through ahimsa. A lot of leaders like Motilal Nehru and C R Das were against the suspension of the
movement only due to sporadic incidents of violence.

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After the suspension of NCM, Bihar concentrated on khadi production and other constructive activities.
As a result of break in the Congress, the Swaraj Party was formed in January 1923 under the presidentship
of CR Das and Motilal Nehru as its secretary. The Swaraj Party in Bihar was formed in February, 1923. Shri
Narayan Prasad was its first President and Abdul Bari was its secretary. The party participated in the
assembly elections held in November, 1923 and won 8 seats in the assembly and 10 seats in the council.

Some of the important events happened during Non‐

cooperation Movement in Bihar were as follows:
 There was a boycott of auctions for settlement of ferries and pounds in Munger and Bhagalpur. A strike
was happened at Government Press in Patna.
 A national college as an alternate arrangement was established with Rajendra Prasad as Principal at
Patna-Gaya road.
 Gandhiji in December, 1920 visited Bihar and especially in Bhagalpur led the picketing of liquor shops.
In Bihar ‘Tilak Memorial Committee’ was formed. ‘The search-light’ on the death of Tilak published an
article ‘Bihar is Mourning’.
 There was a police strike in March-April, 1921 which spread to Patna, Purnia, Munger and Champaran.
 Gandhiji also formally inaugurated Bihar National College on 5th January, 1921 and Bihar Vidyapeeth on
6th February, 1921.
 Mazhar-ul-Haq on 30th September, 1921 started ‘The Motherland’ newspaper to propagate Hindu-
Muslim Unity and Gandhian ideology. newspaper to propagate Hindu-Muslim Unity and Gandhian
ideology.
 On 22nd December, 1921, the British Prince visited Bihar, which was opposed by the Congress.
Mahendra Prasad, Dr. Rajendra Prasad’s brother returned the title of ‘Ray Sahab’ at the time of Non-
cooperation Movement.

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23) Role of India and Bihar in Civil Disobedience
Movement

Expected Question
Discuss the role of Gandhiji in Civil Disobedience Movement.
Highlight the role of Bihar in Civil Disobedience Movement.

In India, CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT was a landmark event in the Indian Nationalist movement. In
many ways, the civil disobedience movement is credited for paving the way for freedom in India
The Lahore Session of Indian Na onal Congress in 1929 authorized the Congress Working Committee to
start the Civil Disobedience Movement. Mahatma Gandhi was assigned to lead the Movement in the
second meeting of Congress Working Committee held in February, 1930 at Sabarma Ashram.

Gandhi’s Efforts
Gandhi was still not sure of his action. Before launching the movement, he once again tried for compromise
Government. He placed ‘eleven points‘ of administrative reform via his ‘Young India’ on 30 January, 1930
and stated that if Lord Irwin accepted them there would be no need for agitation. But Irwin did not paid any
attention to it.
Gandhiji’s Eleven Demands
1. Prohibit intoxicants and liquor 7. Impose custom duty on foreign cloth,
2. Change the ra o between the rupee and 8. Accept the Postal Reserva on Bill,
the sterling. 9. Abolish the CID Department,
3. Reduc on in the rate of land revenue, 10. Release all Poli cal prisoners and
4. Aboli on of salt tax 11. Issue licenses of arms to ci zens for self-
5. Reduce the military expenditure, protec on.
6. Reduce expenditure on civil administra on,

Salt was chosen as the central symbol of protest due to the

following reasons:
 Salt tax , according to Gandhi, was the most inhuman tax , since it affected the starving
millions, the sick, the maimed and the helpless.
 Salt linked the ideal of swaraj with a most concrete and universal grievance of the rural poor.
 Salt was a source of income for the poor like khadi.
 Making salt was a monopoly. Since it was a necessity of the household, people were forced to
purchase it on higher prices from the shops.
 The British used to destroy salt collected from the villagers from the sea which led to an
increase in national expenditure.

Launch of the Movement

 The Dandi March began on March 12, 1930, from Sabarma Ashram in Gujarat to the coastal
village of Dandi, a distance of approximately 385 kilometres. Gandhi and 78 followers set out on
foot for Dandi.

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 They travelled from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi in 24 days and arrived on the Dandi coast on
April 6, 1930, where Gandhi broke the salt laws and launched the mass Civil Disobedience
Movement by picking up a handful of salt. While addressing the domestic and foreign journalists,
he said: “I want world sympathy in this ba le of Right against Might.”
 After that the CDM started in other parts of the country as well.
 On 5 May, 1930 Gandhiji was arrested and sent to Yeravada jail in Puna.
 After Gandhiji’s arrest, Abbas Tyabji took his place as a leader.

The 5 point programmes Instructions given to

of the movement were: various states:
1) Defiance of Salt laws. Bihar – Chaukidari tax should not be
2) Boycott of liquor. paid.
3) Boycott of foreign cloth and British M.P/Chhattisgarh – forest laws should
goods of all kinds. be broken.
4) Non-payment of taxes and revenue. Gujarat – Tax not to be paid.
5) Students should stop going to schools
and colleges

Leaders:
 Assam – Tarun Ram Toofan
 Manipur – Jadonang and Rani Gaidainlu
 Odisha – Gopi Chandra
 Malabar coast(Calicut to Peynnur) – K.Kelapan and T.K Madavan
 Tamil Nadu - C. Rajagopalachari(Thiruchirapalli to Vedaranniyam on the Tanjore coast)
 Darshana(Bombay) – Sarojini Naidu, Imam Saheb, Manilal Gandhi, Abbas Tyabji
 Webb Miller was an American journalist, who stayed by Gandhi in his Sabarmati ashram
during Dandi March. He wrote about gruesome police excesses at Dharsana “ As a reporter, I
have seen numerous revolts in the last 18 years. I have seen riots, carnage in the streets and
revolts but I have never seen such a horrible event like Dharsana”
 Peshawar
 Here, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan’s educational and social reform work among the Pathans had
politicised them. Gaffar Khan, also called Badshah Khan and Fron er Gandhi, had started the
first Pushto political monthly Pukhtoon and had organised a volunteer brigade ‘Khudai
Khidmatgars’, popularly known as the ‘Red-Shirts’, who were pledged to the freedom
struggle and non-violence

Women in the freedom struggle:

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  Sarojini Naidu was one of the leaders
who travelled with Mahatma Gandhi
on the Dandi March.
 Ambabai from Karnataka: Ambabai
had been married at age twelve.
Widowed at sixteen, she picketed
foreign cloth and liquor shops in Udipi.
She was arrested. Between prison terms
she made speeches, taught spinning,
and organised Prabhat pheris.

Role of Bihar in CDM

 Bihar played an important role in Civil Disobedience Movement. 6th April 1930 was fixed as the date for Salt
Satyagraha. Rajendra Prasad reviewed the possible line of Civil Disobedience in a speech at Patna in the month
of February. Jawaharlal Nehru toured Saran, Champaran and Muzzaffarpur from 31st March to 3rd April. His visit
was a source of great inspiration to the people of Bihar. The city of Patna witnessed one of the most heroic scenes
from 16th to 21st April even in the face of violence on the part of the police.
 On 16th April 1930, a Satyagraha was inaugurated at Patna. Volunteers proceeded in procession to Nakhas pind,
which had been selected as the spot for the violation of salt laws by manufacturing salt. The police perpetrated
merciless atrocities on volunteers in the vanguard. Prof. Abdul Bari was brutally attacked by the police, when he
was trying to control the crowd in front of the Patna College.
 Acharya Kriplani was also assaulted by the police with the batons. The police even pressed against Rajendra
Prasad while he was moving quietly along the road with a few other leaders. But people were not deterred.
 In Bhagalpur, a regular camp of volunteers was started where they drilled and practiced lathi play. The
government decided to declare this camp as an unlawful assembly and break it up. Rajendra Prasad , Abdul Bari
and several other leaders were present along with a large crowd when the camp was being dismantled. In Munger
district, breaking of salt law became chronic and hundreds were arrested. Under the able leadership of Krishna
Sinha and Nand kumar Sinha, Congress ac vi es increased rapidly in Munger district.
 The movement for the non-payment of Chowkidari tax spread throughout Bihar. Government adopyed
stringent measures to crush it. For the the non-payment of Chowkidari tax, confiscation of property and goods of
all kinds including ploughs, cattle grains, cooking utensils etc become the common feature. On account of the
Gandhi-Irwin Pact and Gandhi attending the Second Round Table Conference in London, there was a slowdown
in the non-cooperation movement between 5th March 1931 to 1st January 1932. After the return of Gnadhi from
London, Civil Disobedience Movement was resumed from where it was left.
 Government took stringent measures to crush this movement. Government passed a large number of Ordinances
covering almost every activity of Indian life.
 At several places like Mo hari, Sheohar, Begusarai, Tarapur( in Munger), etc, police resorted to firing. Even under
these extremely trying circumstances, the annual Congress session was held in Delhi on 24th April 1932. In this
session put on record its high appreciation of the supreme sacrifice of freedom fighters who laid their lives,
notably in the Frontier province and Tarapur (in Munger) in Bihar.

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 Notwithstanding the arrest of Rajendra Prasad and many other leaders, unrestricted use of weapons,
promulgation of stringent ordinances by the government, the movement continued in all its forms such as
picketing of foreign cloth and the sale of liquor, non-payment of taxes, and so on till it was suspended by Gandhi
in 1934 under circumstances. The national leaders then decided to concrete on constructive activities.

24) Kisan Sabha in Bihar

 Inspired by the Champaran incident, Swami Vidyanand started the Kisan Sabha in Madhubani. Similar
movements also started in Munger, Shahabad, Patna, Saran, Muzaffarpur etc by the farmers.
 A Kisan Sabha was organised by Jagannath Pathak at Hilsa on 27th October, 1920 under the presidentship of
Shah Ghafoor.
 The Kisan Sabha was formed in Munger in 1922-23 by Shri Krishna Singh and Shah Mohammad Zubair.
 In 1929, Swami Sahajanand Saraswati formed the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha ﴾BPKS﴿ to mobilise peasant
grievances against the zamindari attacks on their occupancy rights.
 Zamindars in action formed United Political Party in order to suppress peasants.
 In 1936, All India Kisan Sabha was formed at Lucknow. Under Rajendra Prasad, a committee was set-up to study
condition of Rajendra Prasad, a committee was set-up to study condition of farmers.
 In North and Central Bihar, peasants movement was an important side effect of the independence movement.
This movement aimed at overthrowing the feudal zamindari system instituted by Britishers. It was being led by
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati and his followers Pandit Yamuna Karjee, Rahul Sankrityayan and others.
 Pandit Yamuna Karjee along with Rahul Sankrityayan and other Hindi literary started publishing a Hindi weekly
Hunkar from Bihar in 1940. Hunkar later became the mouthpiece of the Peasant Movement and the Agrarian
Movement in Bihar.

Individual Satyagraha and Bihar

Individual Satyagarh was the resultant of August offer. It was started with the mass Civil Disobedience Movement
but M.K Gandhi on Individual Satyagarh. This was movement for not only to seek independence but also to affirm
the right of Speech. The Congress once again asked Gandhi to take command towards the end of 1940 and that was
lead to a mass struggle with broad strategic perspective.

Aims of individual Satyagraha

 To show that nationalist patience was not due to weakness
 To express people’s feeling that they were not interested in the war and that they made no distinction between
Nazism and the double autocracy that ruled India.
 To give another opportunity to the Government to accept Congress’s demands peacefully.
 The demand of the Satyagrahi was using freedom of Speech against the war through an anti-war declaration. If
government did not arrest the Satyagrahi, he or she will move repeating it in villages and start march towards
Delhi (“Delhi Chalo Movement”).The centrepiece of Individual Satyagraha was non-violence which could be
achieved only selecting the Satyagrahis. Acharya Vinoba Bhave, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru and Brahma Dutt were the
first, second and third the selected Satyagarhi respectively.

The contribution of Bihar in the individual satyagraha:

In Bihar, the individual satyagraha started on 28th November 1940. Shri Krishna Singh was the first satyagrahi in
Bihar. He was jailed for nine months ﴾22 November 1940 – 26 August 1941﴿. Anugraha Narayan Singh was the

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second satyagrahi. He was arrested at Patna while delivering the speech. In Gaya, Gauri Shankar Singh performed
satyagraha on 4th December, 1940. Shyam Narayan Singh of Silaw also performed the individual satyagraha on 9th
December 1940. Some women were also chosen as satyagrahi: In Gaya, Priyamvada Devi, Jagat Rani Devi and Janki
Devi were arrested. Mahadevi Kesriwal was arrested in Dumka. Overall, Bihar proactively participated in this
movement. By 15 May 1941, more than 25,000 Satyagrahis from all over the country had been convicted for
offering individual civil disobedience.

25) Quit India Movement

Previous Year Question

 Write an essay on the Quit India Movement? Was it a spontaneous movement?
 Write a short notes on: ‘Jayaprakash Narayan and Quit India movement.’ [66th BPSC-2021]
 Describe the people’s participation in Bihar during the Quit India Movement of 1942. [60-62 BPSC/2019]
 Describe the contribution of Bihar to the quit India movement of 1942. [48-52, BPSC/2009]
 Analyze the nature and extent of quit India movement with special reference to Bihar. [44 BPSC/2002]
 Discuss the impact of the quit India Movement on Bihar. [41 BPSC/1997]
 What role did the ‘Azad Dasta’ play in Bihar during the quit India movement? [40 BPSC/1995]

The Quit India Movement started in year 1942 which was led by Mahatma Gandhi. The main goal of Quit India
Movement was complete independence from British Government & their rigid policies in India.

Quit India Movement

 The Quit India Movement started on August 8, 1942, also known as the August Kran Movement, calling for the end
of British rule in India at the All India Congress Committee’s session in Bombay.
 At the meeting of the All-India Congress Committee in Mumbai, Mahatma Gandhi demanded the end of British rule
and launched the Quit India Movement. In his address at the Gowalia Tank Maidan, now referred to as August Kranti
Maidan, Mahatma Gandhi urged listeners to “Do or Die”.
 The Indian flag was raised at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Mumbai during the Quit India Movement by Aruna Asaf Ali,
also referred to as the “Grand Old Lady” of the Independence Movement. Yusuf Meherally, a socialist and trade unionist
who served as Mayor of Mumbai, is the author of the phrase “Quit India.”

Causes:
 Failure of Cripps Mission: - The failure of the Cripps Mission to guarantee any kind of a constitutional remedy to
India’s problems also led to the INC calling for a mass civil disobedience movement.
I. Involvement of India in World War II without prior consulta on with the leaders:-The British assumption
of unconditional support from India to British in World War II was not taken well by the Indian National
Congress.
II. Prevalence of an -Bri sh Sen ment:-The anti-British sentiments and demand for full-independence had
gained popularity among Indian masses.
III. Centralisa on of Many Small Movements: The two decades of mass movement which were
being conducted on a much more radical tone under the leadership of the various associated and affiliated
bodies of the Congress, like All India Kisan Sabha, Forward Bloc etc. had already prepared the ground for
the movement.

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 There were militant outbursts happening at several places in the country which got channelized with the
Quit India Movement.
IV. Shortage of Essen al Commodi es:-The economy was also in shatters as a result of World War II.

Response to Quit India Movement

 The British government responded to the call of Gandhi by arresting all major Congress leaders the very next
day. Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, etc. were all arrested. Gandhi was released on health grounds in 1944. This left the
movement in the hands of the younger leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan and Ram Manohar Lohia. New leaders like
Aruna Asaf Ali emerged out of the vacuum of leadership.
 Over 100000 people were arrested in connection with this movement. The government resorted to violence in order
to quell the agitation. They were mass floggings and lathi charges. Even women and children were not spared. About
10000 people died in police firing in total.
 There was no communal violence.
 The INC was banned. Its leaders were jailed for almost the whole of the war. The people responded to Gandhi’s call in
a major way. However, in the absence of leadership, there were stray incidences of violence and damage to government
property. Many buildings were set on fire, electricity lines were cut and communication and transport lines were
broken.
 Some par es did not support the movement. There was opposition from the Muslim League, the Communist Party of
India (the government revoked the ban on the party then) and the Hindu Mahasabha.
 The League was not in favour of the British leaving India without partitioning the country first. In fact, Jinnah asked
more Muslims to enlist in the army to fight the war.
 The Communist party supported the war waged by the British since they were allied with the Soviet Union.
 Subhas Chandra Bose, was by this time, organizing the Indian Na onal Army and the Azad Hind government from
outside the country.
 C Rajagopalachari, resigned from the INC since he was not in favour of complete independence.
 In general, the Indian bureaucracy did not support the Quit India Movement.
 There were strikes and demonstrations all over the country. Despite the communist group’s lack of support to the
movement, workers provided support by not working in the factories.
 In some places, parallel governments were also set up. Example: Ballia, Tamluk, Satara.
 The chief areas of the movement were UP Bihar, Maharashtra, Midnapore, and Karnataka. The movement lasted till
1944.
Gandhi’s instruc ons to various sec ons of the public:
 Government servants: do not resign your job but proclaim loyalty to the INC.
 Soldiers: be with the army but refrain from firing on compatriots.
 Peasants: pay the agreed-upon rent if the landlords/Zamindars are anti-government; if they are pro-government, do
not pay the rent.
 Students: can leave studies if they are confident enough.
 Princes: support the people and accept the sovereignty of them.
 People of the princely states: support the ruler only if he is anti-government; declare themselves as part of the Indian
nation.

Quit India Movement Importance

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 The government used harsh repression tactics, but the populace was unmoved and kept up their fight. Even though
the government claimed that independence could only be granted when the war ended, the movement emphasized
that Indians must be involved in governance for it to work. The movement prioritized calling for total independence as
the main goal of freedom movement. Public spirit and anti-British feelings were raised.
 Underground activities were carried out by figures who eventually became well-known leaders such as Ram Manohar
Lohia, J.P. Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kriplani, and Biju Patnaik. Women participated actively in the movement.
Usha Mehta, among other female activists, contributed to the establishment of an underground radio station, which
sparked awareness of the movement. The Quit India Movement has strengthened the sense of brotherhood and unity
among people. Many high school and college kids dropped out, while lots of adults quit their jobs and took money out
of the banks.
 The costs of World War II led the British to come to the important conclusion that India was unmanageable in the long
run, even though the Quit India movement collapsed in 1944 as a result of their insistence that independence could
only take place when the war was over and their refusal to grant it immediately. The character of political negotiations
with the British was altered, ultimately leading to India’s independence.

Successes of the Movement

Rise of Future Leaders:
Underground activities were taken by leaders that included Ram Manohar Lohia, J.P. Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Biju
Patnaik, Sucheta Kriplani, etc which later emerged as prominent leaders.

Women Par cipa on:

Women took active participation in the movement. Female leaders like Usha Mehta helped set up an underground
radio station which led to the awakening about the movement.

Rise of Na onalism:
A greater sense of unity and brotherhood emerged due to the Quit India Movement. Many students dropped out of
schools and colleges, people gave up their jobs and withdrew money from the banks.

Paved the way for Independence:

While the Quit India campaign was crushed in 1944, with the British refusing to grant immediate independence,
saying it could happen only after the war had ended, they came to the important realization that India was
ungovernable in the long run due to the cost of World War II.
It changed the nature of political negotiations with British, ultimately paving the way for India's independence.

Failure of the Movement

Brutal Repression:
 The movement saw violence at some places which was not premeditated.
 The movement was violently suppressed by the British – people were shot, lathi-charged, villages burnt and
enormous fines imposed.
 Over 1,00,000 people were arrested and the government resorted to violence in order to crush the agitation.
Lack of Support:
 Muslim League, the Communist Party of India and the Hindu Mahasabha did not support the movement. The
Indian bureaucracy also did not support the movement.
 The League was not in favour of the British leaving India without partitioning the country first.
 The Communist party supported the British since they were allied with the Soviet Union.

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 The Hindu Mahasabha openly opposed the call for the Quit India Movement and boycotted it officially under the
apprehension that the movement would create internal disorder and would endanger internal security during
the war.
 Meanwhile, Subhas Chandra Bose, organised the Indian National Army and the Azad Hind government from
outside the country.
 Many Congress members like C Rajagopalachari resigned from the provincial legislature as they did not favour
Mahatma Gandhi's idea.

Quit India Movement And Bihar

Quit India Movement aur “Bharat Chodo Andolan” was the famous struggle in our freedom movement, also known
as the August revolution. Congress working committee at its meeting in Bombay on the 5th of August 1942, passed
a resolution later called the Quit India Movement.
Causes of Quit India Movement–
The possibility of August Kranti flying quickly finished the Bhojpuri-talking lot of Bihar. Both in the power and degree
Bhagalpur since the 1930s had filled in as a significant base of Kisan Sabha. Individuals pronounced the foundation
of a Public Government or Jatiya Sarkar in North Bhagalpur. Under the direction of unyielding progressive Sitaram
Singh (the turn of Bhagalpur individuals’ development) an equal government jumped up at Sultanpur and the public
authority selected its own Daroga. In a constituent component of Bhagalpur, for example, Madhapur, all
administration workplaces went under individuals’ ownership who ran them for scarcely any days.

Role of Bihar
 Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the Pioneer among the Congress leader from Bihar and under his leadership draught was
prepared for Quit India Movement in Bihar.
 he was arrested on 9th August 1942 and was taken to Bankipur jail with other leaders Shri Krishna Singh, Anugrah
Narayan Sinha, and Palan Prasad Verma.
 the Congress officers and those of allied organizations were declared illegal and police took possession of all of
them.
After the disappointment of the Cripps Mission, a well-known opinion for a decided attack upon the English
government ran very high. Any expectations of understanding and co-activity between the British and Congress
vanished. Gandhi presently started to introduce his orderly crusade for “methodical British withdrawal” from India.
The mission began late in April 1942. In his perspective, “whatever the results …. to India her genuine wellbeing and
Britishers also lie in a precise and convenient withdrawal from India”. The expression ‘Quit India’ from a sense of ‘do
or die’ came to light.

Role of students in Bihar

 Students were inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s slogan of doing or dying.
 On August 11, 1942, At Patna, the students marched in the afternoon to hoist the national flag on the buildings
of the Patna Secretariat.
 Around 4 pm on the order of the District Magistrate of Patna, 13 to 14 rounds were fired from the premises of
the secretariat.
 As a result, 7 students were killed and around 25 workers injured badly.
 These noble sacrifices of seven students intensified the Quit India Movement in the province of Bihar.

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 Unfortunately, this turned into violence as a result of it The agitation uprooted the railway lines, Damaged
telephone wires, Burned Police stations, and seized post office officers and other government buildings.

The seven students martyrs were:

Name District School/College
1. Umakant Sinha Saran Rammohan Roy Seminary
2. Ramanand Singh Patna Rammohan Roy Seminary
3. Jagatpati Kumar Gaya BN College
4. Satish Prasad Jha Bhagalpur Patna College Patna
5. Devipada Choudhary Bhagalpur Millar High School
6. Rajendra Singh Saran Patna High School
7. Ram Govind Singh Patna Punpun High School
 These noble sacrifices of seven students intensified the Quit India Movement in the province of Bihar.
 Unfortunately, this turned into violence as a result of it The agitation uprooted the railway lines, damaged
telephone wires, burned Police stations, and seized post office officers and other government buildings.
 This led to clashes with administrative machinery. but this was a planned and spontaneous outburst against the
ruthless oppressive measure of the government. on the other hand, this movement held constructive aspects as
well. it emphasizes the establishment of people’s Rule By building up the structure of national government from
the bottom.
 Experiments in these kinds of Panchayati Raj were successfully made at some places special in Saharsa and Supaul
area. Most Patriots of Bihar flew to the Nepal Tarai region. there they receive sympathy and assistance from local
people. the sum of the freedom fighters who were confined in Hazaribagh jail, Escaped to Nepal. They were
Jayaprakash Narayan, Ramnandan Mishra.
 In Nepal the Bihari heroes along with Suraj Narayan Singh and Ram Manohar Lohia formed “Azad Dasta” to
serve the country adopt the Guerrilla Warfare method against Britishers like Babu Veer Kunwar Singh adopted
once in his reign. But unfortunately, soon they got arrested in 1943 and confined in Hanuman Nagar jail.
 The popularity of the Quit India Movement was higher in Bihar and Eastern U ar Pradesh as compared to other
parts of the country. This movement turned out to be successful to thread Britishers. This was the last movement
at the mass level in the course of India’s freedom struggle.

26) Introduction and Expansion of Western

Education(Including Technical Education) in Bihar

Previous Year Question

 Discuss the growth of colonial technical education in Bihar under various schemes of British rule.
Critically analyze its impact.[68th BPSC 2023]
 Trace the course of expansion of Western and technical education in Bihar in between 1857-1947.[67th
BPSC 2022]
 Education and other point Western education: Describe the spread of Western Education in Bihar
between 1858-1914. [65th BPSC-2020] Discuss the development of Western education in Bihar from
1813 to 1947. [60-62 BPSC/2019]

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  Discuss the development of western education in Bihar from 1857 AD to 1947 AD. Describe the growth
of education and press in modern Bihar and also describe the role of education and press in National
movement. [46 BPSC/2005]
 Give a critical account of the development of western education in Bihar during the British rule. [44
BPSC/2002]
 Critically discuss the role played by the western technical education in the economy of Bihar. [39
BPSC/1993]
 Trace the course of western education in Bihar from 1990 to 1947 with particular reference to technical
education. [42 BPSC/1999]
 Describe the development of technical education in Bihar during the period of your study. [47
BPSC/2007]
Bihar always remained a centre of education from ancient times. It produced many teachers and pupils, who later
changed the dynamics of religion. politics, society and space. Some of the most important ones were Chanakya,
Panini, Ashtavakra, Aryabhatta. But modern western education in Bihar was only started after the Charter Act of
1833 and the famous 'Macaulay's Minute' in 1835, both of these professed for providing western education in English
medium. Macaulay held the belief that Western education and learning was superior than Indian education and
learning.

School Education
 The first modern-western educational school was established in 1835 in Patna. In the same year, another Western
school was opened in Purnea. And in the next year a number of District Schools were started in Biharsharif,
Bhagalpur, Ara, Chhapra etc.
 The first girl's school, was opened in Patna in form of Saint Joseph's School in 1847. Another girl's school, was
started in Patna in 1867. Overall progress in girl's education in the British Period was very poor and that legacy
still continues.
Higher Education
 The first significant step in terms of higher education was taken in form of Patna College, which was established
on 9th January, 1863 on the recommendation of Wood's Dispatch, 1854 (prepared by Charles Wood).
 The first University of Bihar was established in 1917 as Patna University.
 The Higher education system in Bihar as well as in the country was later highly influenced by the report of Saddler
Education Commission (1917-19), which was formed to give recommendation on improving the higher education
system in India.
 Some of the most important recommenda on of the commission were:-
o The Commission recommended that the school education should be of 12 years instead of 10 years earlier.
o Student's should be admitted in colleges only after completing intermediate (12th) instead of matriculation.
o The commission suggested to reduce the rigidity of government regulation over the working of universities.
o One of the most important recommendations of the commission was to make universities more centralised,
unitary, residential and autonomous. And hence decrease the number of affiliate colleges.
o Other than Patna University, more than 30 Universities, Deemed Universities and other institutions are
established in Bihar with many affiliated and constituent colleges in Bihar till now.

Development of Scientific and Technical Education

 The first significant step in terms of scientific and technical education was taken in form of Agricultural University
at Pusa. It was first fully functional Agricultural University in Bihar as well as in India.
 For the first time, degree Courses in Physics and Chemistry was started in Patna College in 1919. Later in
1928, Patna Science college was established, which was exclusively for science courses.

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 In 1926, Indian School of Mines was established in Dhanbad (now in Jharkhand) to provide education in mining
technology. It laid the foundation of Engineering education in Bihar. It was followed by Patna Engineering College.
After Independence many other engineering Colleges were established, some of the most prominent ones are
NIT(Patna), IIT(Patna) and many other public and private Engineering institutions.
 First Medical College in Bihar was established in 1925, in form Patna Medical College. It laid the foundation of
medical education in the state. Now, there are more than 15 medical colleges in the state including two premier
Central institutions i.e. AIIMS (Patna) and Indra Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences (Patna).

BACKGROUND OF EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN BIHAR

 Bihar lost its advantage in education because universities were destroyed as a result of foreign invasion during
the medieval period.
 Also the initial education system in Bihar was based on Vedas, shastras, philosophy, and lacked the scientific
advances taking place in other parts of the world.
 The British also showed no interest in education initially.
 However, they later took the initiative to develop west ern education in India in order to create a class of
Indians who are Indian by blood and color but English in taste, opinions, and intellectuals, as well as a workforce
f or their interests.
 The current growth of higher education in Bihar originated in the British educational system.

STEPS TAKEN FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION

 Charter Act of 1813 : The process of development of education by the British start ed with the Charter Act of
1813, which provided for an amount of rupees one lakh annually for the purpose of promoting knowledge of
science in the English medium.
 Macaulay minute 1835: The year of 1835 has been important in the field of education as it laid the foundation
of English as a medium of teaching in India.
o In a Minute issued on February 22, 183 5, Lord Macaulay denounced the Oriental literature and education
and advocated the introduction of western system of education.
o This influenced the Government of Lord Bentinck and he passed the famous Resolution of the 7th March,
1835, declaring that “the great object of the British Government ought to be the promotion of European
literature and science amongst the natives of India.”
o It was decided that whatever funds were allocated for education, it should be spent on only the English
education system. It was done to create a system of education that will educate only the upper class of
society through the English medium.
o The diffusion of English education start ed in 1835 in modern Bihar. As a result of the ‘Macaulay Proposal’ ,
Zila schools at Deoghar, Bihar sharif , Bhagalpur, Ararah, and Chapra were established.
 Wood’s Despatch of 1854 : In 1854, Charles Wood the then Chairman of Board of Control, issued education
related instructions (dispatch) which was considered the “ Magna Carta of English education in India”. Some of
its provisions included:
o It provided for primary education in vernacular language and higher one in English medium. It also provided
for the setting up of one school in every district and one education department in every province.
o Patna College, was established on 9th January, 1863 which was affiliat ed to Calcutta university( first
university of India) . It has been accorded a prominent place in the channels of education on account of its
being the oldest college of Bihar as well as being the best college.
o The High school at Pakur in Santhal Pargana was opened in 1859.
o In 1863, the opening of Zila schools at Deoghar, Motihari, Chaibasa and Hazaribagh was also approved.

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Religious and Social Organisations' Efforts for Development of
Western Education
 Dayanand Anglo Vedic(DAV) Schools were established by the Arya Samaj across the state. These schools were
established with the aim to provide western education along with Vedic philosophy in English medium.
 Raja Rammohan Rai Seminary was also established in the premises of Patna University by Brahmo Samaj to
inculcate modern Western education and rational thinking and to eliminate fundamentalism and blind faiths
prevailed in the society.

Muslim Education in Bihar

 Muslim education in Bihar progressed, developed and spread on the lines of Aligarh Movement, which was
started by Sir Saiyyad Khan who preached Muslim masses to get Western Education along with traditional
religious teachings.
 Bihar Scientific Society was established in Muzaffarpur by Imdad Ali Khan in 1872. It's second branch was started
in 1873 in Patna. Later Mohammden Anglo Arabic School was established by Mohammden Education
Society in 1886 in Patna City.
 Shansul Ulema Mohammed Hassan played most important role in spread of modern western education among
Muslims in Bihar.

Critical Analysis
 Despite all efforts schools during British period remained limited to cities and towns. Which led the rural
population of Bihar out of the ambit of modern western education and especially English education.
 The education policies of British government and social taboos in early period of 20th century affected the girl's
education significantly and especially the girls belonging to rural areas, because the absence of schools in rural
areas and society did not allow girls to go to cities to get education.
 This situation still prevails after more than 70 years of independence and did not change much. According to
Census Report-2011 only 51.5% women in the state are literate, which is lowest in India.
 British Period Universities were limited to big cities and towns only, which created an educated few over mass
illiteracy and and uneducated people.
 Despite of increase in the number of colleges and universities in the state higher education in the state is
performing very poorly due to many issues such as no regular classes, mis-management of colleges/universities,
late exams, mass cheating and fraud in examination process.
 In terms of scientific, medical and technical education the situation was also not too good during pre-
independence era, when only few colleges and institutions were present in comparison to other parts of the
country.

Conclusion
 Despite being the hub of education in ancient times, Bihar lagged heavily during the medieval and colonial era
before independence and even after independence. The land of Bihar, which produced many Jems of arts,
science, medicine and even space is now the most illiterate state of the country.
 The education policies of the British government were aimed at creation of an educated few, which led to creation
of very large number of sections of Indian society which was uneducated and even illiterate. This gap created
during pre-independence era could not bridge till now.
 The policies of the state government are still not very good at all. Rampant corruption in education department
and recruitment process resulted into people who cannot even read books, became teachers. Which further
affecting the quality of education in Government Schools in the stat

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 27) Famous Personalities

Previous Year Questions

 Describe Rabindranath Tagore’s ideas of society and culture [68th BPSC 2023]
 Rabindranath Tagore’s contribution to the freedom movement.[67th BPSC 2022]
 Critically analyze the factors responsible for the emergence of Gandhiji as an eminent nationalist leader.
[67th BPSC 2022]
 Write a short notes on: ‘Gandhiji’s views on Satyagraha.’ [66th BPSC-2021]
 Write short notes on: “Gandhiji’s views on caste and religion”. [65th BPSC-2020]
 “Gandhi’s mystique consisted of a union of original ideas with a remarkable flair for tactics and an
uncanny insight in the mass mind.” Elucidate.
 Describe the significance of Gandhiji’s social and cultural thoughts.
 Analyze the role of Gandhiji in the Mass Movement of Bihar. [46 BPSC/2005]
 Critically evaluate the views of Gandhi on “Varna-Jati” system. Were they compatible with his activism
against untouchability? [41 BPSC/1997]
 What message Gandhiji sought to convey through his insistence on Swadeshi? [40 BPSC/1995]
 Discuss the Nehru’s views on communalism and secularism. [66th BPSC-2021]
 Examine the main features of Foreign Policy of Jawaharlal Nehru. [60-62 BPSC/2019]
 Write short notes on: Nehru and secularism [64th BPSC/2018]
 Discuss the relevance of Nehru in the making of modern India? [56-59 BPSC/2016]
 Evaluate the contribution of Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali literature and music. [60-62 BPSC/2019]
 Define Nationalism. How was it addressed by Rabindranath Tagore ? [56-59 BPSC/2016]
 Describe the social and cultural significance of the ideas of Rabindranath Tagore. [48-52 BPSC/2009]
 Describe the role of Rabindranath Tagore in the Indian national movement. How was it different from
congress? [39 BPSC/1993]
 Write a short notes on: Subhash Chandra Bose and the INA? [66th BPSC-2021]
 Explain the social and economic ideas of Ram Manohar Lohia and Jayaprakash Narayan. [65th BPSC-
2020]
 Write short notes on: Dr Rajendra Prasad and the National Movement. [65th BPSC-2020]
 Write short notes on: The Dalit Movement in Bihar. [65th BPSC-2020]
 Write a note on Swami Sahajanand and the Kisan Sabha Movement. [65th BPSC-2020]
 Write a critical note on peasant movements in Bihar with special reference swami sharajanand. [43
BPSC/2001]
 Write a short notes on: Subhash Chandra Bose and the INA? [66th BPSC-2021]
 Explain the social and economic ideas of Ram Manohar Lohia and Jayaprakash Narayan. [65th BPSC-2020]
 Write short notes on: Dr Rajendra Prasad and the National Movement. [65th BPSC-2020]
 Write short notes on: The Dalit Movement in Bihar. [65th BPSC-2020]
 Write a note on Swami Sahajanand and the Kisan Sabha Movement. [65th BPSC-2020]
 Write a critical note on peasant movements in Bihar with special reference swami sharajanand. [43
BPSC/2001]
Expected Questions

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  Gandhiji was not merely a political leader who organised mass movements, but a thought, an ideology
that shaped the very foundations of modern day democracies. Analyse
 Production by the masses rather than mass production was Mahatma Gandhi's idea to transform the
rural economy. Examine.
 Examine how Gandhiji’s earlier experience in South Africa shaped the freedom movements in India,
transcending through moderate phase to Gandhian phase.
 “It was a firm belief of Gandhiji that in the peaceful struggle of Swaraj, the women of India can
outdistance men by a mile.” Comment.
 Mahatma Gandhi and Subhash Chandra Bose differed widely in their ways and methods and in their
political and economic ideologies. Discuss.
 Discuss how the policies of Jawaharlal Nehru helped in the nation-building and post-independence
consolidation of India.
 Discuss the role of the following personalities in Indian freedom struggle
 Mahatma Gandhi
 Jawaharlal Nehru
 Rabindranath Tagore
 Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar made it possible to think of an end to, if not a beginning for, the profound
inequities of caste in India. Comment.
 Discuss the contributions of Subhas Chandra Bose towards India’s struggle for Independence. What
message does his legacy have for the present day?
 Subhas Chandra Bose’s belief in uncompromising anti-imperialism and undiluted socialism is still very
much relevant in the present day. Discuss.
 What were the similarities and dissimilarities between the approach of Mahatma Gandhi and B R
Ambedkar towards the upliftment of the so called lower castes?

MAHATMA GANDHI

Introduction
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Mahatma Gandhi is not only a freedom fighter but also a social and economic revolutionary. His idea of Satyagraha
by the method of non-violence is praised and followed all over the world. Gandhi is not a name but an idea that
incorporate the feeling of Struggle, Nationalism and Sacrifice. Gandhi played a crucial role in the freedom struggle of
India. He is known for his various Satyagraha to oppose unjust laws made by the British. Some of the popular
movements led by Mahatma Gandhi are Champaran Satyagraha for indigo planters, Ahmedabad Mill Satyagraha for
an increase of wages of mill workers, Kheda Satyagraha for Patidar peasants, Satyagraha against Rowlett Act, Salt
Satyagraha against the tax imposed on salt and Quit India movement for freedom of India. Hence, we can conclude
that the movement led by Mahatma Gandhi played a significant role in the freedom of India, and that is why he can
be considered as the architect of the Indian struggle for freedom.

Quotes by Mahatma Gandhi

 “Be the change that you wish to see in the world.”
 “An ounce of patience is worth more than a tonne of preaching.”
 “In a gentle way, you can shake the world.”
 “The greatness of a nation and its moral progress can be judged by the way its animals are treated.”
 “A man is but a product of his thoughts. What he thinks he becomes.”
 “Happiness is when what you think, what you say, and what you do are in harmony.”
 “The weak can never forgive. Forgiveness is the attribute of the strong.”
 “An eye for an eye only ends up making the whole world blind.”
 “You must not lose faith in humanity. Humanity is an ocean; if a few drops of the ocean are dirty, the
ocean does not become dirty.”
 “See the good in people and help them.”

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  “If we could change ourselves, the tendencies in the world would also change. As a man changes his own
nature, so does the attitude of the world change towards him. We need not wait to see what others do.”
 Mahatma Gandhi’s quotes on humankind
o “A man is but the product of his thoughts. What he thinks, he becomes.”
o “The greatness of humanity is not in being human, but in being humane.”
o “Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's needs, but not every man's greed.”
o “You must not lose faith in humanity. Humanity is like an ocean; if a few drops of the ocean are dirty, the
ocean does not become dirty.”
 Mahatma Gandhi’s quotes on truth
o “An error does not become truth by reason of multiplied propagation, nor does truth become error
because nobody sees it.Truth stands, even if there be no public support. It is self sustained.”
o Mahatma Gandhi’s quotes on freedom, religion and service
o “Freedom is not worth having if it does not include the freedom to make mistakes.”
o “My religion is based on truth and non-violence. Truth is my God. Non-violence is the means of realising
Him.”
o “The best way to find yourself is to lose yourself in the service of others.”
 Mahatma Gandhi on women empowerment
o “To call woman the weaker sex is a libel; it is man's injustice to woman. If by strength is meant moral
power, then woman is immeasurably man’s superior”
 Mahatma Gandhi on the power of truth, love and non-violence
o “It is better to be violent, if there is violence in our hearts, than to put on the cloak of nonviolence to
cover impotence.”
o "Love is the strongest force the world possesses.”
o “All the religions of the world, while they may differ in other respects, unitedly proclaim that nothing
lives in this world but Truth.”
o “Nonviolence is a weapon of the strong.”
o “Non-violence is the greatest force at the disposal of mankind. It is mightier than the mightiest weapon
of destruction devised by the ingenuity of man.”
o “A ‘No’ uttered from the deepest conviction is better than a ‘Yes’ merely uttered to please, or worse, to
avoid trouble.”
o “Power is of two kinds. One is obtained by the fear of punishment and the other by acts of love. Power
based on love is a thousand times more effective and permanent then the one derived from fear of
punishment.”
o “I object to violence because when it appears to do good, the good is only temporary; the evil it does is
permanent.”
o “An eye for an eye will only make the whole world blind.”
o “When I despair, I remember that all through history the way of truth and love have always won. There
have been tyrants and murderers, and for a time, they can seem invincible, but in the end, they always
fall. Think of it--always.”

Mahatma Gandhi's famous contributions to Indian freedom

movement:
World War I
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Lord Chelmsford, the then Viceroy of India, invited Gandhi to Delhi at a War Conference. In order to gain the trust of
the empire, Gandhi agreed to move people to enlist in the army for World War I. However, he wrote to the Viceroy
and said that he "personally will not kill or injure anybody, friend or foe".

Champaran
 The Champaran agitation in Bihar was Gandhi's first active involvement into Indian freedom politics. The
Champaran farmers were being forced to grow Indigo and were being tortured if they protested.
 The farmers sought Gandhi's help and through a calculated non-violent protest, Gandhi managed to win
concessions from the authority.

Kheda

 When Kheda, a village in Gujarat, was badly hit by floods, the local farmers appealed to the rulers to waive off
the taxes. Here, Gandhi started a signature campaign where peasants pledged non-payment of taxes.
 He also arranged a social boycott of the mamlatdars and talatdars (revenue officials). In 1918, the Government
relaxed the conditions of payment of revenue tax until the famine ended.

Khilafat Movement
 Gandhi's influence on the Muslim population was remarkable. This was evident in his involvement in the Khilafat
Movement. After the first World War, the Muslims feared for the safety of their Caliph or religious leader and a
worldwide protest was being organised to fight against the collapsing status of the Caliph.
 Gandhi became a prominent spokesperson of the All India Muslim Conference and returned the medals he had
received from the Empire during his Indian Ambulance Corps days in South Africa. His role in the Khilafat made
him a national leader in no time.
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Non-cooperation Movement
 Gandhi had realised that the British had been able to be in India only because of the co-operation they received
from the Indians. Keeping this in mind, he called for a non-cooperation movement.
 With the Congress' support and his indomitable spirit, he convinced people that peaceful non-cooperation was
the key to Independence. The ominous day of Jallianwala Bagh Massacre triggered the non-cooperation
movement. Gandhi set the goal of Swaraj or self-governance, which since then became the motto of Indian
freedom movement.

Salt March
 Also known as the Dandi Movement, Gandhi's Salt March is considered to be a pivotal incident in the history of
freedom struggle. At the Calcutta Congress of 1928, Gandhi declared that the British must grant India dominion
status or the country will erupt into a revolution for complete independence. The British did not pay heed to this.
 As a result, on December 31, 1929, the Indian flag was unfurled in Lahore and the next January 26 was celebrated
as the Indian Independence Day. Then, Gandhi started a Satyagraha campaign against the salt tax in March 1930.
He marched 388 kilometres from Ahmedabad to Dandi in Gujarat to make salt. Thousands of people joined him
and made it one of the biggest marches in Indian history.

Quit India Movement

 During the Second World War, Gandhi was determined to strike the British Empire with a definitive blow that
would secure their exit from India. This happened when the British started recruiting Indians for the war.
 Gandhi protested strongly and said that the Indians cannot be involved in a war that is in favour of democratic
purposes when India itself is not a free country. This argument exposed the two-faced image of the colonisers
and within half a decade, they were out of this country.

Major Gandhian Ideologies

 Vision for India: Gandhi's vision for India went beyond political independence from colonial rule.
o He aimed for social emancipation, economic empowerment, and a shared sense of solidarity across
different language, religion, and cultural backgrounds.
 Non-violence: Gandhi was a strong advocate of non-violence and believed that it was the most powerful
weapon in the struggle for justice and freedom.
o He also believed that non-violence should be a way of life, not just a political strategy, and that it would
lead to lasting peace and social harmony.
o Gandhi was a leader who inspired and empowered the people through love and compassion.
 Against Discrimina on: Gandhi travelled all over India and saw the different cultural parts of the country. He
brought people together by highlighting the common things that united them, like their faith.
o Gandhi strongly believed in treating everyone equally, regardless of religion or caste. He was against
discrimination and the practice of untouchability.
 Secular Outlook: Gandhi was a Hindu but believed in a secular India, where all religions could exist peacefully
together. He was very upset about the partition of India, which was based on religion.
o Today, it is important to remember Gandhi's values of peace, inclusiveness, and harmony as these values
are still relevant.

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 Communal Harmony: Gandhi was a firm believer in the unity of all communities and worked tirelessly to
promote communal harmony.
o He believed that India's strength lay in its diversity and that this diversity should be celebrated, not feared.
o He was deeply troubled by the Hindu-Muslim divide and worked to bring the two communities together.
 Self-Reliance: Gandhi believed in the importance of self-reliance and encouraged Indians to become self-
sufficient in as many ways as possible.
o He encouraged the use of local resources and traditional skills and the development of cottage industries.
o He also believed that the people of India should take responsibility for their own development and not rely
on external support.

Relevance of Gandhism in 21st Century

Although it is widely believed that Gandhism is a challenge to pursue in the 21st century; that is not the case.
Gandhi’s principles can be applied in the following ways:
Concept of Society:
 The contemporary society is a complex whole which is neither value-oriented nor purely speculative. Tradition
and authority which were once revered are now utterly disregarded. The whole of humanity is steered by
jealousy, distrust, suspicion and hatred. Violence, poverty and intolerance are on the rise. The outer
homogeneity brought by science and civilization doesn’t emanate with the inner unity of our souls. So, there
is a dire need to reform our minds. He says that adherence to truthfulness should be our only purpose of
existence. The ultimate end of the individual is the realization of truth and justice through consistent
endeavours, not only for ourselves but for the entire humanity.
Economy:
 While it is generally recognized that socialism can’t be established without the use of force, Mahatma Gandhi’s
idea of socialism involves the use of non-violence. He didn’t believe in extremes and neither appreciated
complete liberty, as in a capitalist democracy, nor regimentation as in communist dictatorships. His idea was
that power is to be as decentralized as possible. Globalization means integration of world economies through
cross-country exchange of goods, ideas, information, and many services. Dominant economies with the aid of
Multinational Companies and International Organizations are serving their interests to the extent that often
the interest of the poor countries is compromised.

Education:
 Mahatma Gandhi thought that humanization of knowledge can lead us to immunization of ideas against
communal distrust. He was critical of traditional education and said that being literate doesn’t mean being
educated.

Swaraj:
 Swaraj meant to be free from external influences and foreign control. Now the country is independent and
free from any external control. In today’s competitive and fast-paced world, there must be control over our
inner conscience. Self-empowerment is the need of the hour. Every person should search for their own
identity, and shouldn’t try to fit themselves in the moulds created by society.

Technology:

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 The Gandhian principles are still relevant and technology can be used to enhance their effectiveness. The main
tenet that he propagated was Satya.
 It would include truth with respect to speech, reality as it exists and good as opposed to immoral, evil, and
bad. As opposed to this, in contemporary times, people are not truthful and they are not presented with the
existing reality of the system.
 Here, technology plays its part. Technology can help bring the reality and truth out of the systems. It can curb
our main evil, corruption. Information and Communications Technology plays a significant role in this. It
facilitates the movement of data among governmental institutions, among citizens and between citizens and
government as well. It helps bring transparency, answerability, and public participation.
In my life, I have always looked to Mahatma Gandhi as an inspiration, because he embodies the kind of
transformational change that can be made when ordinary people come together to do extraordinary things." -
Barack Obama

Need for Tolerance and Peace

 Each year, over 1.6 million people worldwide lose their lives to violence.
 Violence is among the leading causes of death for people worldwide.
 It accounts for 14% of deaths among males and 7% of deaths among females - WHO’s World report on violence
and health.
 Violence ranges from physical, sexual, reproductive to mental health problems.
 Millions of lives are lost every year amid conflict zones. Example- Yemen and Afghanistan.
 Violence places a massive burden on national economies, costing countries billions of dollars each year in
health care, law enforcement and lost productivity.
 In world that is moving through the phases of war marred by violence and naked dance of death of common
people due to the menace of terrorism there is a significant requirement of Gandhian idea of Non- violence
more and more today than the past days.

Sustainable Environment
 Gandhji’s environmental concerns were real and are taking shape in the present times. Gandhiji had said
“Earth has enough for Human needs, But not for Human greeds”
 He was quite apprehensive of machinery production and industrialization, which will harm the environment.
 And here we are, living a deplorable life among the noxious fumes, polluted, and harmful gases released by
these industries.
 We cut trees and harm the forest habitat, which harms the ecological balance.
 The world is whirling under the burden of global warming, climate change and resource crunch.
 The world, including the United Nation has recognized Gandhian idea of sustainable development.
 The recent inauguration of Gandhi Solar Park at the headquarters United Nations (UN) is a testimony to that.
 Behind all the climate deals, environmental conservation treaties and sustainable development goals of the
UN Gandhian view self sustenance operates as driving philosophy.
 The need for sustainable development is quintessential in present times.

Secular Ideologies
 The secular ideologies of Gandhiji are not only there in Indian constitution but also there in Indian society as a
core value system.
 That is why so many people of diverse religions coexist in India.

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 Today, the world today needs more and more tolerant people in societies where violence is committed in the
name of religion.
 Tolerance in the society will help in neutralizing the ethnocentric bias in the globe that is taking place day by
day on the basis of religion, caste, ethnicity and region etc.

Democratic Decentralization:
 Gandhi made it very dear that concentration of either economic or political power would violate all the
essential principles of participatory democracy.
 To check centralization, Gandhi suggested the institution of village republics both as institutions of parallel
polities and as units of economic autonomy. Village is the lowest unit of a decentralized system.
 Gandhian idea of decentralization of power is being implemented in democracies through empowered local
self-governments at grass root level.
 Indian government, for instance, have implemented local self-government by adopting to Panchayati Raj and
Municipality system in rural and urban areas respectively.

Casteless society
 Gandhi was against the caste system which is still a taboo in India.
 Even after 72 years of Independence and despite having reservations Indian society is grappling with casteism,
communalism, regionalism and provincialism.
 Gandhiji wanted to eradicate untouchability and casteism from root and cause through the change in hearts
of people.
 Thus, the Gandhian philosophy is useful create a casteless society where everyone is treated equally
irrespective of their caste.

Sanitation and Cleanliness

Clean surroundings are a must for humans to exist as such an environment holds the promise of safeguarding our
health to quite a degree against a plethora of often fatal diseases.
 It also helps in curbing mortality rates.
 The health of future generations depends on these factors.
 The Mahatma rightly said: "Sanitation is more important than independence".
 India has ranked a poor 168th out of 180 countries in the 2020 Environmental Performance Index (EPI),
according to researchers at Yale and Columbia universities.
 Gandhiji had said, “Everyone must be his own scavenger,” but modern-day India is anything but that.
 We have let the sanitation of the nation go to the gutter and sent the poorest of the poor to go clean it up,
letting them die in the process.
 Hence, it is more important today than ever to imbibe the values upheld by the Father of the Nation when it
comes to cleanliness.
 The government’s Swachh Bharat Mission is a welcome move in this context.
 “So long as you do not take the broom and the bucket in your hands, you cannot make your towns and cities
clean,” Mahatma Gandhi famously said and his words are true even today.
 No matter how much money is allocated to the cleaning up of the country, it is only when the individual citizen
will take this herculean task in his hands that we would be able to eliminate the ghoul of dirt from our lives.
 If we feel ashamed in cleaning the very filth we create, despite having modern methods of disposing of waste,
then we have knowingly pushed the nation into a septic tank of apathy which will consume us all.

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  Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan needs the Gandhian push if the nation has to become a cleaner and more disciplined
one.

Gandhi's Social & Cultural thought

Mahatma Gandhi had a great influence through his ideas like Non-Violence(Ahimsa), Satyagraha, Swaraj, Sarvodaya,
ends and means.

Significance of Gandhi's Social & Cultural thought

 Since ancient times, India has been the centre of a rich and diverse civilization and given world mentors and great
leaders from time to time who reached the highest stage of human status and became philosopher guides for the
whole world.
 Mahatma Gandhi was one of such personality. His ideas and practices became equally adaptable in his own time
for millions of his own country on one hand, and on the other Gandhi’s unique method of struggle such as his
campaign against racism in South Africa proved to be a guiding force for people of many countries of the world.
 Mahatma Gandhi had a great influence through his ideas like Non-Violence(Ahimsa), Satyagraha, Swaraj,
Sarvodaya, ends, and means. Gandhi’s foundational principles are Non-violence and Satyagraha on the basis of
he led India to Independence. Gandhi has no rigidities of ideology or principles except the uncompromising notion
of non-violence. Gandhi was not only a great leader politician but a philosopher and a relevant social reformer
who was open to another horizon of thinking.

Thoughts on Social and Cultural Dimension:

 Gandhi represented his views on existing social, cultural, economic and political problems of the society along
with the possible situation. Gandhi identified the individual as the most important element of society. Society
and the world is the summation of individuals. Therefore, his vision emphasizes the change in individuals, instead
of the institutions developed by the individual.
 Gandhi was a true social- worker fighting against the evils of society. Gandhi always insisted that if you want to
do social work, you start with yourself like start with your family. The relation between wife and husband should
be that of true friends.
 Gandhi drew attention to the social status of women. His attitude to women’s rights was uncompromising under
all conditions. He considered removing the inequalities of women through legislation.
 Gandhi was totally against child marriage. He gave enthusiastic support to the child marriage Restraint Bill (1929)
passed by the assembly.
 Gandhi always works for the upliftment of the depressed classes. His stand on the Poona pact and formation of
the All India Anti-Untouchability League and started the weekly journal Harijan.
 Gandhi encouraged intercultural dialogue so that individuals could see their culture in a comparative and critical
reflection of others.
 Gandhi considered interculturalism as a way of recognition of shared values, acceptance of differences and
simultaneous awareness of commonalities. His main aim is to build an inter-cultural and pluri-dimensional
society. He considered the inclusive development of India will be only realized through the idea of Sarvodaya.
 Gandhian social ethics represent an act of self-transformation of humanity. He wanted to change the values that
govern the social, economic and political activities in human society.
 Gandhi was a social practitioner who was always experimenting with cross-border cultural constellations. Gandhi
was clear that both the individual and society need a moral vision of the world. Gandhi supports the idea of social
transformation through democratic and peaceful means.
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 Thus, Mahatma Gandhi did not visualize social re-construction and welfare as a field for helping the needy as a
charity, but as the emergence of people through individual and social discipline, towards a healthy and
prosperous society.

Women
According to Gandhiji, women are the torchbearers in achieving Swaraj. Gandhian movements played a crucial role
in the mobilization of women in the social, economic and political sphere despite India being a highly patriarchal
society.

Gandhiji’s view on women's empowerment:

 According to Gandhiji, traits like perseverance and peaceful resistance of authority should be the ideals of women
in India. They are the symbol of moral power.
 Gandhian movements helped women shed their deep-rooted sense of inferiority and rise to dignity and self-
esteem.
 Gandhiji was against evil socio-religious practices like child marriage, purdah system, dowry system, etc.

Influence of Gandhian ideas on women:

 Women’s active participation in mass movements began with the Swadeshi Movement in 1905 and only grew in
later movements. Women played an active role in the Non-Cooperation Movement and the Civil Disobedience
Movement.
 Women had a special role in Gandhi’s constructive program like the promotion of Khadi, ending untouchability.

Some women leaders during the Gandhian struggle are as follows:

 Anusuya Ben — Accompanied Gandhi in his tours and actively participated in 1918 Ahmedabad Textile milk
strikes.
 Sarojini Naidu — Led the raid on Dharasana salt works during the Civil Disobedience Movement following
Gandhi’s arrest.
 Some other women leaders like Lakshmi Menon, Sushila Nayyar, and Rajkumari Amrit Kaur rose to prominence
adhering to Gandhian ideas.

Conclusion

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In the words of Gandhi, “Women's entry into national politics through non-violent methods brought miraculous
results. On the one hand, women became aware of their inner strength, and on the other, the process brought human
and moral elements into politics.”
Gandhian movement and the struggle for swaraj witnessed huge participation by women. Gandhian tools for struggle
like fasting and praying were majorly popularised by women.

Gandhi’s View on Modern Industrialism

 Gandhi was totally against modern industrial system and, in fact, called upon the young educated Indians to
return to villages that are neither polluted by railways nor by modernism and preserve the values of the ancient
Indian civilization. He also stressed on physical and manual power.
 Gandhi was eager to break the stronghold of aristocracy because, in his opinion, they do not appreciate the
manual labour and to make sure that they appreciate the hard labour. Gandhi believed that physical labour must
be made supreme to all other sources of wealth. Gandhi believed in law of the bread labour, that is, everyman
must earn his bread by sweat of his brow in some labour connected with agriculture and its allied activities.
 Gandhi emphasized on decentralized production in the villages. He feared that if the state is made accountable
to the distribution, it would monopolize the means of production and that it would inevitably lead to
concentration of wealth as well as power in the state. This situation sooner or later, according to Gandhi, would
establish dictatorship of a party or a bureaucracy.
 Gandhi was also against the concept of mechanization. He believed that by using machine-made Manchester
cloth, Indians are only wasting their money, but instead if they reproduce Manchester in India, they would keep
their money with themselves. He further stated that if the cloth is made by spinning, it would also solve the
problem of growing poverty of the peasantry.
 Gandhi wanted to boycott foreign-made cloth and use Indian cloth despite its coarseness. He believed that
boycott of foreign goods not only saves the cottage industries, but also saves Indian textile mills. Gandhi was also
against the industrial, technological and commercial society of the modern age.
 He believed in nature and like Rousseau and Tolstoy, and give up luxury, ostentation and city life. He wanted Indian
villages to be self-sufficient economies. He never wanted life to be a pyramid with the apex sustained by the
bottom, but circle whose centre would be the individual.
 Gandhi considered city as a necessary evil because he opined that in an urban areas, there is more violence. He
further expressed the view that democracy can be built only in villages and modern industrial system would lead
to a totalitarian society with imperialistic tendencies.
 It was Gandhi’s emphasis on Khadi and Charkha and villages that brought about a sense among a large group of
Indians who began to think in human terms about the village peasants. It is Gandhi who made the Indian urban
community realize that behind the glitter of cities, there lies misery and poverty and that it is important to
acknowledge that true progress lies not in the creation of millionaires or big cities but reducing the misery of the
poor peasant in villages.
 Though it is a known fact that industrialization increases the standard of living, Gandhi never wanted this rise in
the living beyond a certain point. He opined that despite a rise in the people’s standard of living, poverty still
continues.

Gandhi’s View on Caste and Religion

 Gandhi was not only a leader of India’s National Movement but his importance also lies in the matter of inclusion
of religious point of view in politics and thus spiritualization of politics was mainly the contribution of Gandhi.
Gandhi was a religious person and he believed that the religion should be the fundamental basis of
politics. Though religion here means, in his views, as “love with truth and humanity”.

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 Gandhi studied Bhagavad Gita and considered it as the source of spirituality because whenever he was in fix, he
used to start ‘Geeta Paath’. Gandhi learnt the principle of morality & work as worship type of nature from Geeta.
Gandhi studied several other holy books of Hinduism like Samkhya, advaitavedanta, books on Yoga and books
of Jainism and Buddhism. Infact, he adopted the element of non-violence from Jainism and Buddhism and
considered non-volence the supreme morality. These books led Gandhi to espouse a set if religiously inspired
norms or principles of personal and collective conduct, for example the values of satya, ahmisa, aparigraha and
sambhava. Gandhi saw in them an alternative to western values or principles of individualism, utilitarianism and
violence.
 Gandhi considered different religion have different roads have same goal of love and truth and reached through
his experience that all religion have same principles and religion is a binding force among the people. Gandhi
believed in ‘Sarvadharma Samanatva’ which means equal faith for religion and faiths.
 Gandhi being hindu, considered Hinduism as a way of life and not mere a religion and considered as most tolerant
religion as it give scope to everyone to worship all religions of the world. According to Gandhi, the main aim of
the religion is spread love and peace and make interaction between humans and god. Gandhi has deep devotion
in God because he understood that devotion gives the capacity to bear the hardest suffering. People are inspired
for the love with truth and humanity by the devotion of god. According to him, a Satyagrahi must keep faith in
God so that he/she could refrain from the bad activities and will be striving against the discrimination and
exploitationS in any form.
 Gandhi had very rational thinking with respect to religion as he considered religion should be able to solve the
problem of everyday life and outrightly rejected those religions which are against the human values and morality.

Caste system:
 The movement against the caste system in India is almost as old as caste itself. Buddhism and Jainism were
reformist movements which were partly aimed against caste system. Gandhi separated what he considers to be
the inessentials of the caste system from its essentials, rejects the former and declares the later to be beneficial
for society. He tackles the problem on three fronts:
o Untouchability and its a endant structures
o the thousands of endogamous or semi-endogamous groups called caste
o Varna or the four fold func onal division of society.
 He regards untouchabliity as ‘immoral’ and therefore in need of complete eradication, caste as unnecessary and
undesirable. According to Gandhi, Untouchability was bigger evil than any thing in this world and first consider to
abolish this sinful activity. Gandhi also viewed that untouchables as an integral part of hindu as whole. Gandhi
said “To remove untouchability is a penance that caste Hindu owe to Hinduism and to themselves”.
 Gandhi believed that there is no inseparable connection between untouchability and the caste system;
untouchability can be eradicted without abolishing caste together. He argues in favour of the abolition of the
multiplicity of castes and their reduction into the four varnas; the eradication of untouchability is not dependent
even on this proposed simplification of the caste system, not to speak of its abolition altogether.
 Gandhi considered untouchability as by-product of the caste system. It is wrong to destroy caste because of the
outcaste, as it would be to destroy a body because of ugly growth.
 The caste system represents a social hierarchy based on the idea of high and low, since it is an unnecessary
outgrowth of the four varnas which are fundamental and essential to the organization of a society, Gandhi
considers the multiplicity of castes to be undesirable and superfluous.

How Religion Is Used In Politics

 Those who believe religion cannot play a constructive role in politics must study how Mahatma Gandhi led India
to win independence from the British rule with a struggle that was founded on religious beliefs.

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 Gandhi said his mission was to win Swaraj (self-rule), which he envisioned and portrayed as “Ramarajya”.
Ramarajya was not an exclusive term, and nor did it mean theocracy. It called for establishment of a just and
humane government and society which, according to him, was realising God on earth. Winning independence
politically was only a small part of it.
 Gandhi clarified that Ramarajya did not mean a rule of the Hindus. “My Rama is another name for Khuda or God.
I want Khudai raj, which is the same thing as the Kingdom of God on earth” (Haimchar, February 26, 1947). He
explained that politically translated, it is perfect democracy in which, “inequalities based on possession and non-
possession, colour, race or creed or sex vanish; in it, land and State belong to the people, justice is prompt, perfect
and cheap and, therefore, there is freedom of worship, speech and the Press—all this because of the reign of the
self-imposed law of moral restraint”
 Gandhi’s Satyagraha (struggle for truth) movement, which compelled the British to leave the country in 1947,
was also grounded on explicit and strong religious beliefs.
 Satyagraha involved the use of soul force as against the body force and was characterized by passive resistance
and Ahimsa (non-violence). It sought to awaken the inherent virtues in those against whom it was used, and not
to suppress perceived evil in them by any physical pressure or force. Besides, it was focused on self-purification
rather than judgment of the other.
 According to Gandhi, non-violence was a more active force than retaliation, which increases wickedness. “I
contemplate a mental, and therefore, a moral opposition to immoralities. I seek entirely to blunt the edge of the
tyrant’s sword, not by putting up against it a sharper-edged weapon, but by disappointing his expectation that I
would be offering physical resistance
 Satyagraha had three inseparable components.
o One, it was aimed at a just cause. He said, “I claim that the method of passive resistance…is the clearest and
safest, because, if the cause is not true, it is the resisters and they alone who suffer.”
o Two, it was effective but peaceful. “Passive resistance is an all-sided sword; it can be used anyhow; it blesses
him who uses it and him against whom it is used. Without drawing a drop of blood it produces far-reaching
results,” said Gandhi (“Hind Samaj or Indian Home Rule”, Navajivan Publishing House, 1958). He saw non-
violence as “the end of all religions”.
o Three, it concerned impurities and weaknesses in the self rather than focusing on the evil in the object of
resistance. For instance, he said it was the people in India who needed to change to earn the freedom. “It is
the people alone who have to win swaraj; no man, not even the Viceroy, can grant it.”
 He also said, “When it (the government) sees the faith in yourselves which you will have displayed to the world
by starting 20 lakh spinning-wheels within the time fixed, it will come down on its knees…When you have done
this, the world will have realized, and so will have the Government, that you have faith in yourselves, that you
really mean to have Swaraj
 Again, he said, “You must be religious and pure of heart. You must give up drinking and firmly vow to wear only
pure swadeshi (indigenous) cloth…. You must bear in mind that no one who is wicked and of impure heart succeed
in the non-cooperation struggle
 However, Gandhi’s use of religion was not idealistic, and nor was he over-optimistic about the realisation of his
dream of Ramarajya. “It is a dream that may never be realized. I find happiness in living in that dreamland, ever
trying to realize it in the quickest way.”
 His pragmatic approach can be gauged from the fact that he did not aim at becoming consistent in his views, but
was open to new ideas based on experiences in life. “When anybody finds any inconsistency between any two
writings of mine, if he has still faith in my sanity, he would do well to choose the latter of the two on the same
subject,” he said
 Besides, Gandhi was not like some of his contemporaries, who too were using religion in their respective struggles
for independence. What set him apart was the fact that while others highlighted worldly interests of religious
communities—which created hatred and jealousy, he introduced tenets of various religions in politics
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 with a vision that was broad enough to respect the needs of all communities. Religion, he said, in its broadest
sense governs all departments of life, including politics.
 Unfortunately, it is the misuse of religion that we see in politics of the day, and not the use of virtues found in
religion.

Ideological Differences of Gandhi and Bose

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was a lawyer and freedom fighter who used nonviolent means to fight the British
during the Indian independence struggle. Subhash Chandra Bose was an Indian nationalist who used military force
to free India from British rule. They are significant freedom fighters who contributed to India's freedom struggle,
and they are frequently cited, quoted, and referenced in the context of India's struggle against colonialism.

Relationship between Gandhi and Bose

 Despite their vastly different ideologies, Gandhi and Bose had deep respect for one another. Each respected the
other's contribution to the national liberation struggle.
 Gandhi labeled Bose the "Prince of Patriots" in 1942.
 When Bose's death was announced, Gandhi stated that Netaji's "patriotism is second to none, his bravery
shines through all his actions. He aimed high and failed, but who has not failed.”
 Bose was well aware of Gandhi's significance as a symbol of Indian nationalism and referred to him as "The
Father of Our Nation" in a radio broadcast from Rangoon in 1944, despite expressing his conviction in the same
speech that force was the only way to win freedom from the British.
 Both men saw socialism as the way forward in India, albeit in slightly different ways.
 Gandhi opposed the Western form of socialism associated with industrialization but supported the type of
socialism advocated by Jayaprakash Narayan.
 Gandhi and Bose were both religious men who despised communism. Both opposed untouchability and
advocated for women's rights.
 However, they differed greatly in their approaches and methods, as well as in their political and economic
ideologies.

Difference in Ideologies
Ideology Mahatma Gandhi Subhash Chandra Bose

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 Non-Violence Gandhi was a strong believer in ahimsa and Bose believed that Gandhi's strategy of
versus Militant satyagraha, the nonviolent method of nonviolence would be insufficient to secure
Approach achieving any goal. India's independence. The only way to end
imperialist control in India, according to
Bose, is through a militant approach.
He was opposed to violence for two reasons: In his opinion, only violent resistance could
first, an unarmed populace had little chance evict the alien imperialist rule from India.
of success in an armed rebellion, and second, Unlike Gandhi, Bose believed that liberation
he saw violence as a clumsy weapon that could not be achieved without the help of
created more problems than it solved and left the outside world. The British, according to
behind hatred and bitterness that could not Bose, should always be addressed with
be overcome through reconciliation. diplomacy and tact.
Means and For Gandhiji, no means could be used to reach Bose was focused on the outcome of the
Ends an aim, no matter how desirable. activity. He had no problem assisting the
Nazis, Fascists, and subsequently Imperial
Japan.
Form of Ramrajya, Gandhi's ideal state, had no Bose believed in early works that democracy
Government representative government, constitution, was the best political system for India. But
army, or police force. Gandhi detested afterwards, he seemed to suggest that a
centralisation. democratic system would be insufficient to
begin the process of reconstructing a nation
and eradicating poverty and social inequality.
Ideas on Gandhi's Swaraj ideology had its own Bose favored rapid industrialization.
Economy economic perspective. Decentralization
without state control was his goal.
Educa on Gandhi opposed the English educational For an industrial India, Subhash Bose
system and the use of English as a medium of advocated better education, particularly in
instruction. Gandhiji wanted a Local schooling science and technology. Netaji propagated
system all away, from a western one. military education, technical education and
administrative education.
Par cipants Gandhi commanded obedience from a large Bose believed in the Socialist ideology of
and supporters section of common citizens regardless of their armed struggle by peasants and workers,
profession or residency, making his approach who would fight the British bourgeois and get
universal. rid of them.
Timing of Gandhi felt that the British had to be Subhash in contrast believed that the war
struggle supported during the war so that they could was a perfect opportunity to strike the
defeat the fascist Axial forces led by Germany, weakened British by taking help from their
Italy and Japan. So he avoided conflict with enemies. He felt that the war was a struggle
the British during the war. between imperial powers and no one could
be trusted. Instead, he joined hands with
Japan to attack British colonies in Asia.

Conclusion
While there were differences in how Bose and Gandhi would have preferred to fight for India's independence, they
both respected each other and desired a secular India free of British control. Gandhi's concept of freedom was

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based on self-rule and self-control. Bose defined freedom not only in terms of political self-rule, but also in terms of
freedom from socioeconomic inequalities, casteism, intolerance, and so on. Gandhi and Bose both had a lot of
people rooting for them and had a lot of respect for each other.

Jawahar Lal Nehru

Contribution of Nehru

Institutionalisation of Democracy
 Nehru was committed to the establishment of a strong Indian nation where the concept of equal rights of citizens
would override all societal divisions.
 Nehru’s ideals envisioned in ‘Objec ve Resolu on’, steered the Constituent Assembly to draw up a working
constitution.
o It gave a tremendous leg up to the country’s historically discriminated sections like Dalits and religious
minorities.
 It was he who established the robust tradition of parliamentary supremacy over the military that prevented India
from becoming another junta-ruled Third World autocracy.
 The nature of the Nehruvian way of poli cs (debate and delibera on) led to development of respect for
parliamentary procedures, abiding faith in the constitutional system.

Ideal of Secularism
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 Nehru believed that India belonged to all who had contributed to its history and civilisation, and that the majority
community had a special obligation to protect the rights, and promote the well-being, of the minorities.
 This helped in building the narrative of ‘Unity in Diversity’.

Welfare State
 Through the planned economy approach, Nehru envisaged that in a land of extreme poverty and inequality, the
objective of government policy must be the welfare of the poorest, most deprived and most marginalised of the
people.
 This notion drives the policy of successive governments that poverty and inequality in India cannot be tackled
only by the market.
 It can be reflected in crea on of a framework of rights, including the right to work, the right to food, the right
to educa on and the right to fair compensa on for land, all of which have empowered the poorest of people in
India.

Establishing Institutions of Excellence

 It was Nehru who built the scien fic base for India’s space and engineering triumphs today.
o With the establishment of what is now the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), India has achieved the
status of Space power today.
o With the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) established in his tenure, Indians have a worldwide reputation
for engineering excellence.
o Also, he laid the foundations of a dual-track nuclear programme due to which India achieved nuclear-capable
status.
o Also, the economic policies of investing in heavy industries and protecting the nascent manufacturing sector,
helped India to substitute imports to a certain extent.

Thoughts of Jawaharlal Nehru

Communalism and Secularism
 Nehru was a votary of secularism from initial days of his career(1920s) always opposed communalism. His remedy for
communalism was also based on traditional approach of 'Hindu Muslim Bhai-Bhai', a common slogan of Hindu-Muslim
Unity.
 His secularism in political terms was based on tolerance and respect for each other's religion.
 He made Communalism a major target of attack. He also argued that democracy, secularism and socialism are linked
together. He once, said that
 We talk about a secular India.... What it means is that it is a state which honours all faiths equally and gives them equal
opportunities, and it does not allow itself to be attached to one faith or religion, which then become state religion....
India has long history of religious tolerance. - JL Nehru
 In a country like India, which has many faiths and religious, developing a real nationalism except on the basis of
secularism is not possible. Any narrower approach based on a single faith/religion bound to exclusion of certain
sections of society, which ultimately dilutes the concept of Nationalism itself.
 According to Nehru, Secularism did not mean neglect of religion but it meant respect for every religion without any
favour of one religion on the expense of others, which ultimately becomes state religion
 He also made it clear that communalism ultimately destroy the community which it claimed to defend or protect.
 Under Nehru's guidance constitutional rights to every religion were guaranteed (Article 25-28).

Socialism
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 J. L. Nehru prophesied a new form of Socialism called as Democratic Socialism, which was different from Marxist
Socialism. His socialism was based on logical and scientific approach focused on equal distribution of income through
planned programmes and schemes.
 At that time capitalism had taken deep root in the Indian soil. Hence, he thought that a compromise between capitalism
and state ownership would be beneficial for the country. According to Nehru, his socialism was to protect national
interests rather than imposing authority over the Private sector enterprises.
 His theory on socialism, was aimed to provide due liberty and freedom based on scientific and rational approach rather
to follow the idealistic or theoretical hard core socialism.
 Without social freedom and socialistic structure of the society or the state neither the country nor the individual could
develop much. - JL Nehru

Thoughts on Foreign Policy

India under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru wanted to pursue more modest goals than the advanced states. He
focuses more on peace and development in their own neighbourhood. Moreover, their economic and security
dependence on the more powerful states occasionally influences their foreign policy. After Independence, Nehru
decided to continue India’s membership in Commonwealth Nations. He also tried to establish friendly and cordial
relations with the United States, USSR, and other countries (both developed and developing).

Non-Alignment Movement(NAM)

 This was his greatest contribution to the world of power politics, secret diplomacy, military pacts and nuclear
arms race.
 At that time when he proposed this theory the majority of the world was divided into two power blocs namely:-
o Russian Bloc (Communist Bloc)
o American Bloc (Capitalist Bloc)
 He prophesied that countries should not (Non-alignment) joining either of the two blocs.
 The major components of his NAM were peace, development, disarmament and independence, so that
imperialism and colonialism in all their manifestations were liquidated from the world.
 His NAM theory became very popular across the world and adopted by many countries.

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Panchsheel

 According to Nehru Panchsheel means that each country should carve out it's own destiny without interfering
with others.
 Basically Cina and India signed the Sino-India Agreement on Trade and Intercourse between Tibetan Region of
China and India on 24th April 1954. In this agreement the preamble had five principles of Panchsheel.
 Mutual Respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
o Mutual Non-Aggression.
o Mutual Non-interference in each other's internal affairs.
o Equal and mutual benefit.
o Peaceful Co-existence.
 It means that each country should be free to develop of it's own and yet to be friendly with others. If the Nehru's
Panchsheel theory was sincerely adopted by every country than this world would have became a heaven on Earth.

Indo-Pakistan Relations

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 Jawaharlal Nehru adopted a protective approach towards Pakistan. In 1950, Nehru-Liaquat Pact was signed which
was binding on both countries to “protect the interests of minorities in both their countries”.
 The establishment of bilateral relations between countries started with Pakistan’s attack on India in 1948, and
both countries finally ceasefire which resulted in some part of Jammu and Kashmir (known as Pakistan-occupied
Kashmir) came under the dominance of Pakistan.
 In 1948, both countries signed the Inter-Dominion Accord under which India was required to provide water to
Pakistani in return for annual payments. But both countries failed to conclude the deal.
 In 1954, For the distribution of Indus waters between India and Pakistan, the World Bank brokered Indus Water
Treaty between both countries which was signed by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Pakistani President
Mohammad Ayub Khan signed in September 1960. A Permanent Indus Commission was created as a result of this
treaty.

Nehru’s Idea of Socialism

 Nehru builds his own idea of socialism during the freedom movement and applied it after the independence. But
he never defined the socialism and his idea of socialism is less doctrinal and more of empirical in nature, reason
behind it is that Nehru was more concerned with the real problems of individual and social life, and he did not
spend much time to correct his idea with the fine points of doctrines of socialism. His idea of socialism was largely
based on the democracy, economic factor and economic betterment of the masses, greater equality of
opportunity, social justice, more equitable of higher incomes generated through the application of modern
science and technology to the process of production, the ending of the acute social and economic disparities

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 generated by feudalism and capitalism, the application of the scientific approach to the problem of society, ending
of the acquisitive mentality, class distinction and class domination and supremacy of the profit motive. He also
believed that democracy and civil liberties had to be basic constituents of socialism and were inseparable from
it.
 But the basic difference between him and the other socialist is that he did not want the socialist society through
violent means, he wanted the gradual, peaceful and step by step introduction of elements of socialism, with the
non-violent means to achieve socialist society. He also did not want that the solution of differences through
violent and revolutionary means or class struggle, but he wanted to solve all the differences through conciliation
and adjustments. And in this point he deferred from the Marxist approach. He also deferred from Marx on the
point that Nehru did not define man as a producing being.
 He applied his ideas in the making of constitution and in his economic policies after the 1955 through the
economic planning.

Nehru as a Socialist before Independence

He also openly called himself a socialist in mid 1920s and 1930s. In 1936 Congress Session in Lucknow, he also said
that he is a socialist not in a vague humanitarian way but in a scientific economic sense; and he also wanted to build
a new social order on co-operative, classless and democratic sense. His statement led to controversies and several
members resigned from Congress Working Committee. He realised the rick; and after 1936, he was reluctant to make
such statements. But his socialism was alive with his commitment towards democracy; because it is considered that
the democracy and socialism are inescapable constraints of each other.

Socialism and the Making of Constitution

 During the constituent assembly debate, socialism had the impact on assembly and Nehru was one of the
influential members who supported the idea of socialism. Although Patel, Prasad and Azad were committed only
to effective government, but Nehru was more concerned with the Indian social problem and development. He
has especial attachment with his idea of socialism, which influenced the constituent assembly to become more
bias towards socialism. However there are other member in constituent assembly, who had the socialist view, for
example K.T. Shah; but they are not as influential as Nehru, who was also in the oligarchy of the constituent
assembly.

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 Granville Austin rightly observed in his book ‘The India Constitution, Cornerstone of a Nation’ that, the term
socialism was removed from the ‘Objective Resolution’, but the Constituent Assembly with a socialist biasness
framed such a democratic Constitution which allowed India to become as socialist in future if its citizen desire.

After Independence and Nehru’s Idea of Socialism

 After Independent and before 1955, Nehru did not much respond to socialism. In the First Five Year Plan and in
the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948, the socialism was not the primary thing, but emphasis was given on the
expansion of production. During this period many industries were left with private sector, and the public sector
has given small percentage of industries.
 But at the meeting of Avadi in 1955, the resolution of Indian National Congress acknowledged that the “planning
should take place with a view to the establishment of a Socialistic pattern of society, where the principal means
of production are under social ownership or control, production is progressively speeded up and there is equitable
distribution of the national wealth”. And after his resolution Nehru slightly moved toward his idea of socialism,
which is democratic, liberal and for economic betterment of the masses. The terms ‘socialistic pattern of society’
indicate that the Congress has officially accepted the socialism. And later in Second and Third Five Year Plans,
Nehru included adopted this socialistic approach. He brought many social reforms, which can be considered as
welfare state activities. He also brought labour legislations and equitable distribution of tax and excise policy.

Criticism of Nehru’s Approaches

 C.P. Bhambhri in his book ‘Indian Policies Since Independence’ shows a doubt that whether the Nehru’s policies
as socialist in nature or not. It is right that there are few policies of Nehru’s policies, which is not in the scope of
socialism. Property Relation, Mixed Economy, rejection of bank nationalization, rejection of ceiling on wealth was
the some of them. It was expected that Nehru bring radical changes in these areas and completely rejected those
policies which are against socialism.
 His policy of Mixed Economy cannot fall in the scope of socialism. Under the mixed economy, capitalism is
strengthened and encouraged in his government. Although he nationalized the Imperial Bank of India and life
insurance companies, he nationalized very few banks and he did not nationalized banks in bulk, which was later
done by his daughter Indira Gandhi.
 After Independence and after First Five Year Plan, he was criticised for not giving so much importance to socialism.
Socialist outside the Congress Party were criticized Nehru for his approach towards socialism and they said that
Nehru had betrayed the roots of socialism.
 But one thing critics did not see that, Nehru was not interested in applying the true doctrinal socialism, but he
believe in empirical socialism, which he want to establish through democratic means and not through violent
revolution. Nehru also recognized that Indian society of that days was not ready to accept features of socialist
society, especially Congress Party itself is not fully socialist, that was the one more reason that he did not only
stick to the doctrines of socialism but he applied the socialism in more practical way and he planned the policy of
public sector and cooperative system in village in such a way that ultimately it would result as socialist society.
And after 1955 he shifted his policies towards his idea of socialism.

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Rabindranath Tagore

Rabindranath Tagore was a Bengali poet, short-story writer, song composer, playwright, and painter. He introduced
new prose and verse forms and the use of colloquial language into Bengali literature, helped introduce
Indian culture to the West and vice versa, and is generally regarded as the outstanding creative artist of early 20th-
century India.
 Rabindranath Tagore was born in Calcutta on May 7, 1861. He was also referred to as ‘Gurudev’, ‘Kabiguru’, and
‘Biswakabi’.
 Regarded as the outstanding crea ve ar st of modern India and hailed by W.B Yeats, Rabindranath Tagore was
a Bengali poet, novelist, and painter, who was highly influential in introducing Indian culture to the west.
 On September 20, 1878, he went to England along with his elder brother Satyendranath Tagore (who later
became first Indian ICS officer); where he joined a Public School at Brighton. Later he joined London University to
study English literature as well as a music school but he returned India without earning an academic degree in
1880.
 Rabindranath was an exceptional literary figure and a renowned polymath who singlehandedly reshaped the
region's literature and music.
 Besides all his literary achievements he was also a philosopher and educa onist who in 1921 established the
Vishwa-Bhara University, a university that challenged conventional education.
 Rabindranath Tagore was a good friend of Mahatma Gandhi and is said to have given him the tle of Mahatma.
 Tagore had always stressed that unity in diversity is the only possible way for India’s national integration.
 He not only gave the na onal anthems for two countries, India and Bangladesh, but also inspired a Ceylonese
student of his, to pen and compose the na onal anthem of Sri Lanka.
 He has his elder brother, Satyendranath Tagore, the first Indian to become an ICS
 His first poem was published in the 'Amrit Bazar Patrika' and then he wrote 'Banaphul' (story and ‘Bhanusinher
Padavali’ (series of lyrics).
 He founded Shantiniketan near Bolpore on December 22, 1901.
 He inaugurated Raksha Bandhan festival to oppose the Partition of Bengal (1905).
 He founded the Vishva Bharati University.
 In 1915, British Crown granted him a ‘knighthood’ which he renounced after the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.
 His compositions were chosen as National Anthem by two nations
o India — Jana Gana Mana
o Bangladesh — Amar Shonar Bangla
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Tagore as a Poet
 In his early days of his writing his poetry was dominated by 'love of nature', but he himself declared them of a
"copy-book" kind. Later he produced many great books on poetry.
 Some of his famous poetical writings were :-
o Sandhya Sangeet:- For this poetical master piece he got great appreciation from the famous poet of that time
and writer of National Song of India ('Vande Maatram'), termed it as melancholic work.
o Prabhat Sangeet:- In this he depicted the world of childhood.
o Kori-o-kamal:- In this book he humanised various elements of nature. This was a new concept of human
writing called as 'Chhayavad'.
o Gitanjali:-This has two versions one is in English, while other is in Bengali. The English version contained about
100 composition out of which more than half are borrowed from the Bengali version of Gitanjali and rests
are borrowed from 'Gitimalya'.
Note:- The English version of Gitanjali got the Nobel Prize for him in 1913. The theme of the Gitanjali is the
relationship of a poet with his god. Hence the collections of poems in Gitanjali was an offering of songs to God.

Tagore's Literature
 He influenced the 'Chhayavad School' in 'Hindi Poetry' as well as others' such
as Assamese, Oriya and Gujarati literature.
 Besides poetry, he also wrote novels, dramas, short stories and literary criticisms.
Tagore as a Painter
 He developed the taste of painting in his sixties. His early paintings were mere rhythmic lines which were unique
and strange in shapes.
 Earlier Tagore had an inclination towards abstract form of art but later it changed to fantastic forms of mythical
beasts and prehistoric birds and reptiles that he painted embodied a transitional phase from the pure abstract to
the more recognisable human shapes suggesting different moods.

Tagore as a Musician
 When he was teenager he had written some 'Vaishnava lyrics' under the pseudonym Bhanu Sinha Thakur. He also
wrote a musical drama 'Balmiki Pratibha' in 1881.
 He had no formal training of music, instead he learnt the technicality of the music due to close contacts with
musicians and singers who. offten used to come at Jorasanko. he was also undoubtedly inspired with his
brother Jyotindranath, who used to play melodic tunes on Piano.
 Tagore's music was unique of its own, as it contained al technicality of music but stayed clear from orthodox
virtuosity. but that does not mean, his music lacked discipline or it was loose.
 Tagore composed Dhrupad, Thumri and Tappa but mostly songs. His music was imbibed upon the spirit of Bengali
folk traditions such as Sari, Baul and Kertan.
 He also used common classical Ragas like Malhar, Khamaj, Bhairavi, Pilu etc. but at the same time also produced
new combinations like Multani-Bhimpalasi, Asvari-Bhairavi, Darbari-Todi Bhairavi etc.
 He also used new talas like Shashthi, Navami, Jhampak etc. as well In his songs, there is a fusion of mood, work
and tune.

Rabindranath Tagore's Contributions

Literature & Art
 He reshaped Bengali literature and music, as well as Indian art.

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 In 1913, Tagore became the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature for his novel
 He wrote the Na onal Anthems of India and Bangladesh.
Educa on
 Tagore despised rote classroom schooling. His vision led to the establishment of a unique educational institution
- Visva- Bhara University.
 San niketan Ashram established by Devendranath Tagore, was later expanded by Rabindranath Tagore.
 The educational complex invented its own syllabus —that kept students abreast of political, social and
environmental changes in the country.
Social Reform
 He used his literature to mobilize people towards political and social reform.
 Through his works, he protested against Brahmanical social order, Caste System, narrow sectarianism,
untouchability and animal sacrifice.
Economy
 In 1921, Tagore and agricultural economist Leonard Elmhirst set up the "Ins tute for Rural Reconstruc on", later
renamed
 He emphasized on expansion of small-scale co age industries in the villages. The aim was to supply fresh blood
to the rural economy depending on local resources.

Freedom Struggle

Par on of Bengal (Swadeshi Movement)

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 Tagore wrote the song Banglar Ma Banglar Jol (Soil of Bengal, Water of Bengal) to unite the Bengali population.
 He started the Rakhi Utsav where people from Hindu and Muslim communities tied colorful threads on each
other's wrists.
 He urged the masses to seek self-reliance and unite themselves against oppression.
 Protest against Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
 He was awarded a knighthood by King George V in 1915, but Tagore renounced it after the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh
massacre.

His vision of Na onalism

 He skeptically scrutinized the construction of the nation on narrow parochial lines.
 Tagore opined that the term nationalism was derived from the term nation-state. And it was nothing but
the embodiment of Western ideas of capitalism and mechaniza on.
 He believed that these ideals were intrinsically against the Indian tradition of self-autonomy, pluralism and
religious tolerance.
 Fundamental to his belief was that na onalism could not rise above humanity.

Rabindranath Tagore's incredible social reforms

 "What is needed is eagerness of heart for a fruitful communication between different cultures. Anything that
prevents this is barbarism."

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 This was Rabindranath Tagore's view about nationalism. 'Viswa Kavi' was a visionary who revolutionised
education and literature in India.
 The only Indian litterateur to receive a Nobel Prize, Rabindranath, has not only enriched literature but he also
contributed to the freedom struggle in pre-Independence India.

Here are the incredible social reforms by Rabindranath Tagore:

Rabindranath and the Bengal Par on:
 On July 22, 1904, the Viceroy of India Lord Curzon announced that the Bengal providence would be divided into
two parts. The British government was worried about the social integrity among different communities in Bengal
and wanted to divide and rule.
 The Bengal Partition took place on October 16 in 1905 and this sparked a nationwide protest. The Indian National
Congress had started the Swadeshi Movement where Indians denounced all British items and use all native items.
 Rabindranath Tagore wrote the song Banglar Mati Banglar Jol (Soil of Bengal, Water of Bengal) to unite the Bengali
population. He started the Rakhi Utsav where people from Hindu and Muslim communities tied colourful threads
on each other's wrists. In 1911, the two parts of Bengal were reunited.

Going against conven onal Western educa on

 Tagore was against conventional classroom education. He believed that interaction with nature is essential for
learning. On December 29, 1918, Tagore laid the foundation stone of Visva Bharati University.
 He remodelled education as a holistic development process where teachers would be more like mentors guiding
students towards emotional, intellectual and spiritual upliftment.
 He invested his Nobel Prize money in building the campus and a town in Bolpur, West Bengal. He named the place
as Shantiniketan, the abode of peace. His educational reforms are included in many curriculae across the world.

The dark knighthood:

 The British were overwhelmed by the genius of Tagore. A lot of his works were translated before the First World
War. After the war ended, Tagore was offered the knighthood by the royalty.
 But this was the time when Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place in Amritsar on April 13, 1919. Tagore
renounced the title as a protest against the brutal genocide by the British military.
 In his repudiation letter to Lord Chelmsford, Tagore wrote --
 "The time has come when badges of honour make our shame glaring in the incongruous context of humiliation,
and I for my part, wish to stand, shorn, of all special distinctions, by the side of those of my countrymen who,
for their so called insignificance, are liable to suffer degradation not fit for human beings."
 His action was lauded by native politicians and the Congress party

Changing how India saw the world

 Tagore owns the title Viswa Kavi or poet of the world because of his universal ideology. At a time when India was
struggling to find the right language of freedom movement, Tagore advocated the idea of global integrity and
that the man himself is a gateway to the world.
 His songs speak of man's position in the entire cosmos --
Akash Bhora Surjo Tara, Biswa Bhora Praan
Tahar-e majh khane ami peyechi mor sthaan
(The Sun and the stars fill the sky, the world full of life
In midst of this, I find my place)

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 This philosophy changed the way Indians saw the world. The purpose of the freedom struggle changed from
protest to progress as Tagore explained the universality of man. The identity of India after independence was
closely based on Tagore's ideology of peace and universal brotherhood.

Poli cs and Tagore:

 Rabindranath faced criticism from radical politicians and agitators for being an upper-class author who did not
connect to the public. This was the result of low educational standards.
 A lot of Tagore's critics did not understand that revolution is not an overnight phenomenon but a constructive,
progressive movement through education.
 In his lecture, entitled "Swadeshi Samaj", he explained how the British control of India is the "political symptom
of our social disease" of self-subjugation. He urged Indians to believe that "there can be no question of blind
revolution, but of steady and purposeful education".
 Tagore also spoke against petty nationalism. He wrote, "when the organisation of politics and commerce, whose
other name is the 'Nation', becomes all-powerful at the cost of the harmony of the higher social life, then it is an
evil day for humanity."

Rabindranath Tagore in Independence movement

 Tagore participated in the Indian nationalist movement from time to time, though in his own non-sentimental
and visionary way; and Gandhi, the political father of modern India, was his devoted friend. Tagore came to be
recognized as one of the architects of modern India.
 India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, wrote in Discovery of India, “Tagore and Gandhi have undoubtedly
been the two outstanding and dominating figures in the first half of the twentieth century. Tagore’s influence
over the mind of India, and especially of successive rising generations has been tremendous. Not Bengali only,
the language in which he wrote, but all the modern languages of India have been molded partly by his writings.
More than any other Indian, he has helped to bring into harmony the ideals of the East and the West, and
broadened the bases of Indian nationalism.”
 In 1905, Viceroy Curzon decided to divide Bengal into two parts. Rabindranath Tagore strongly protested against
this decision. Tagore wrote many national songs and attended protest meetings. He initiated the Rakhibandhan
ceremony, symbolizing the underlying unity of undivided Bengal.
 In 1919, following the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Tagore renounced his knighthood condemning the act. He was
a supporter of Gandhiji but he stayed out of politics. He was opposed to nationalism and militarism as a matter
of principle, and instead promoted spiritual values and the creation of a new world culture founded in multi-
culturalism, diversity, and tolerance.

Tagore’s Views on Different Aspects of Education:

The aim of education according to Tagore is creative self-expression through physical, mental, aesthetic and moral
development. He stressed the need for developing empathy and sensitivity and the necessity for an intimate
relationship with one’s cultural and natural environment. He saw education as a vehicle for appreciating the richest
aspects of other cultures, while maintaining one’s own cultural specificity.
o Meaning of educa on: Education is short of the highest purpose of man, the fullest growth and freedom of
soul. To the child, the environment will provide an ever-ready back ground for its spontaneous activity. Our true
education is possible only in the forest through intimate correct with nature.
o Freedom of mind: The objective of education is the freedom of mind, which can only be achieved through the
path of education.

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 o Children as children: It is a mistake to judge by the standards of grownups. Adults ignore the gifts of children
and insist that children must learn through the same process as they do. This man’s most cruel and most
wasteful mistake. Children’s subconscious mind is more active than their conscious intelligence.
o Discipline and Freedom: Living ideals cannot be set into clockwork arrangement. Tagore wrote, I never said to
them; don’t do this, or don’t do that……. I never punish them. An ideal school is an Ashram where men have
gathered for the highest end of life. Tagore observed to give spiritual culture to our boys was my principal
objective in starting my school at Bolepur.
o Living contact between the teacher and the taught: In teaching, the guiding should be personal love based on
human relations. In education, the teacher is more important than the method. The teacher is Guru. He is to
guide and stimulate the students. He remarked, a teacher can never truly teach unless he is still learning himself.
A lamb can never light another lamb unless it continues to burn in its own flame. So a teacher must always be
teacher.

Tagore’s Contribu on to Modern Educa on:

 Tagore’s major contribution to modern education is the establishment of Santinikethan at Bolepur, in 1901.the
school which was modeled on the ancient ashrams grew into a world university called Viswa Bharati. It is an
abode of peace where teachers and students live together in a spirit of perfect comradeship. The motto of the
institution is’ where the whole world forms its one single nest. It has open spaces and atmosphere of freedom
surrounded by natural environment. It is open to, all irrespective of country, race, religion, or politics. It is
centered around simple living and high thinking and has spiritual and religious atmosphere.
 Tagore advocated teaching while talking as the best method and stressed on tours and excursions. He supported
teaching and learning through debates and discussions which develop the power of clear-cut thinking. He
adopted activity method which makes the learner physically sound. He also held heuristic method where the
student is in the position of a discoverer. He stressed on free environment which makes learner selfdisciplined.
 In Tagore’ philosophy of education, the aesthetic development of the sense was us important as the intellectual;
and music; literature; art, and dance were given great prominence in the daily life of the school.

Tagore’s Thoughts and Relevance in Present Educa on:

 Tagore is critical of the prevalent system of education which lays role emphasis upon bookish learning. The
intellectual aim of education, according to him, is the development of the intellectual faculties’ which should be
developed through education. These are the power of thinking and of imagination. Tagore’s educational ideas
have been shared by other educationists and many of his innovations have now become part of general
educational practices, but his special contribution lay in the emphasis on harmony balance and total development
of personality.
 The visionary and the great educationist in Tagore solved the problem of today as far back as fifty years. Economic
forces compel the teachers of today to look for pupils, but in the natural order of ting it is the pupil who should
look for the teacher. The teacher student relationship designed by Tagore is a model in this context. It became
one of earliest coeducational programs in South Asia. It’s establishment led to pioneering efforts in many
directions, including model for Indian higher education and mass education as well as pan Asian and global
cultural exchange. As one of the earliest educators to think in terms of the global village, Tagore’s educational
model has a unique sensitivity and aptness for education within multiracial, multi-lingual and multi-cultural
situations amidst conditions of acknowledged economic discrepancy, political imbalance and social evils.

Differences between Gandhi and Tagore on Nationalism

Parameters Mahatma Gandhi Rabindranath Tagore

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Na onalism on the He believed in a Nationalism that was He believed in nationalism till World
context of own na on grounded to the Indian based tradition and War 1 in 1914-18.
or Western Na ons culture. The Nationalism should tend more
towards the Indian philosophies, instead of
being influenced by the Western Countries.
Na onalism on He was a staunch advocate of truth and non- He believed it as a way to
humanitarian skils violence. He believed that the freedom accumulate money and property of
fighter’s steps to promote nationalism were their countries by depleting the
very violent; thus, killing humanity should not humanity.
be accepted.
Na onalism whether an He believed that there should be a common He believed that contemporary
inclusive or exclusive language (lingua franca) that would unite nationalism could not do more good,
concept India’s diverse people in their languages. rather harm and destroy civilization,
hence improving the concept.
Whether Na onalism It was based on self-sufficiency at every level. His ideology of Nationalism was
should favour based on social love and affection
interna onalism among people. Also, he believed in
internationalism.
Ideology about In the “Hind Swaraj” book, he repudiated both Tagore said that Nationalism was just
Na onalism and want extremists or moderates’ kinds of freedom a way to appropriate wealth and
of it fighters. Because according to him, none of territory, violating humanity’s basic
their ideologies could foster nationalism. ideals.
Similari es Feelings of nationalism drove both Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore.
Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore had different ways of dealing with their
oppressors, but, they were united by aim and Ideologies.
Gandhi fought with the British with non-violence and started the Civil Disobedience
Movement and other movements to show that Indian commended this oppression.
Meanwhile, Tagore took to literature and propagated nationalist Ideas to young minds.
He also surrendered his Knighthood in the act of support the Indian freedom struggle

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B R Ambedkar

Birth and Education

 Bhimrao Ambedkar was born to Bhimabai and Ramji on 14 April 1891 in Mhow Army Cantonment, Central
Provinces (Madhya Pradesh).
 In 1906 Bhimrao married Ramabai.
 He cleared his matriculation in 1907-08 from Elphinstone High School.
 in the year 1912 Ambedkar obtained his graduate degree in Economics and Political Science from Bombay
University.
 1912 Bhimao’s father Ramji Sakpal died in Bombay
 with the financial support of Gaekwad ruler of Baroda, Sahyaji Rao III he completeded his Post Graduation
(Economics) in 1915 by presenting a thesis titled ‘Ancient Indian Commerce’.
 In 1916, he enrolled in the London School of Economics and started working on his doctoral thesis titled “The
problem of the rupee: Its origin and its solution”.
 In order to continue his further studies, he went to England in 1920 at his own expense. There he was received
the D.Sc by the London University.
 In 1927, he received his Ph.D. degree in Economics. And in June 1927, he was awarded a Doctorate by the
University of Columbia.

His movement for Rights of Dalit and Marginalized community

 In 1919, in his testimony before the Southborough Committee in preparation of the Government of India Act
Ambedkar opined that there should be a separate electoral system for the Untouchables and other marginalized
communities.

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  In 1920, Ambedkar launched a newspaper called “Mooknayaka” (leader of the silent) with the assistance of
Shahaji II, the Maharaja of Kolhapur. (other periodicals- ‘Bahishkrit Bharat’ (1927), ‘Samatha’ (1929) and ‘Janata’
(1930))
 In 1923, he set up the ‘Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha (Outcastes Welfare Association)
 Ambedkar launched full-fledged movements for Dalit rights by 1927 and demanded public drinking water
sources open to all and right for all castes to enter temples.
 In 1932, Ambedkar signed the Poona Pact.

His contributions to Dalit empowerment

Along with forming many organizations for the empowerment of the Dalit Ambedkar also put emphasis on;
Educa on:
He said that “It is the education which is the right weapon to cut the social slavery and it is the education which will
enlighten the downtrodden masses to come up and gain social status, economic betterment and political freedom”
In 1923 Baba Saheb founded ‘Bahishkrit Hitkarni Sabha to spread education among marginalized and to improve their
economic conditions. He gave the slogan: “Educate-Agitate-Organize”.
Changing hierarchical structures of Indian society:
 Dr. Ambedkar devoted his whole life to fight for the annihilation of caste by proliferating a movement against the
evils of the caste system. Being himself a Dalit, he made all his efforts to change the hierarchical structures of
Indian society and restoration of equal rights/justice to the marginalized and abolition of Untochability. He stood
for a complete reorganization and reconstruction of the Hindu society on the principle of equality free from
castism. He advocated equality of opportunity. He opted for peaceful and constitutional methods for the sake of
resolution of the social problems.
 He advocated a society based on three fundamental principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity: Dr. Ambedkar
was a remarkable liberal crusader who realized the ideological hollowness of the Dalit Movement and provided
necessary ideology to it. He created awareness among depressed classes to have a graceful life.
Poli cal party:
He formed three political parties, viz. Independent Labor Party, the Republican Party of India and All India Scheduled
Caste Federation which were instrumental in organizing Dalit community and raising voice in favour of Dalit
community
Reserva on in the elec on:
He represented the untouchables in the Round Table Conference in 1930. Due to his consistent ceaseless efforts, the
Harijans were granted reservation of seat in the elections.
Bringing Untouchables to the mainstream of Indian society:
His programs were focused on mainstreaming the Untouchables into Indian society. He fought not only for equal
status of Varna but for social, economic and political equality as well as equal opportunity to all. His ideas & programs
set forth concrete proposals for the removal of untouchability and the empowerment of the downtrodden. Dr.
Ambedkar demanded justice to untouchables and other weaker sections of the society via making provisions in the
Indian Constitution.

His role in framing Constitution

 In framing the constitution of independent India, he played a leading role. He was appointed as the Chairman of
the constitution drafting committee in 1947.
 Ambedkar was a wise constitutional expert, he had studied the constitutions of about 60 countries. Ambedkar is
recognized as the “Father of the Constitution of India”

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 The text prepared by Ambedkar provided constitutional guarantees and protections to individual citizens for a
wide range of civil liberties, including freedom of religion, the abolition of untouchability, and the outlawing of
all forms of discrimination.
 Ambedkar advocated extensive economic and social rights for women and won the support of the Assembly to
introduce a system of reservations for members of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and Other Backward
Class in the civil services, schools, and colleges.
 He laid emphasis on religious, gender and caste equality. Even Ambedkar recommended the adoption of Uniform
Civil code to bring reform in the Indian society.

His role in the Round table conferences

Ambedkar participated in all three round table conferences in London and demanded separate electorate for
untouchables which were opposed by Gandhiji and led to Poona pact in 1932.

Hindu code bill

The Hindu code was brought into existence by Jawaharlal Nehru in the 1950s. It was revised by Bhimrao Ramji
Ambedkar in 1948 and was referred to a select committee under the chairmanship of law minister B. R. Ambedkar.
The committee made a number of important changes to the Bill, including making the laws applicable to even non-
Hindus. According to this bill, portions of inheritance to daughters, while giving widows complete property rights.
This had been previously been restricted. The Bill basically put forth gender equality in laws of inheritance and
marriage.

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Poona Pact

In 1932, British announced the formation of a separate electorate for “Depressed Classes” in the Communal Award.
 Gandhi fiercely opposed a separate electorate for untouchables, saying he feared that such an arrangement
would divide the Hindu community. Gandhi protested by fasting while imprisoned in the Yerwada Central
Jail of Poona. Following the fast, Congress politicians and activists such as Madan Mohan Malaviya and
Palwankar Baloo organised joint meetings with Ambedkar and his supporters at Yerwada.
 On 25 September 1932, the agreement known as Poona Pact was signed between Ambedkar (on behalf of
the depressed classes among Hindus) and Madan Mohan Malaviya (on behalf of the other Hindus). The
agreement gave reserved seats for the depressed classes in the Provisional legislatures, within the general
electorate.
 Due to the pact, the depressed class received 148 seats in the legislature, instead of the 71 as allocated in
the Communal Award earlier proposed by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald.
 The text uses the term “Depressed Classes” to denote Untouchables among Hindus who were later called
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes under India Act 1935, and the later Indian Constitution of 1950. In
the Poona Pact, a unified electorate was in principle formed, but primary and secondary elections allowed
Untouchables in practice to choose their own candidates.

Industrialisation and Agriculture

Being the first Indian to hold an economics degree abroad, Ambedkar stressed that agriculture and industrialisation
would enhance the Indian economy. Considering agriculture to be India's primary industry, he wanted the
government to invest more in that sector. According to Sharad Pawar, Ambedkar's vision helped the government to
achieve food security goals.

Dr. B R Ambedkar as a “Father of Indian Constitution”

 At that time Dr. B R Ambedkar was a master or expert in the subject of the Constitution. Because he studied the
Constitutions of 60 countries. After the Independence of India, He was the first Law Minister of India and then on
29th August, he was elected as Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee to write an India’s new
Constitution. His role was to submit a written constitution to the prime minister. At that time a total of 7 members
were appointed to that committee. Here timeline of the Indian Constitution is shown below after DR B R
Ambedkar became the chairman of the Constitution drafting committee.
 29th August 1947- Drafting Committee Elected Dr. B R Ambedkar as Chairman of Constitution drafting Committee
along with 6 members named Muhammad sadulla, Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, N.Gopalaswamy Ayyangar, Dr. K M
Munsi, N Madhva Ray, T T Krishnamachari.
o 16th July 1948- T T Krishnamachari elected as a vice president of the Constitution Assembly.

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 o 26th November 1949- On this day, the New Indian Constitution was passed and accepted by the Constitution
Committee.
o 24th January 1950- On this day, the newly created Indian constitution was signed and Accepted with 395
articles, 8 Schedules, and 22 Parts.
o 24th January 1950- On this day, the newly created Indian constitution was signed and Accepted with 395
articles, 8 Schedules, and 22 Parts.
o 26th January 1950- From this day an Implementation of the Indian constitution was started all over the
country.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar views on Abolition of Caste System in India

“IF I FIND THE CONSTITUTION BEING MISUSED,
I SHALL BE THE FIRST ONE TO BURN IT”

In India Caste System consists of two different concepts that is Varna and Jati, the real concept of Varna has almost
disappeared in the present context and has changed into Jati. The former was based on color of the skin and later on
birth. It is the religious and social institution of Hindu peoples who comprised about 80% of India’s population. The
rest of India is Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Jain or Buddhist. Caste is such a deep rooted and pervasive concept, it is a rigid
form of stratification system, in which mobility of rank and status is not allowed. However, that it has also influenced
Muslims, Christians and Sikhs, for instance, they have separate churches for dalits and non dalits Christians. The 50
million Indians who live in tribal community predate the Aryan and Dravidian civilization. They are members of
backward classes, they are not the part of Hindu society even then, they have started observing untouchability
towards Dalits- who themselves have a caste hierarchy.
Origin Of Caste System
Although, it is difficult to establish as to when the caste system originated, but there is no doubt that the institution
of caste for the convenience of the ruling class leading to successful administration by them. There are different
theories about the establishment of the caste system. These are Religious mystical, Biological, Socio-historical
theories.
Religious Theory
The religious theory explained how the four Varna’s were founded, but they do not explained how the Jaats in each
Varna or the untouchables were founded. According to Rig Veda, the ancient Hindu book, the primal man- Purush –
destroyed himself to create human society. The different Varnas were created from different part of his bodies. The
Brahmans were created from his Head; the kshtriyas from his Hands; the Vaishyas from his Thighs and the Shudras
from his Feet. Other religious theory claims that the Varna’s were created from the body organs of Brahma, who is
the creator of the world. According to Iravati Krave : the four rank system was creation of ruling class which originally
had a three rank system in which whatever the differences of rank all people had right to certain rituals and
sacraments from birth to death.
Socio historical theory
 The socio historical theory explains the creation of the Varna, Jaats and untouchables. According to this theory
the caste system begins with the arrival of Aryans in India. Before the Aryans there were other communities in
India of other origins among them Negrito, Mongoloid, Austroloid and Dravidian. When the Aryans arrived in
India their main contact was with the Dravidians and Austroloids. The Aryans disregarded the local culture, they
begin conquering and taken control over regions in north India and at the same time pushed the local people
towards the south, jungles and mountains in north India.
 The Aryans organized among themselves in three groups. The first was of a warrior called Rajayana later they
changed their name to kshatriya. The second group was of priest called Brahmans. The third group

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 was of farmers and craftsmen and they were called as Vaishyas. In order to secure their status the Aryans resolved
some social and religious rules which allowed only them to be the priest, warrior and the businessmen of the
society. For instance: Maharashtra in West India, many think that the meaning of the name Maharashtra is great
land but some claim that the name Maharashtra is derived from the Jaats called Mahar who were considered to
be the original people of this region. In the caste hierarchy the dark-skinned Mahar were outcastes. The skin color
was an important factor in the caste system.
 The meaning of the word Varna is not class or status but skin color. In Hindu religious stories there were many
wars between the good Aryans and a dark skinned demons and devils, but the real fact was that the dark skinned
slaves were in fact the original residence of India, whom the Aryans coined as monsters, devils, demons and
slaves.
 Therefore, the caste system did not come into existence all of a sudden or at a particular date. It is the result of
the long process of social evolution.

The desire of the Brahmans to keep

themselves pure

Hereditary
occupation
The lack of rigid, unitary control of
factors
the state

Foreign invasion and rural social

structure

Geographical isolation of
the Indian peninsula

All these factors conspired to encourage the formation of small groups based on petty distinction from time to time.
It may however be noted that the caste system is not specifically an institution of Hindus but it is a typical Indian
institution. Further caste system is not a monopoly of India it existed and still exists in many parts of the world. What
is unique in the Hindu caste system is that it alone classified some groups as untouchables and unapproachable.

Issues Relating To Caste System

According to P.N Bose,- the caste system has acted essentially to impose that attitude of money, needed to raise men
from savagery but to stop them halfway on progress.
Disintegra ng factor:
The caste system has literally split up the society into hundreds of hereditary caste and sub castes and encouraged a
spirit of exclusiveness and class-pride, narrowed the outlook and created wide gulfs between the various sections of
the community. The caste system resulted in lots of evils because of its rigid rules. It perpetuates exploitation of the
economically weaker and socially inferior caste. It protects the privileged caste and thus, builds up economic

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discontent and social prejudices. A person born in one caste was doomed to remain in it forever, and keep check on
economic and intellectual advancement and a great stumbling block in way of social reforms, because it keeps
economic and intellectual opportunities confined to a certain section of the population only and denies them to other.
The Shudras and untouchables had to perform all the menial tasks. They could not do anything for their own
development. The worst thing is that they cannot be permitted to devote himself to any educational or scientific
profession, even when they have natural aptitudes and physical and intellectual equipment for it. Worthy and capable
person are prevented by caste rigors from getting their proper and rightful places, even there next generation has to
follow the same rigidness of caste system, and they too remain closed slaves and bonded labors. The caste system
however is guilty of just the opposite demerit. It does not make proper provision for low-born talents or high-born
incompetence.
Barred to religious es
 As far as religion is concerned the lower caste people were not even allowed to touch the holy book and sacred
literatures and they were devoid to enter into the temple. This problem has given scope for religious conversion.
The lower caste people were getting converted into Islam and Christianity, due to the tyranny of upper caste.
Along with these issues the old Hindu Law Marriage Act 1955 promotes Anuloma marriage i.e. a boy from upper
caste can marry a girl from lower caste and prohibits Pratiloma marriage i.e. a girl from lower caste cannot marry
a boy from upper caste. It also inflicted untold hardships on women through its insistence on practices like child
marriages, prohibition of widow remarriage, seclusion of women etc. these have made the life of women
miserable.
 History bears testimony that the issue of caste system sanctioned privileges to a section of society who
understood themselves as a superior class and at the same time it inflicted a series of disabilities on their sections
which continues from generation to generation.
Contrary to Democracy
Democracy is based on principle of equality, fraternity and liberty. On the other hand the caste system is based on
inequality of status and opportunities, which often creates conflict and tension in the society. It acts as an obstacle in
the normal and smooth functioning of democracy. No doubt India has got political freedom but it must be the
concerned of every individual that real freedom cannot be cherished without attainment of the social and the
economic democracy. It is unfortunate that the Indian society is sharply divided into various caste and sub caste which
acts as a barrier due to rigidity and division of the society based on caste consideration.
Perpetuates Untouchability:
 The caste system has condemned large groups of people to a life of degradation without any hope of redemption.
It has created Untouchables, an evil that has been sapping the very vitals of the society. This untouchability is
reduced to the state of natural slavery and hindered the growth of brotherhood; hold off the national unity as it
disallowed any type of social intercourse. B.R Ambedkar rightly said, Untouchability of Hindus is a rare
phenomenon, humanity is any other part of the earth has never experienced it. There is no such thing in any
other society. Really, the tyranny is perpetuated in the name of untouchabilty are the black lesson in human
culture. . According to Mahatma Gandhi, untouchability is the hate fullest expression of caste.
Hindrance in the way of Moderniza on:
 The caste system obstructs the process of Modernization as it also restricts the mental development of an
individual. Modern Indian intellect is, therefore burdened with the sense of contrition over the matter. Passions
overwhelmingly carry us to a position of hostility towards any compromise, and the entire caste structure placed
in the docks. Despite this it cannot be said that the caste system offers a place in which any group religion or
occupation can fit in as a cooperating part of the society.

Bhim Rao Ambedkar: Vision

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 Bhim Rao Ambedkar was born in December 1981 in a Mahar community, an untouchable caste of Maharashtra.
His father Ramji and grandfather Maloji was in military services. He was the youngest child of his parents and was
just only five when his mother died. Thereafter his aunt took care of him. He was enrolled in a local school of
Satara where he had to sit on the floor and his teacher would not touch his books as because he was untouchable.
Facing so many hardships in his life B R Ambedkar continued his studies and passed his matriculation. In 1913
Maharaj of Baroda awarded scholarship to B R Ambedkar and send him to America for attaining the degree of
Masters, it was for the first time in his life he was not degraded for being Mahar.
 He submerged himself in the studies and obtained the Degree of M.A, PHD from the University of Columbia.
There after he proceeded to London but soon Baroda government ended his scholarship and bring him back. The
Maharaja of Baroda appointed him as a Secretary but here also he faced discrimination because of being Mahar.
In 1917 he returned to Bombay and joined syndrome college, Bombay as a professor of political economy on a
temporary basis. the social treatment of other professors were so pathetic as they all belongs to high caste even
they objected that Ambedkar can’t drink water from the pot reserved for the professional staff. When he started
legal practice in the High Court of Judicature, Bombay. He had no money even to obtain sanad. He had joint the
appellate side of the bar. The solicitor would not condensed to have any business dealing with him because of
untouchability .therefore, all these circumstances forced him to be a great rebel against the Hindu orthodoxy and
its discriminatory treatment to turns his mind for searching a cult where a man is not discriminated by the another
man.
 Dr. Ambedkar played a significant role for the upliftment of downtrodden. He was considered as messiah for
suppressed class as he belongs to untouchable’s community. He experienced caste discrimination right from the
childhood, that’s why he raises the issues related to untouchability there are many leaders who raise their voice
for the down trodden of India, but the most significant, eminent actions were taken by B R Ambedkar because he
himself faced such problems ,After noticing the evils of prevailing caste system and its impacts on suppressed
human being prompted founding father of the Constitution of India to create an egalitarian society wherein
justice, social, economic and political right prevails which includes equality of status and opportunity may be
available to everyone irrespective of caste system.
 No doubt India has got political freedom and has political democracy, but it must be the concerned of everyone
that real freedom cannot be cherished without attainment of social and economic democracy. It is unfortunate
that the Indian society is sharply divided into various caste and sub caste which is obstacle due to rigidity
segregation and division of the society based on rigid caste consideration. B R Ambedkar was impressed enough
by the conduct and humanism of the great social reformers like Budhha, Kabir and Jyo ba Phule. He declared
that Untouchables must leave the Hindu culture and accept another religion instead, and he himself embraced
Buddhism.
 Dr. Ambedkar criticized old Law books like Manusmriti and Arthshastras who showed the inferiority and bitterness
towards the suppressed class. He also criticized the higher standard of Brahmans who are category above of all.
The Brahmans are somehow responsible for social exploitation and the backwardness of untouchables.
 Ambedkar also rejected that there were no such invasion of Aryans as mentioned in the ancient Vedic and Sanskrit
literature. He argued that Shudras were not dark skinned but Shudras were also belongs to the Kshatriyas class
but due to the defeat in a battle with VAISTHA after which they became their subordinates. He raises many
question against the political minded Hindus such as are you fit for political power even though you do not allow
a class of your own countrymen like the untouchables to use public school, public well, public street, to wear
what apparel or ornament they like, food they want to eat, he who emerged a revolutionary leader, approached
the problem of Hindu caste system and the fate of suppressed human being from different perspective. In
estimation of Dr. Ambedkar caste is a barrier to social progress and was the direct result of Hindu caste system.
 According to him Varna and Caste were evil ideas. He was of the belief that by the eradication of the Varna system,
a cohesive and egalitarian society may emerged the concept if equality and fraternity and viewed that every
congressmen who was of the opinion that when one country is not fit to rule, another country must
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 admit that one class is not fit to rule another class. If he talks about political reformation he criticized both
Mahatma Gandhi as well as Congress Party. He said that Congress to be the sole representative of people of India
including all communities’
 But congress does not pay much emphasis on the interest of the untouchables and when he mentioned Gandhi,
Ambedkar says that he give many quotes and sayings but no views and suggestions that were helpful for the
development of un-trodden He was of the view that there should be reorganization and reconstruction of the
society which relates to the abolition of caste system. High class Hindu never feel the necessity for agitating for
the abolition of the caste system, rather they felt quite a greater urge to remove those evils such as child
marriages, sati etc One important fact that deserves to be mentioned over here is that Gandhi could never rid his
mind of a concept of Varna system and he never directly asked people to give up on caste system. On the other
hand Dr. Ambedkar clearly mentioned outcaste is the byproduct of the caste system. There will be outcaste as
long as there are castes. And nothing can emancipate the outcaste except the destruction of the caste system.

Poli cal democracy cannot last unless there lies at the base of it social democracy. What does social democracy
mean? It means a way of life which recognizes liberty, equality and fraternity as the principles of life.
-DR. BHIM RAO AMBEDKAR

Dr. Ambedkar’s initiative for the abolition of caste system

Dr. B R Ambedkar throughout his lifetime was considered to be a controversial personality. He was a great nationalist
who was less understood and more misunderstood by his own countrymen. But his worth could not be hidden for a
long time, he began to be hailed by the people of the India as a great patriot throughout his life. There were various
initiatives taken by him for the course of the memorandum that he submitted jointly with Roa Bahadur K. Srinivasan
of the minority committee of the round table conference he had outlined the terms and conditions on which the
depressed classes will consent to place themselves under a majority rule in a self-governing India as follow:
 Equal citizenship and fundamental rights declaring the practice of untouchability as illegal.
 Free enjoyment of equal rights protected by adequate constitutional remedies.
 Protection against discrimination.
 Adequate representation to the depressed classes in the legislature. They must have the right to elect their
representative by Universal Adult Suffrage.
 Adequate representation in the services.
 Redress against pre judicial action or neglect of interest and obligation should be imposed on the legislation and
the executive to make adequate provision for the education, sanitation, recruitment and other matters of social
and political advancement of the depressed classes.

Ambedkar was called upon to play a stupendous role in his capacity as chairman of the drafting committee of the
constituent assembly and as a minister of Law in the Nehru Cabinet. He was entrusted with the responsibility of
safeguarding the rights of every Indian, especially for depressed sections.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar As A Massiah For Downtrodden

 On his return to India in 1923, he founded, Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha with a main object of spreading education
and improving the economic conditions of the oppressed classes. With a slogan of Educate-Agitate-Organized the
social movement led by Dr. Ambedkar aimed at annihilation of the caste and the reconstruction of the Indian
society on the basis of equality of human beings.
 In 1927 he led the march at Mahad, Maharashtra to establish the rights of the untouchables to take water from
the public Chawdar Lake. This marked the beginning of anti-caste and anti-priest movement. The temple entry

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 movement launched by B.R. Ambedkar in 1930 at the Kalaram temple is another landmark in the struggle of
human rights, political and social justice.
 One of the greatest contributions of Dr. Ambedkar was in respect of fundamental rights and direc ve principles
of state policy enshrined in the constitution of India. The fundamental rights provide for freedom, equality and
abolition of untouchability and remedies to ensure the evolution of rights. The directive principles mentioned fair
distribution of wealth and better living conditions for all.
 It was he, who forsook his high pedestal, lying down to their level, gives them a helping hand and raised them to
human stature. For Indians, Ambedkar is no more a historical personality named Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar. He is
already metamorphosed into a symbol-a symbol for their collective aspiration and an icon for the thesis of their
emancipation. Human history is replete with such icons; rather it is largely made of them.

CONCLUSION
 Caste system was very much stringent and rigid institution of early society which was responsible for the pathetic
condition of different groups of the community and they were treated as suppressed and untouchables class.
Various successful steps were taken by different social reformers to eradicate this evil from the mind of the
people, because every individual mind were responsible to generate this evils into once mind. This paper
emphasized the annihilation of caste system in the light of the views if Dr. B R Ambedkar. He made valuable
contribution to the social and political thinking and denounced the outrageous attitude of the Brahmanical
Hinduism towards the untouchables and worked for the liberation of oppressed class from the high caste Hindus.
Through his writing and speeches he made the people conscious of the political, economic and social problem of
the untouchables and impressed the need of paying special attention to the conditions of untouchables.
 The influence of Ambedkar idea is evident from the fact that the new constitution not only assured equality to all
the citizens but also took definite steps to abolish untouchablity and made its factors in any form an offence
punishable under law.

Relevance of Ambedkar in Present Times:

 His ideas and contributions continue to shape India's social and political landscape, particularly in the fight
against caste-based discrimination and the struggle for social justice.
 His vision for an inclusive and egalitarian society, as enshrined in the Indian Constitution, remains a guiding
principle for the country's future development.
o Additionally, his emphasis on education as a means of empowerment is particularly relevant today as India
seeks to achieve its full potential as a global leader.
 Dr. Ambedkar's legacy is an integral part of India's national identity and his ideas continue to inspire
generations.

Subhash Chandra Bose

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 Subhas Chandra Bose was born on 23rd January 1897, in Cuttack, Orissa Division, Bengal Province, to Prabhava
Du Bose and Janakinath Bose.
 After his early schooling, he joined Ravenshaw Collegiate School. From there he went to join Presidency College,
Calcutta and was expelled due to his nationalist activities. Later, he went to University of Cambridge, U.K.
 In 1919, Bose headed to London to give the Indian Civil Services (ICS) examination and he was selected. Bose,
however, resigned from Civil Services as he believed he could not side with the British.
 He was highly influenced by Vivekananda's teachings and considered him as his spiritual Guru. His political mentor
was Chittaranjan Das.
 In 1921, Bose took over the editorship of the newspaper 'Forward', founded by Chittaranjan Das's Swaraj Party.
 In 1923, Bose was elected the President of the All India Youth Congress and also the Secretary of Bengal State
Congress.
 He was also sent to prison in Mandalay in 1925 due to his connections with revolutionary movements where he
contracted Tuberculosis.
 During the mid-1930s Bose travelled in Europe. He researched and wrote the first part of his book, The Indian
Struggle, which covered the country’s independence movement in the years 1920–1934.
 After his return, Bose took over as the elected President of Indian Na onal Congress in 1938 (Haripur) and stood
for unqualified Swaraj (self-governance) and the use of force against the British which then combated against
Mahatma Gandhi and his views.
 Bose was re-elected in 1939 (Tripuri) but soon resigned from the presidency and formed the All India Forward
Bloc, a faction within the Congress which aimed at consolidating the political left.
 He died on 18th August 1945, in a plane crash in Japanese-ruled Formosa (now Taiwan).

Contribution to Freedom Struggle

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 Associa on with C.R Das: He was associated with C.R. Das' political endeavour, and was also jailed along with
him. When C.R. Das was elected Mayor of Calcutta Cooperation, he nominated Bose as the chief executive. He
was arrested for his political activities in 1924.
 Trade union movements: He organised youth and promoted trade union movements. In 1930, he was elected
Mayor of Calcutta, the same year he was elected the President of AITUC.
 Associa on with congress: He stood for unqualified swaraj (independence), and opposed Motilal Nehru Report
which spoke for dominion status for India.
o He actively participated in the Salt Satyagraha of 1930 and vehemently opposed the suspension of Civil
Disobedience Movement and signing of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact in 1931.
o In the 1930s, he was closely associated with left politics in Congress along with Jawaharlal Nehru and M.N. Roy.
o Because of the endeavour of the left group, the congress passed very far reaching radical resolu ons in Karachi
in 1931 which declared the main Congress aim as socialization of means of production besides guaranteeing
fundamental rights.
 Congress presidentship: Bose won the congress presidential elections at Haripura in 1938.
o Next year at Tripuri, he again won the presidential elections against Gandhi's candidate Pattabhi
Sitarammayya.
o Due to ideological differences with Gandhi, Bose le congress and found a new party, 'the Forward Bloc'.
o The purpose was to consolidate the political left and major support base in his home state Bengal.
 Civil disobedience movement: When World War II began, he was again imprisoned for participation in civil
disobedience and was put under house arrest.
 Indian Na onal Army: Bose manages to escape to Berlin by way of Peshawar and Afghanistan. He reached Japan
and from there to Burma and organised the Indian Na onal Army to fight the british and liberate India with the
help of Japan.
o He gave famous slogans 'Jai Hind' and 'Dilli Chalo'. He died in a plane crash before realising his dreams.

Azad Hind
 Indian Legion: Bose founded the free India centre in Berlin and created the Indian Legion out of the Indian
prisoners of war who had previously fought for the British in North Africa prior to their capture by Axis forces.
o In Europe, Bose sought help from Hitler and Mussolini for the liberation of India.
 In Germany, he was attached to the special bureau for India which was responsible for the broadcasting on the
German sponsored Azad Hind Radio.
o On this radio, Bose on 6th July 1944, addressed Mahatma Gandhi as the 'Father of the Na on'.

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Indian Na onal Army: He reached Japanese-controlled Singapore from Germany in July 1943, issued from there his
famous call, ‘Delhi Chalo’, and announced the formation of the Azad Hind Government and the Indian Na onal
Army on 21st October 1943.
o The INA was first formed under Mohan Singh and Japanese Major Iwaichi Fujiwara and comprised Indian
prisoners of war of the British-Indian Army captured by Japan in the Malayan (present-day Malaysia) campaign
and at Singapore.
o The INA included both, the Indian prisoners of war from Singapore and Indian civilians in South-East Asia. It's
strength grew to 50,000.
o The INA fought allied forces in 1944 inside the borders of India in Imphal and in Burma.
o However, with the fall of Rangoon, Azad Hind Government ceased to be an effective political entity.
o In November 1945 a British move to put the INA men on trial immediately sparked massive demonstration all
over the country.
 Impact: The I.N.A. experience created the wave of disaffection in the British Indian army during the 1945-46,
which culminated in the great Bombay naval strike of February 1946 and was one of the most decisive reasons
behind the British decision to make a quick withdrawal.
 Composi on of I.N.A: The I.N.A. was essentially non-communal, with Muslims quite prominent among its officers
and ranks, and it also introduced the innovation of a women’s detachment named after the Rani of Jhansi.

Role of Subhash Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army

While the whole nation was engaged in the August movement, the struggle for independence was carried on by
Subhash Chandra Bose outside the frontiers of India.
 Indians were fighting tooth and nail to liberate their motherland from outside. The Indian National Army and
Subhash Chandra Bose were playing their significant role in the freedom struggle of India.

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 Subhash Chandra was one of the foremost among the nationalist leaders of India, brave and youthful he
possessed excellent organising capacity.
 Born on 23rd January, 1897 at Cuttack town to a pleader father Subhash Chandra was selected into the Indian
Civil Service after a brilliant academic career. In the service when he was called upon to take an oath of allegiance
to the crown, he refused to do so and left the job in 1921. During his college career he had shown what he was
going to be when he beat an English man black and blue for his having criticised the culture of India.
 After leaving the service Subhash joined the non-coopera on Movement but was not satisfied with the principle
of non-violence of Gandhiji and supported Motilal and C.R. Das in the venture of organising the Swarajist party.
Subhash was appointed the Chief Executive officer of Calcutta by C.R. Das, the Mayore of Calcutta. The progressive
activities of Subhash invited the displeasure of the Government and were deported to Mandalay.
 Subhash represented the young and extremist elements in the Congress. He was elected as the President of the
Congress in 1938 and again in 1939. He could not make any compromise with Gandhi and thus resigned his
President-ship and organized the famous Forward Block. During Second World War he was put under house arrest
in his ancestral house in Elgin Road; Calcutta but escaped and reached Japan.
 In a romantic and daring journey changing names and looking different he proceeded from there to Moscow and
finally reached Berlin in March 1941. The German dictator Adolf Hitler did not like to help him for the cause of
Indian independence.
 In Germany the Indian community hailed him as Netaji and greeted him with the slogan “Jai Hind”. From Berlin
Radio he regularly broadcasted to India urging his countrymen to rise against the British. He very soon felt that
South-East Asia would be a suitable ground for his grand scheme of raising a national army to free India from the
British yoke. The golden opportunity for him came when Japan joined the war.
 At that time Rash Behari Bose was busy in organizing a notable organization in the name of Indian Independence
League in Japan to help the end of British rule in India. Rash Behari Bose convened two conferences one at Tokyo
in March, 1942 and the second in Bangkok in Jun 1942. The revolutionaries assembled in the conferences decided
to form an Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauz) for the liberation of India from the British rule.
 The army was to be formed with Indians in the South-East Asian Countries and Indian soldiers of the British Army
captured by the Japanese. Capt. Mohan Singh was primarily responsible for raising the army. Rash Behari Bose
was made the President of the Council of Action. Shortly afterwards Rash Behari dismissed Mohan Singh whose
personal ambition endangered the I.N.A. Rash Behari then played a pivotal role in organizing the movement.
Subhash Bose was invited to take up the leadership.
 In February 1943, Subhash left Germany from Kiel port in a Submarine. Through risk, suffering and untold
hardship he finally reached Tokyo in June 1943. He held discussion with the Japanese authorities in the course of
which the latter promised the independence of India after the war. From Tokyo he went to Singapore where he
was warmly welcomed by Rash Behari and the latter handed over the leadership to Subhash.
 Subhash became the President of the Indian National Army as well as the President of Indian Independence
League. Addressing a huge meeting at Singapore on 4th July, 1943 Rash Behari said “In your presence to-day I
resign my office and appoint Desh Sevak Subhash Chandra Bose as President of the Indian Independence League.”
 However Rash Behari remained a courageous and selfless freedom fighter till his death on 21st January 1945. It
was Rash Behari who prepared the stage in the East and South-East Asia for Subhash Chandra Bose to play on his
significant role which India observed. Paying tribute to Rash Behari on the day of his death Subhash described
him as the father of the Indian Independence Movement.
 Gradually the number of the I.N.A. men began to grow greatly. Assuming the command of the I.N.A. he gave his
famous battle cry “Delhi Chalo” (on to Delhi). He worked out a master plan of campaign for the INA with the
ultimate goal of reaching Delhi. A provisional Government of Azad Hind (Free India) was set up.
 Its object was “to launch and to conduct the struggle that will bring about the expulsion of the British and of
other allies from the soil of India.” Addressing the army he said “We have a grim fight ahead us for the enemy is

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 powerful, unscrupulous and ruthless. In this final march to freedom you will have to face hunger, privation, forced
marches and death. Only when you pass this test will freedom be yours.”
 The INA revealed Subhash Bose’s greatness as a military leader and an organizer too. One of the INA Brigades
advanced with the Japanese army upto the frontiers of India. The Indian national flag was hoisted in Kohima in
March 1944. But with the change of fortune in the war and the retreat and defeat of the Japanese the INA
collapsed. The role of INA had far reaching influences on the Indian political scene.
 When the stories of their remarkable courage and sacrifice came to the knowledge of the Indian people at the
end of the war, the nation came under a wave of revolutionary upsurge. The British Government could realise
that patriotism for Indians was greater than their service to a foreign power. Subhash was the greatest enemy of
the Viceroy Lord Wavell.
 The communists described him as an agent of the “Facist Powers”. Gandhiji admired the courage and
resourcefulness displayed by Subhash in making his escape from India. Inspite of his principle of violence Subhash
Chandra Bose’s grand scheme of India’s liberation and the high idealism through INA movement inspired the
people of India in an unprecedented manner.
 The organisation of the Azad Hind forces and their exploits are a milestone in the history of the Indian struggle
for freedom; the formation of which was the brain child of Subhash Chandra Bose.

INA Trial:
 In the midst of conflict between the Congress and the League the Government instituted a public trial of the Azad
Hind Fouz soldiers on charges of treason. The trial only helped to rouse the people’s patriotic emotion. The
exploits of INA led by Netaji stirred the whole nation and the country was thrilled with excitement. The congress
engaged a set of lawyers including. Jawaharlal Nehru, Tej Bahadur Sapru and Bhulabhai Desai to defend the
leaders on trial.

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 The INA leaders in the first instance were convicted but their sentences were soon remitted and ultimately they
were set free. However some INA officers were not released for which there was a public resentment.
Demonstrations were organized in different parts of the country. Sarat Chandra Bose, the brother of Subhash
Chandra mobilized the public sentiment in support of the INA and made elaborate arrangements for the
celebration of the anniversary of the foundation of the Azad Hind Government on 21st October, 1943.
 The trial of the INA officers in the historic Red Fort became a “tribute to the martial courage of Indians, a symbol
of her sense of total independence, a matter more of pride than of justice.”
 In February, 1946 a serious mutiny broke out in the Royal Indian Navy at Bombay. British troops were called in to
crush the rebellious navy men as the Indian soldiers refused to open fire at their brethren. The British
Commander-in-Chief General Archinleck warned the army. Nehru declared “Our armed forces have every right to
revolt against the foreign ruler in order to achieve the freedom of our country.”
 The Government had no other way out than to think over the matter of releasing Colonel Shah Nawaz, Major
G.S. Dhillon and Captain Prem Sehgal along with other trials who were the heroes of the hour. By the release of
these trials the people could believe that it-was a great victory for Indians. Gradually the situation in the Indian
Army tended to take a serious turn before it ended a few days later owing to the efforts of Sardar Patel.
 The mutiny in the Royal Indian Navy made it clear that the British Indian Empire could no longer depend on the
Indian staff. The realization virtually precipitated the process leading to the transfer of power. The entire history
of the Indian National Army was thus the outcome of the matser brain and the heroic activities of Subhash
Chandra Bose supported by Rash Behari Bose.

His legacy as message for today’s India

 He was non-communal and deeply secular. He appointed many Muslims to senior positions in the Indian
National Army (INA).
 A much needed value for a peaceful India.
 Despite serious political differenceswith Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, he accorded them a lot of
respect.
 He was the first who referred to Gandhi as Father of the Nation, in a radio speech, and also named two of the
four INA regiments by the name of Gandhi and Nehru.
 A leaf can be drawn from this and inculcated with politicians in contemporary India.
 He was attracted by the ideology of Marxism and his ambition for post-independent Indian society was strongly
egalitarian.
 He also believed in gender equality which is needed to empower women – about 50% of our population.
 He was attracted to military discipline, a much needed value for today’s youth of India.

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Dr. Rajendra Prasad

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the first President of independent India. His contribution to the nation runs much deeper. He
was one of the prominent leaders of the Indian Nationalist Movement alongside Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel
and Lal Bahadur Shastri.
 He was one of those passionate individuals who gave up a lucrative profession to pursue a greater goal of attaining
freedom for the Motherland. He took up the helms of designing the Constitution of the nascent nation by heading
up the Constituent Assembly post-independence. Dr. Prasad was one of the chief architects in shaping the
Republic of India.
 Early Life and Educa on: Rajendra Prasad was born to Mahadev Sahai and Kamleshwari Devi at Zeradei, in the
Siwan district of Bihar on December 3, 1884. He was the youngest kid of the family. He was a meritorious student,
he received his early education from Moulavi, an accomplished Muslim scholar, who taught him Persian, Hindi
and arithmetic.He later studied at the Chapra District School and T.K. Ghosh's Academy in Patna. For higher
education, he moved to Calcutta where he secured a scholarship at the Presidency College, for a degree in science.
He later changed his stream of studies from science to arts, attaining his MA in Economics in 1907. Completing
his education, he took up the job of a professor of English at the Langat Singh College in Muzaffarpur and was
soon was promoted as the principal. In 1908, he left his chair of the principal to pursue a degree in law at the
Calcutta City College, where he doubled up as a professor of Economics. In 1915, he graduated with honors with
a Masters degree in Law, winning a gold medal. In 1937, he completed his Doctorate in Law from Allahabad
University .Meanwhile in 1911, joined the Indian National Congress.

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Role as President:
 He was re-elected for two consecutive terms in 1952 and 1957, and is the only President of India to achieve this
feat.
 The Mughal Gardens at the Rashtrapati Bhavan were open to public for about a month for the first time during
his tenure.
 Prasad acted independently off politics, following the expected role of the president as required the
constitution.
 Following the tussle over the enactment of the Hindu Code Bill, he took a more active role in state affairs.
 In 1962, after serving 12 years as the president, he announced his decision to retire. After relinquishing the
office of the President of India in May 1962, he returned to Patna on 14 May 1962 and preferred to stay in the
campus of Bihar Vidyapeeth.
 He was honoured with Bharat Ratna, the nation’s highest civilian award.

Indian political movements for independence and role of Dr.

Rajendra Prasad
After the revolt of 1857, the company rule was implemented in India and the control was given to the Queen of
England. The company closely managed the country and since then the resentment started building up and then it
became a dream for every Indian to see their country free from the British rule. The struggle started in 1850s when
the Indian National Congress party was formed and the leaders started building the plan for an independent India.
Here is the list of major movements happened during this period which finally led to the freedom of India from the
British rule

Formation of Indian National Congress:

During the period of 1860-1890, a new section was rising who were educated and were questioning the policies made
by the British East India Company. During this period seventy men rose and founded the Indian National Congress to
discuss and debate the impact of British rule on India. They identified that the tax paid by Indians are being used to
pay the British civil servants and that maintains their lifestyle. They blamed the company for draining India’s wealth.
The resentment had started to build with this exposure.

Swadeshi movement:
The starting of the twentieth century saw the rise of unrest between Muslim dominated east Bengal and Hindu
dominated west Bengal and later the Bengal province was split. The partition of Bengal was followed by the boycott
of foreign goods and Swadeshi movement started which was led by Mahatma Gandhi. The movement supported the
use of Indian made goods and the intent was to empower the desi artisans. Dr. Prasad played a pivotal role here by
becoming the right hand of Mahatma Gandhi.

Satyagraha Movement:
Dr. Prasad emerged as a young congress leader during Satyagraha movement started in the Champaran district of
Bihar. The farmers there were forced to plant indigo on a portion of their land and had to sell the harvest at below
the market price to the Britishers. The condition of peasants was really bad during that time and Mahatma Gandhi
had appointed Dr. Rajendra Prasad to work in this area. He left his law practice and started working for the peasants
of Bihar and emerged as a strong leader from this region.

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Non-cooperation Movement:
In the year 1920, Mahatma Gandhi started the non-cooperation movement against the British rule as the company
was not ready to back down. He requested the Indians to return the awards and posts given by the company and
boycott all the British goods. Dr. Prasad played a major role in the implementation of this movement and his consistent
efforts forced the company to plan and free the country from their colonial rule.

Round table conference and Government of India Act:

In 1930s, the Indian National Congress party demanded for Purna Swaraj and Dr. Prasad let this movement.
Discussions happened in the party to completely gain the freedom of the country from British Raj.

Quit India Movement:

Started in 1942 under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi, Jawahar Lal Nehru and Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the movement
demanded immediate withdrawal of British forces from our land. The persistence of boycotting the British rulers by
Indian national congress leaders led to the pressure building on the company and eventually they resigned.

Independence of India and partition:

On 15th August, 1947, the country got freedom and was partitioned into Dominion of Pakistan led by Muhammad Ali
Jinnah and Dominion of India led by Jawaharlal Nehru. Dr. Prasad was elected as the president by unanimous voting
and then started developing the path for a brighter future of the country.

Post independence developments:

 After the freedom of our country from the British Raj, the role of Indian leaders became very important in shaping
the outlook of the country. Entire nation was looking forward to them. Dr. Prasad was a scholar and a lawyer and
was very much aware about the possibilities and work to be done in this sector which could have helped the
farmers, boosting the Indian economy. He utilised his knowledge and then helped in setting up an agricultural
University in Bihar. The university has evolved now and is called as Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central agricultural
University situated now in Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar. He was a pioneer in establishing the knowledge centres for
helping the farmers in getting awareness about the best practices for their farming.
 Coming from a middle class family in a small district from Bihar, Dr. Prasad could relate himself with the problems
of the farmers. He had spent his entire life living very close to the primary sector earners of Indian society and
has seen the challenges and developments in this filed. He knew the scope it had for development and was aware
about the possibilities to achieve that goal. He understood the deep rooted problems in the agricultural sector
and was determined to work in this area to improve the condition of farmers’ by helping them in improving their
farming yield. He was a well educated and well informed citizen of our country who had the exposure of both
modern and traditional societies. He wanted both to complement each other. He believed that change is the only
constant and we should change our techniques of work with the changing time.
 He then did major contributions to the agriculture though this university with the aim of creating educated
individuals to work in the agricultural sector. His efforts were fruitful in the long run when graduates in agriculture
started working in this sector and slowly brought improvement in this area. Mr. Prasad knew the power of
education and had understood that the root cause of all the roadblocks existing in agricultural sector is primarily
illiteracy. He believed that educating people about agriculture would bring a systematic development in this
sector and would eventually empower the farmers to develop their farming methods. He also wanted the support
of tertiary sector to enhance the existing situation of farmers and wanted to set up services like banking and
knowledge centres which would have helped the farmers in the long run.
 His vision for the farmers was for the long term and he wanted to work on the roots rather than just making
policies without doing a proper ground work on the basic problems faced by the farmers in our
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 country. He not only worked on the primary sector development, but was insightful to make advancements in the
tertiary sectors as well to make both these sectors work in tandem and create jobs for each other. His plans were
long term and effective in solving the crisis situations of droughts and floods where the farmers used to be in
huge problem. His institutes and centres are continuously working for the development of agricultural sector and
helping the farmers grow slowly but steadily. Though the impact of this long term planning is still going on and
would now need more reforms in this direction. But the initial work done by Mr. Prasad has laid the foundation
for the development and has established a revolutionary path for the future work to be done in this area.

Role in the freedom Movement:

Note:In case a short notes comes in exam, you can mention these points.
 Prasad’s first association with Indian National Congress was during 1906 annual session organised in
Calcutta, where he participated as a volunteer, while studying in Calcutta.
 Formally, he joined the Indian National Congress in the year 1911, when the annual session was again held in
Calcutta.
 During the Lucknow Session of Indian National Congress held in 1916, he met Mahatma Gandhi. During one
of the fact-finding missions at Champaran, Mahatma Gandhi asked him to come with his volunteers.
 He was so greatly moved by the dedication, courage and conviction of Mahatma Gandhi that as soon as the
motion of Non-Cooperation was passed by Indian National Congress in 1920, he retired from his lucrative
career of lawyer as well as his duties in the university to aid the movement.
 He also responded to the call by Gandhi to boycott Western educational establishments by asking his son,
Mrityunjaya Prasad, to drop out of his studies and enrol himself in Bihar Vidyapeeth, an institution he along
with his colleagues founded on the traditional Indian model.
 He wrote articles for the revolutionary publications Searchlightand the Desh and collected funds for these
papers.
 He took an active role in helping people affected by the 1914 floods that struck Bihar and Bengal.
 He was elected as the President of the Indian National Congress during the Bombay session in October 1934.
 He again became the president when Subhash Chandra Bose resigned in 1939.
 After the formation of Interim Government of 12 nominated ministers under the leadership of Jawaharlal
Nehru on 2 September 1946, he was allocated the Food and Agriculture department.
 He was elected as the President of Constituent Assembly on 11 December 1946.
 On 17 November 1947 he became Congress President for a third time after J. B. Kripalani submitted his
resignation.

Awards & Recognition:

 In 1962, after 12 years as President, Dr. Prasad retired, and was subsequently awarded the Bharat Ratna, the
nation’s highest civilian award.
 Dr. Prasad recorded his life and the decades before independence in manycbooks, which includes:
o Satyagraha at Champaran
o India Divided
o His autobiography “Atmakatha”
o Mahatma Gandhi and Bihar, Some Reminisences
o Bapu ke Kadmon Mein

Conclusion
The struggle of Indian independence has been a phenomenal example of persistence and perseverance. The sacrifice
done by our political leaders shaped the future of our independent country. It laid the path and created a

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 foundation for a developing country which is in league with the other developing countries today. Huge population
and cultural diversity of our country makes it even more glorious to remember the efforts of our political leaders. Dr.
Rajendra Prasad was an asset to the Indian history whose work has defined the future of our country. His continuous
efforts brought a major change in the face of Indian history and brought independence for our country from the
British rule. Our country would always be indebted to him and we will learn from his working style in future. His
unconditional support to Indian politics has been acknowledged by the people of our country and he would be
remembered forever in the Indian history of independence. Politics has a lot to learn from such leaders who has
changed the way for Indian politics and has brought a mature change to be revered and followed by the young
generation politicians.

Ram Manohar Lohia

Ram Manohar Lohia mobilised support for Quit India Movement through underground work
 Socialist leader Ram Manohar Lohia played a major role in the Independence struggle, especially, during the Quit
India Movement. It was Lohia who kept the movement alive through his ‘underground’ work, at a time when
several top leaders were jailed by the British rulers.
 Lohia was born on 23 March 1910 at Akbarpur in Uttar Pradesh in a family of traders. He was raised by his
grandparents as his mother Chandri died when he was just two years old. His father, Hira Lal Lohia, who refused
to remarry, was a committed nationalist.

Independence struggle
 In 1934, Lohia joined the Congress Socialist Party, which served as the Left-wing of the Indian National Congress.
He was one of the founding members of the party and also edited its periodical called, Congress Socialist. In 1936,
he became the secretary of the foreign department of All India Congress Committee.
 Unlike Nehru, Lohia bitterly opposed India’s involvement in the World War-II. He was arrested for making
comments against the British government in 1939-40.
 “The massive edifice of the British Empire raised on the foundation of exploitation and slavery is shaking…” he
said at a public speech in Dostpur, UP, on 11 May 1940.

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 “In ten provinces of the country, the popular governments have been replaced by the autocratic rule of the
Governors, thus providing enough justification to launch a Satyagraha,” he said.
 During the Quit India Movement in 1942, when most of the top leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal
Nehru were arrested, Lohia and Jay Prakash Narayan played a major role in mobilising support.
 Lohia set up underground radio stations called, Congress Radio, at Bombay and Calcutta to “disseminate the much
needed information to the masses to sustain a leaderless movement”, according to an article published by The
Hindu. JP mobilised a guerrilla force to combat British colonial rule. As a result of this, Lohia was jailed again in
1944-46.
 In February 1947, Lohia was elected chairman of the Congress Socialist Party.

After Independence
 Lohia, along with several leaders left the Congress in 1948 because of their differences with Nehru. Lohia
apparently believed that Nehru talked at great length about socialism but never actually practised it, according to
a report in Mainstream.
 He joined the Praja Socialist Party in 1952 and served as its general-secretary for a brief period before resigning
from the party in 1955. Later, he launched a new Socialist Party and edited its journal Mankind. Lohia started a
series of “Satyagrahas” against social injustice and went to jail several times during this period.
 Lohia was elected to the third Lok Sabha in a bypoll from Farrukhabad in May 1963. It was Lohia who made
Parliament acknowledge the widespread problem of starvation among agricultural labourers. In the 1964 budget
debate, Lohia showcased that 270 million Indians lived on three annas (19 paise) a day.

Ram Manohar Lohia’s idea of Socialism:

Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia occupied a unique place in the evolution of the socialist thought in India. He was the first
socialist thinker in India who refused to accept the Russian or western model of Socialism for India. His dynamic and
uninhibited approach to various problems distinguished him from other political leaders.
Dr.Lohia showed great originality in his enunciation of Socialism. He played his original thesis of Socialism, while
presiding over the Panchamarhi Conference of Socialists in May 1952.

The basic postulates of the new socialist theory were stated thus:
Both capitalism and communism believe
in the same method of production. The If we look at communist countries and
Both capitalism and communism only difference between them is that in the so-called free democratic states and
are based upon centralized power capitalism some indviduals or groups analyze the actual conditions of the
make profit and in communism even people, there it is quite clear that both
which is incapable of bringing though there is no individual profit are incapable of ushering in social
about a radical transformation in system, a centralized power, class or transformation, people's freedom and
society. party, monopolizes the benefits. Society people's culture. Therefore, both have to
does not in reality enjoy economic, be eschewed.
political and individual freedom.

Socialism does not believe in The political and economic

restricted capitalism or mixed objectives are to establish a free and
economy. It does not believe that decentralized society by eliminating
this would ever pave the way for capitalism political and economic
socialism. influence from society.

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NEW SOCIALISM
A democrat by conviction socialism appealed to Dr.Lohia as a way of life. He strongly advocated the plea that socialist
movement in India should have a distinct Indian character. He championed “the principle of equal irrelevance of
capitalism and communism in respect of the creation of a new human civilization. “ This new civilization is called by
Lohia’s socialism ‘.Dr. Lohia says that socialism stands for equality and prosperity. In order to achieve it ,one should
rely on vote ( election ) , spade ( constructive work ) , and prison ( cívil disobedience ) . This new Socialism should
principally aim at:
I. Maximum attainable equality ;
II. Social Ownership ;
III. Small – unit technology ;
IV. Four – pillar state ;
V. A decent standard of living
VI. The World Parliament and Government.

Sapt Kranti
Dr.Lohia was a pathfinder of equality, social justice and individual freedom and dignity. Dr. Lohia was one of those
great leaders who not only advocated the need for a fundamental reoccurring of our social relations but also
provided an ideological basis for this revolutionary transformation. Dr. Lohia called this radical transformation seven
revolutions ‘SAPTAKRANTI’ which for Lohia was the ideal of socialism.
1. GENDER EQUALITY.
2. END OF RACIAL INEQUALITY.
3. END OF CASTE INEQUALITY.
4. END OF IMPERIALISM AND CREATION OF WORLD GOVERNMENT.
5. END OF ECONOMIC INEQUALITY ON PRIVATE PROPERTY .
6. END OF USING ARMS AND ESTABLISHED INSTITUTE ON PRINCIPLE OF CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE.
7. OPPOSITION TO ENCROACHMENT UPON INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM.

Thoughts and achievements:

 Lohia was one of the founders of the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) along with Jaya Prakash Narayan, Achyut
Patwardhan, Yusuf Meherally, etc. and editor of its mouthpiece ‘Congress Socialist’. As part of the Foreign
Relations Department of the Congress Party, he evolved the theory of the Third Camp in world affairs. He
rejected both the blocs in the Cold War and his policy became the official policy of the Congress Party.
 Lohia was at the forefront of the ‘Quit India’ movement launched by the Congress in 1942 and founded the Azad
Hind Radio during its underground phase. After independence, he was against Portugal’s continuing sovereignty
over Goa. He had visited the area in 1946 to strengthen and inspire the fight against colonial rule.
 He opposed the partition of the country in 1947 along with a few other members of Congress. However, after
partition, he was keen to promote the idea of a confederation of India and Pakistan.
 He thought that the industrialization of Western Europe was due to the exploitation of their colonies. He wanted
to bring out the close relationship between industrialization and imperialism.
 As regards the economic strategy to be adopted after independence, Lohia pointed out that India was capital
scarce but labour abundant, didn’t have colonies or the time-space of a hundred years or more which the
Western countries used for their industrialization. He, therefore, suggested labour intensive technology as
against the capital intensive technology of the West and wanted the introduction of the small unit machine to be
driven by power. He called upon Indian technologists and scientists to attempt the invention of such machines.
 Lohia desired to achieve economic equality and end exploitation. He wanted public ownership of large scale
industries and wanted to reconstruct the Indian economy with land reforms with land to the tiller. He wanted
limits to be imposed on income and expenditure.

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 Lohia analyzed the caste system and advocated preferential treatment for the backward castes. He felt that the
abolition of the class system would lead to the simultaneous abolition of the caste system. He believed that
inequality was not only economic but social too. In India where the caste system and patriarchy were part of
society, one had to fight for caste and gender equality along with economic equality. He demanded a 60 percent
reservation in all areas of public life for women, the backward, and the backwards amongst the minority religious
groups.
 Lohia was staunchly anti-English and pro-vernacular. He desired that the country’s administration, judiciary, and
its elite professions must not remain alienated from the masses. He was against the continuation of English as
the medium of higher and professional education, administration, and the judiciary. He wanted English to be
replaced by regional languages and Hindi to replace English as the link language.
 He said “The use of English is a hindrance to original thinking, progenitor of inferiority feelings and a gap
between the educated and uneducated public. Come, let us unite to restore Hindi to its original glory.”
 Lohia advocated devolution of politico-administrative power, His concept of 4 pillar state, is a pragmatic attempt
to combine Gandhian village democracy with modern state. As an exponent of socialism he wanted to organise
the state mostly on the lines suggested by Gandhi. The 4 pillar state comprises Central, Province, District, and
Village. According to Dr. Lohia the main features of this state would be.
 1 / 4 of all governmental or planned expenditure should be through villages, cities and district panchyat.
 The police should remain subordinate to village, city and district panchyat.
 Post of District Collector should be abolished and its function should be distributed among various bodies of
district. Agriculture, Industry and other property which is nationalize should be owned and administered by
village, city and district panchyat .
 Economic decentralization should be brought through maximum utilization of small machines. Dr. Lohia is also
aware about the 5 Pillar of the state which is World Government , and inception of world parliament must on the
basis of adult franchies
 With respect to communal tensions and conflicts, Lohia made a difference between the humanistic essence of
Hinduism and the narrow-minded use of it for fomenting communal tensions. He also differentiated between
foreign Muslim aggressors and the local Muslims who had nothing to do with those aggressions. These ideas of
Lohia are more relevant today in the present surcharged communal atmosphere as they were during his lifetime.
 He led a crusade against the despotic rule in Nepal and assisted the Nepali Congress in its democratic struggle. In
order that the socialist movement in the Afro-Asian countries become a vehicle of the aspirations of the people
of the Third World, Lohia, along with Jaya Prakash Narayan and other colleagues, helped in founding the Asian
Socialist Conference in Rangoon, Myanmar in 1953.
 In his last few years, he was against the Congress as he felt that there was a need for divergent political parties to
come to power and that excess clout in one party was detrimental to the country.

Legacy:
 Thus, Ram Manohar Lohia was the father of non-Congressism; champion of backward castes in the politics of
north India; originator of Other Backward Classes (OBC) reservations; a critic of dynastic politics of the Nehru-
Gandhi family, and the man responsible for the politics of anti-English. He campaigned against poverty,
unemployment, and price rise and advocated gender justice. He was a staunch nationalist who suggested a sharp
response to Chinese aggression and also upheld the Indian case on Kashmir.
 His cultural politics included efforts to organize a Ramayan Mela; an effort to bring Indian languages closer; a call
for cleaning rivers and protecting pilgrimage centers; protest against the museumisation of Adivasis (aboriginals)
such as the Andamanese, Nicobarese, Todas, etc. and culturally integrating the north-east with the rest of the
country.
 As an Internationalist, he advocated pacifism; opposed nuclear weapons; protested against racial inequality;
advocated Indo-Pak federacy; and dreamt of a world without visas and passports in effect recommending the
concept of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (the world is one family). Though Lohia has faded away, many of
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 his thoughts and ideas still reverberate in the political and intellectual landscape of India and find practical
application in economy, religion, society, and politics.

Dr Sachchidananda Sinha

Most of us have heard Dr Sachchidananda Sinha’s name only as the interim President of the Constituent Assembly.
However, it was not the only achievement for him. As the senior-most member of the assembly, he had to act as interim
President. His achievements lie in his contribution as an educationist, politician and an ardent advocate for the cause
of Bihar. He was instrumental in the formation of the province of Bihar and its subsequent rise in the national arena.

Dr Sinha was born in Arrah district of present-day Bihar in a relatively well off Kayastha family. After his early education
in Arrah school, he went on to complete his graduation from Patna College. Later in 1889, he moved to London to study
Law. It was there that he came in contact with leaders such as WC Bannerjee, George Yule, SN Bannerjee, etc. He even
campaigned for Dadabhai Naoroji, who was fighting elections to enter the British House of Commons.

But what marks a turn in his life is the experience he had in Britain regarding his birthplace Bihar. There he faced an
identity crisis—as he found that no one even knew about a place called Bihar, as it was a part of Bengal Presidency. He
himself recalls it as, “It would be difficult for me to convey the Bihari of today the sense of shame and humiliation
which I, and some equally sensitive Bihari friends, felt while prosecuting our studies in Britain, on realizing that we
were people without any individuality, without any province to claim as ours, in fact, without any habitation with the
name.” (His British friends used to show him the map of India, asking if there’s any place called “Bihar”).

Not only the Englishmen, while returning from Britain, he even found a man from Punjab who was unaware of any
place called Bihar. After discussing it at length, they would still recognize it as Bengal. Further, on returning to Bihar, he
found a Bihari policeman at the railway station with the badge of “Bengal Police”. All these events, along with the
administrative, political and historical discrimination and neglect, made Sinha resolute about creating a separate
province for the Biharis.

In the ancient times, Bihar was the centre of Indian civilization, with the seat of power for dynasties like the Haryanka,
the Maurya and the Gupta. It not only saw the great rulers in the form of Bimbisara Ashoka, Chandragupta,
Samudragupta, etc. but was also the centre of socio-religious movements in the form of Buddhism and Jainism. The
great scientists like Aryabhatta, Bhaskaracharya, Varamihira, Charak, etc., were the products of this great land.

Bihar faced a reversal of fortune after the fall of the Gupta empire, with the centre of power shifting towards Kannauj,
Agra and Delhi in the west and Bengal in the east. It was reduced to just a buffer zone between eastern powers like
Palas and Senas in Bengal and the Rajputs and Sultanate in Agra-Delhi. Its development, both cultural and economic,
was compromised as there was no state patronage. As a result, Bihar was pushed into oblivion.

Sher Shah, with his brief interregnum after defeating Humayun, did try to restore Bihar’s glory, but again, the rise of
Mughals in Agra pushed Bihar to the margins. Although Akbar carved the suba of Bihar, it was sandwiched between

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the politically important subas of Awadh and Bengal. The treaty of Allahabad (1765), following the Battle of Buxar, was
the final nail in the coffin for Bihar as its Diwani rights, along with Odisha, were given to the English company at Calcutta.
From here on Bihar became completely subordinate to Bengal.
In the decades to come, feudal Bihar, which had faced historical neglect, was overrun by the “newly enlightened”
Bengalis who controlled both the economic and political activities of Bihar. They dominated the educational institutions
as well as the government services. Even the Patna College, which was set up to promote higher education in Bihar,
was dominated by the Bengalis.

The feudal-minded people of Bihar are also partly to be blamed for their antipathy towards English education, but at
the same time, it needs to be acknowledged that the enlightened Bengalis did not in any way try to impart education
to their Bihari “brothers”. All they were interested in was to dominate the political and economic landscape of Bihar.
Even if there were some educated Bihari men like Govind Charan, they found jobs with much difficulty.

Further, Bihar was culturally and linguistically completely different from Bengal, and their union was only an artificial
one. All these things were argued by the advocates of Bihar, which besides Dr Sinha, included the likes of Mahesh
Narayan, Hasan Imam, etc. Together, they published the newspaper called “The Bihar Times”, which tried to mould the
public opinion in favour of a separate state. In fact, Dr Sinha called the birth of this newspaper the starting point of
Bihari Renaissance.

The dream of a separate province of Bihar received a setback in 1905 when Lord Curzon went on to partition Bengal
on communal lines to weaken the National Movement (However, the official reason was administrative convenience).
Like any other Indian, Bihari leaders did criticize this communal partition, and Dr Sinha in ‘Hindustan Review’ came up
with the article titled “The Partition of the lower provinces – An alternative proposal”.

He, along with Mahesh Narayan, also came up with the book titled “Partition of Bengal and Separation of Bihar”, in
which they denounced the Bengal partition of 1905, and instead, argued that separating Bihar and Odisha would be a
better decision from the administrative point of view. For that, they provided statistical data of representation in the
government services and also the linguistic and cultural angle.

Gradually, the government also came to recognize the discrimination and poor representation of Biharis, and thus
made knowledge of Hindustani language compulsory for serving in Bihar.

In 1910, Dr Sinha was elected to the Bengal Legislative Council, where he strongly raised the demand for a separate
province of Bihar. He further convinced Ali Imam to become a part of Governor General’s Executive Council, which was
again used to argue the cause of Bihar. All these efforts finally led Lord Hardinge to annul the communal partition of
Bengal of 1905 and announce the creation of the separate province of Bihar and Odisha in the Dilli Durbar of 1911.
Thus, on 1st April 1912, the province of Bihar and Odisha came into being with Patna as its capital. It was, in fact, the
first British Indian province to be carved out on linguistic basis (Andhra Pradesh was the first one after independence).
Dr Sinha continued to work for his motherland in the years to come. Some of his achievements after the creation of
Bihar include: becoming the first Deputy President of Central Legislative Assembly (1921), member of Governor’s
executive council of Bihar and Odisha as well as President of its Legislative Council, chairman of Odisha Boundary
Commission (1930) and Vice-Chancellor of Patna University from 1936 to 1945.

Sri Krishna Singh

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 Shri Krishna Sinha (21 October 1887 – 31 January 1961), known as Dr. S. K. Sinha, Shri Babu and Bihar Kesari, was
the first Chief Minister of the Indian state of Bihar (1946–61).
 In collaboration with the deputy and finance minister Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Sri Krishna Sinha spearheaded
several developmental projects in the state. The two men led Bihar from 1937, when the first Bihar government
was formed under British rule. Sri Krishna Sinha’s long stint as chief minister saw the setting up of key industries
and river valley projects along with major agricultural and social reforms
 He was the first Chief Minister in the country to abolish the zamindari system. He underwent different terms of
imprisonment for a total of about eight years in British India. S.K.Sinha’s mass meetings brought hordes of people
to hear him. He was known as “Bihar Kesari” for his lionlike roars when he rose to address the masses. His close
friend and eminent Gandhian Bihar Vibhuti Dr. Anugrah Narayan Sinha in his essay mere Shri Babu wrote that,
“Since 1921, the History of Bihar has been the history of the life of Shri Babu”.The former President of India,
Pratibha Patil, released a book on the letters of exchange between Sinha and Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru
titled Freedom and Beyond.
 The Nehru-Sinha correspondence touches on subjects such as Indian democracy in the making in early years of
Independence, Centre-State relations, role of governor, turbulence in Nepal, Zamindari abolition and education
scenario. Sinha was known for his scholarship and erudition and he had given his personal collection of 17,000
books to the public library in Munger in 1959 which is now named after him as Sri Krishna Seva Sadan.

Family And Early Life:

 Singh was born on 21 October 1887 in Khanwa in Nawada district of Bihar. His paternal village is Maur, near
Barbigha in the then Munger District that is now part of Sheikhpura District. His father was a religious, middle-class
member of a Bhumihar family. His mother, who was also an unassuming and religious-minded person, died of
plague when he was five years old. He was educated in the village school and at Zila School in Munger.
 In 1906 he joined Patna College, which was then an affiliate of the University of Calcutta. He studied law and started
practicing in Munger from 1915. In the meantime, he married and had two sons, Shivshankar Sinha and
Bandishankar Singh (more commonly known as Swaraj Babu) who later held various posts in the state government.

Freedom Struggle:
 Singh first met Mahatma Gandhi in 1916 at Central Hindu College, Benares and later at Shah Muhammad Jubair’s
house in December 1920. At Munger, he vowed to work relentlessly to free India from British rule. He gave up
practising law in 1921 to take part in Gandhi’s non-cooperation movement.
 He was arrested for the first time in 1922 at Jubair’s house and Congress Seva Dal was declared illegal. For this he
was known as Bihar Kesari by the people. He was released from jail in 1923 and on the day of Tulsi Jayanti
performed in the play Bharat Darshan at Central School, Kharagpur. In the same year he became a member of the
All India Congress Committee.
 In 1927, Singh became a member of the Legislative Council and in 1929 became General Secretary of Bihar Pradesh
Congress Committee (BPCC). In 1930, he played an important role in the Namak Satyagrah at Garhpura.

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 He suffered severe scalding injuries to his hands and chest while being arrested, was imprisoned for six months
and then was again arrested and imprisoned for two years during the Civil Disobedience movement. He was
released after Gandhi–Irwin Pact and again started with his nationalist work and work with the Kisan Sabha. On 9
January 1932 he was sentenced to two years of rigorous imprisonment and a fine of Rs. 1,000. He was released
from Hazaribagh Jail in October 1933. He was involved in relief and rehabilitation after the 1934 Nepal–Bihar
earthquake. He was the President of Munger Zila Parishad from 1934 to 1937. In 1935, he became a member of
the Central Assembly.
 Singh was also the President of the BPCC in 1936 with Anugrah babu as his deputy, a member of its working
committee and in fact, Shri Krishna Sinha & Anugrah Narayan Sinha were the life and soul of the Provincial Working
Committee and of the Congress organisation in the state for over thirty years. This long period of service at the
help of the state is proof not only of the great popularity and confidence which he enjoyed in the party but it also
symbolises his great qualities as a coordinator between party and government.
 On 20 July 1937, he became the Premier of Bihar province when Congress came to power. Under the Government
of India Act of 1935, Sinha formed his Cabinet at Patna on 20 July 1937. He and his colleague Anugrah Narayan
Sinha disagreed with the governor on the issue of the release of political prisoners and resigned. The then governor
had to accede to the demands for release of prisoners from Cellular Jail (Kalapani) and Bihar Tenancy Act was
reformed in favour of peasants. They then resumed office. But they again resigned in 1939, as did all Congress chief
ministers, over the question of involving India in the Second World War without the consent of the Indian people.
Along with Anugrah Narayan Sinha, a prominent Gandhian and the first Deputy Chief Minister cum Finance
Minister of Bihar, he is considered one of the makers of modern Bihar.

Jayaprakash Narayan
Born October 11, 1902
Died October 8, 1979 (aged 76)

 Jayaprakash Narayan, an Indian political leader and theorist, was born in Sitab Diyara on October 11, 1902.
 He was a Mohandas Gandhi disciple and the leader of India's independence movement.
 He moved to the United States in 1922 to study political science and economics at universities in California, Iowa,
Wisconsin, and Ohio.
 JP was not religious, but under the influence of the terrorists' fringe, he started reading the Bhagvad Gita, one of
the most fundamental Hindu scriptures, on a regular basis, drawing heroic inspiration from the Mahabharata's
great war.
 Advocate of Saintly Politics: After India's independence, violence and Marxism in Narayan declined.
 He advocated for Gandhian-style revolutionary action, in which he attempted to change people's minds and hearts.
 He was a proponent of "saintly politics," urging Jawaharlal Nehru and other leaders to resign and live among the
poor.
 In the absence of senior leaders, he took part in the independence struggle and led the Quit India movement in
1942. After independence, he remained detached from electoral politics, but he was not uninterested in politics.
He never held a formal government post, but he remained a prominent political figure outside of party politics.

Role In Pre-Independence
 Narayan received his education at American universities, where he became a Marxist. He became a member of the
Indian National Congress (Congress Party). He was sentenced to a year in prison in 1932 for his role in the civil
disobedience movement against British rule in India, and he was again imprisoned in 1939 for his opposition to
Indian involvement in World War II on Britain's side, but he managed to flee and attempted to organise

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 armed resistance to the government before being recaptured in 1943. He sought to convince Congress
representatives to pursue a more aggressive stance against British rule after his release in 1946.

Role In Post-Independence
 In 1948, he and a few other progressive members of the Congress left the party and worked hard to establish an
anti-Congress forum. They founded the Praja Socialist Party in 1952. He gave oppressed people a voice and created
an alternative political forum by founding the PSP. He declared two years later that he would devote his life to the
Bhoodan Movement, which was created by Acharya Vinobha Bhave to redistribute land to the landless. He was a
committed soldier for social restoration and national resurgence as he mentored political leaders from across the
spectrum, and he called for the reconstruction of Indian polity by proposing Chaukhamba Raj in 1959.

Sampoorna Kranti
 Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) was one of the Mahatma's twelve apostles and a front-line soldier in the Indian freedom
struggle. JP used a mixture of ahimsa and violence in this war.
 In 1974, he called for a ‘sampoorna kran ,' or absolute revolution, to combat rampant corruption, unemployment,
and the systemic undermining of democratic institutions, and the events that followed led to the infamous
Emergency. It paved the way for a realignment of political powers in the world and gave the country's politics a
new direction, with far-reaching implications.
 He was a true believer in putting youth at the forefront of systemic change. Those in control would naturally oppose
any change, but he was convinced that only the passion and force of youth could bring about revolutionary change
and that is exactly what happened in the 1970s.
 JP mobilised students in Bihar to combat authoritarianism and corruption after blessing the Nav Nirman Andolan
in Gujarat, where people rose up against a corrupt state government. He had such a hypnotic effect on the political
scene that, under his tutelage, a slew of Congress splinter parties, including Congress (O), Jana Sangh, and
Swatantra Party, as well as other socialists, merged to form the Janata Party. During the Janata regime, he could
have easily risen to the top. Despite public demand for his leadership, he stated that power was not his goal.

Concept Of Total Revolu on (Sampoorna Kran )

 Total Revolution, according to Jaya Prakash, is a combination of seven revolutions: political, social, economic,
cultural, ideological or intellectual, educational, and spiritual, with the main aim of bringing about a shift in the
current society in accordance with the Sarvodaya ideals. JP had a rather idealistic view of society, and it was in this
search that he moved from Marxism to Socialism, and then to Sarvodaya.
 The Bihar agitations turned into mass demonstrations in 1974, with people demanding changes in the political,
social, and educational systems. At this point, JP announced a four-part strategy aimed at paralysing the
government, implementing Gram Swarajya, and creating a people's government. JP described the word "peoples
government" as a small unit of democracy at the village, panchayat, or block level, preferably at all three levels.
 These organisations were seen as channels of people's power in times of peace, as well as in times of inequality or
dictatorship, and were primarily responsible for the restoration of society on the basis of equality and the abolition
of poverty, racism, and exploitation. JP also urged the people of Bihar, as well as the rest of India, to unite by setting
aside their personal and political differences.
 His motivation for inciting the Bihar students was to bring about a full transformation of the Indian polity's
governmental framework and system. He named it a ‘Total Revolution’ because of this. JP gave a thorough
presentation on the principle of Total Revolution. The idea of total revolution reflected his commitment to socialist
and humanistic ideals.
 JP sought to transform culture as well as people's attitudes toward society through this revolution. He also urged
workers in Bihar to prepare for a long fight to achieve the complete revolution's goals.

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 JP claimed that a vigorous opposition, a powerful public opinion, a free and fearless press, and intellectual and
moral pressure from academics and trade unions were all important for democracy to be a vibrant and successful
instrument. In reality, he urged people to rethink their views and attitudes toward India's democratic functioning.

Ideologies
Socialism - Jayaprakash Narayan interpreted socialism through an Indian prism. If there is no unequal distribution of
wealth and no exploitation then it would be a world that grows in a healthy manner on all fronts. Elimination of
exploitation and poverty, provision of equal opportunities for all for self-development, complete development of
society's material and moral capital, and fair distribution of national wealth are among Jayprakash's social objectives.
Jayprakash's socialism in the economic sphere includes, Landlordism and capitalism are eliminated, and the means of
production are socialised by eliminating private property rights. Gram panchayat-run cooperative farming, collective
farming, state-owned large-scale industries with worker involvement, and small-scale industries organised into
producer's cooperatives

Sarvodaya Movement - Jayaprakash, a founder of the Sarvodaya movement, travelled from socialism to Sarvodaya in
the 1950s. Gandhi began the Sarvodaya movement in pre-independence India, and Vinoba Bhave led it in the post-
independence period. Jayaprakash's Sarvodaya denotes a new social order in which society is classless and stateless;
it will be a democratic structure in which Lokniti replaces Rajneeti; it will be "peoples' socialism," guaranteeing not
only independence and equality, but also harmony and immortality. The key features of sarvodaya, according to JP, are
that no power should be dominant in society.

Par cipatory Democracy concept - He promoted Gandhi's view that as you advance from the bottom to the top, each
higher level should have less and less functions and forces. People at all levels will have the greatest ability to handle
all political affairs under such a structure. People will have an interest in democracy as well as a sense of Swaraj under
such a democratic structure. Jayaprakash's views on democracy are focused on the Panchayati Raj System. Because it
will bring government to the people's doorstep and enable every person to participate in it. He did, however, set some
conditions like - People should have access to education, Political parties do not interfere with Panchayat elections or
operations, Power and obligations are truly devolved to the Panchayats, Local governments should have financial
control, and public servants should be held accountable. According to him, the system of participatory democracy must
be constructed under these conditions.

Raj Kumar Shukla

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RAJ KUMAR SHUKLA: The Unsung Pioneer Of Champaran Satyagrah
 Champaran region of Bihar has crucial historical significance, as before independence, it had become the hotbed
of the anti-British movement, especially following the Champaran Satyagrah. In 2017, Nitish Kumar’s government
celebrated the centenary year of the Satyagrah and felicitated the contributors of the famous anti-imperial
movement.
 August 23 marks birth anniversary of an important figure, Raj Kumar Shukla, who played a pivotal role in
constructing a gigantic mass movement in the soil of Champaran. Besides this, he also acted as a silent mobilising
force when M K Gandhi came to Champaran in 1917 for the first time. Along with leaders like Sheikh Gulab, Harbans
Sahay and Pir Mohammed Munsi, Shukla managed to pave the way for the agitation against forced indigo
cultivation.
 Shukla himself was a middle-class farmer who had undertaken cultivation of indigo. However, he also had a good
hold on the Kaithi script. In Champaran, the British had imposed a system called nkathia. Under this system, the
tenant farmers were forced to grow indigo (a blue dye) in three kathas of every bigha. Almost a year after Gandhi’s
arrival, the exploitative tinkathia system had finally been abolished. Raj Kumar Shukla was one of the victims of
this system.
 His battle against the British raj was not only limited to the abolition of the nkathia system. He also focused on
the social discrimination targeting especially women and children. Shukla had emerged as a popular anti-imperial
face in Champaran region, then, says Mani Bhushan Rai, Shukla’s grandson (75).
 In words of Mani Bhushan Rai, who resides in Satvariya village in Bettiah, Raj Kumar Shukla’s contributions have
not been widely discussed and are not known to many. He deserved more importance and acknowledgment from
the government. A few books about him were authored, but their reach has been limited. Mani Bhushan Rai
tells NewsClick that he had to drop his post-graduation in economics from Langat Singh College, Muzaffarpur due
to the financial constraints faced by his family.
 Mani Bhushan possesses the precious diary of Shukla in which he had jotted down details of every single instance
from the times of Satygrah including his meetings with Gandhi. The diary had been written in Kaithi script.

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 We donated a piece of land to the government of Bihar for setting up an educational institution. A higher secondary
school saw the light of the day, but today, it remains a disputed structure.

A Stubborn and Silent Mobiliser

 Raj Kumar Shukla had been on his toes when it came to bringing the plight of the farmers of Champaran to the
fore. However, desperation to defeat imperial exploitation took him to approach the Congress leadership which
then was the axial anti-British force. During 31st session of the Congress in Lucknow in 1916, Shukla had briefed
Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Madan Mohan Malaviya about the indigo agitation, but they did not seem too enthusiastic
about it to him. Shukla then approached Gandhi, and talked about the woes of the peasants of Champaran and
their exploitation by the British. But pleading his lack of knowledge, Gandhi declined to respond, stating, “I can
give no opinion without seeing the condition with my own eyes. You will please move the resolution in the
Congress, but leave me free for the present.”
 Gandhi, in his autobiography, has written about Raj Kumar Shukla under the title “The Stains of Indigo”.
He wrote:
“From Lucknow I went to Cawnpore. Rajkumar Shukla followed me there. 'Champaran is very near from here.
Please give a day,' he insisted.' Please excuse me this me. But I promise that I will come,' said I, further
commi ng myself.
I returned to the Ashram. The ubiquitous Rajkumar was there too. 'Pray fix the day now', he said. 'Well,' said I,
'I have to be in Calcu a on such and such a date, come and meet me then, and take me from there.' I did not
know where I was to go, what to do, what things to see.
Before I reached Bhupen Babu's place in Calcu a, Rajkumar Shukla had gone and established himself there.
Thus, this ignorant, unsophis cated but resolute agriculturist captured me.”
 Finally, a date was fixed, and Gandhi went to Champaran. There, his preliminary enquiries confirmed all that Shukla
had said. Gandhi decided to stay and make a detailed enquiry before deciding on a course of action. He was assisted
by eminent lawyers like Brij Kishore Babu, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad, who, later became the first President of India.
 Words of Gandhi clearly depict that it was Shukla’s undying stubborn persistence that made Gandhi reach the land
of Champaran for Satyagrah.
 Gandhi had stepped into Muzaffarpur for the first time when he did not enjoy a mass leader’s popularity. As a
result, his supporters failed to recognise him. It was Shukla’s diligent efforts that enlightened the masses about
Gandhi’s visit and its importance.
 Same intense mobilisation was achieved by Raj Kumar Shukla in Champaran before Gandhi’s arrival and later, he
again had witnessed large crowd eagerly waiting for him. This could not have been possible without efforts by
Rajkumar Shukla, asserts his biographer Bhairav Lal Das.
 Role of Raj Kumar Shukla in turning Champaran Satyagrah into a reality, sadly is less known and a subtly discussed
chapter of history which resides as agony in hearts of his family members. Without any support of any organisation,
Shukla prepared ground for Satyagrah and managed to bring in people’s support for Gandhi on the land of
Champaran.
 As a crusader of non-violence, he acted without employing violence and prosecution against exploiters and offered
refreshing lessons for humanity for peaceful social change as he simultaneously paved path for Gandhi to become
a Mahatma (a great soul) for millions.

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