WAVES

IGCSE
 WAVE CHARACTERISTICS

•The wavelength, λ, is the distance between two successive maxima (“peaks”) or minima (“troughs”) in the wave.
•The amplitude, A, is the maximal distance that a particle in the medium is displaced from its equilibrium position.
•The velocity, v⃗ , is the velocity with which the disturbance propagates through the medium.
•The period, T, is the time it takes for two successive maxima (or minima) to pass through the same point in the
medium.
•The frequency, f, is the inverse of the period (f=1/T).
 WAVES & ENERGY TRANSFER

•Waves transfer energy without moving matter.

•In sound waves, the wave travels, not the air molecules (matter).
•Floating objects on water bob up and down without changing position, proving waves transfer energy, not water.
•Waves are oscillations or vibrations around a fixed point.
•Ripples make water particles oscillate vertically.
•Sound waves cause air particles to vibrate back and forth.
The diagram shows a toy duck bobbing
up and down on top of the surface of
some water, as waves pass it underneath.

Explain how the toy duck demonstrates that waves do not transfer matter.

Answer:
•The plastic duck moves up and down but does not travel with the wave along the surface of the water
•The water waves transfer energy, but the water particles do not move
•This means when a wave travels between two points, no matter travels with it, the points on the wave vibrate back and
forth about fixed positions
•Objects floating on the water bob up and down when waves pass under them, demonstrating that there is no movement
of matter in the direction of the wave, only energy
WAVE MOTION

• Wave motion can be illustrated by:

• vibrations in ropes and springs
• experiments using water waves
 WAVE VIBRATIONS

•Properties of waves can be observed using water waves in a ripple tank

• Properties include frequency, wavelength and wave speed as explained in the next section
WAVE MOTION IN A RIPPLE TANK
FEATURES OF A WAVE

• When describing wave motion, there are several terms which are important to know,
including:

• Wavefront
• Wavelength
• Frequency
• Crest (peak)
• Trough
• Amplitude
• Wave speed
 WAVEFRONT
• Wavefronts are a useful way of picturing waves from above:
each wavefront is used to represent a single wave
• The image below illustrates how wavefronts are visualised:
• The arrow shows the direction the wave is moving and is
sometimes called a ray
• The space between each wavefront represents
the wavelength
• When the wavefronts are close together, this represents a
wave with a short wavelength
• When the wavefronts are far apart, this represents a wave
with a long wavelength
WAVELENGTH

• Wavelength is defined as:

• The distance from one point on the wave to the same point on the next wave
• In a transverse wave:
• The wavelength can be measured from one peak to the next peak

• In a longitudinal wave
• The wavelength can be measured from the centre of one compression to the centre of the next

• The wavelength is given the symbol λ (lambda) and is measured in metres (m)
• The distance along a wave is typically put on the x-axis of a wave diagram
WAVELENGTH AND AMPLITUDE OF A TRANSVERSE WAVE
FREQUENCY

• Frequency is defined as:

• The number of waves passing a point in a second
• Frequency is given by the symbol f and is measured in Hertz (Hz)
CRESTS & TROUGHS

• A crest, or a peak, is defined as:

• The highest point on a wave above the equilibrium, or rest position
• A trough is defined as
• The lowest point on a wave below the equilibrium, or rest, position
WAVE CRESTS AND TROUGHS
Longitudinal waves
LONGITUDINAL WAVES

1. compressions are regions of high pressure due to particles being close together.
2. rarefactions are regions of low pressure due to particles being spread further apart.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL WAVES
Property Transverse waves Longitudinal waves

Structure Peaks and troughs Compressions and rarefactions

Vibration Right angles to the direction of energy transfer Parallel to the direction of energy transfer

Vacuum Only electromagnetic waves can travel in a vacuum Cannot travel in a vacuum

Material Can move in solids and the surfaces of liquids Can move in solids, liquids and gases

Density A constant density The density of the wave changes

Pressure Has a constant pressure Pressure in the wave changes

Speed of wave Depends on the material the wave is travelling in Depends on the material the wave is travelling in
 AMPLITUDE

• Amplitude is defined as:

• The distance from the undisturbed position to the
peak or trough of a wave
• It is given the symbol A and is measured in metres
(m)
• Amplitude is the maximum or
minimum displacement from the undisturbed
position
WAVE SPEED

• Wave speed is the speed at which energy is transferred through a medium

• Wave speed is defined as:
• The distance travelled by a wave each second
THE WAVE EQUATION

• The equation used to calculate wave speed is:

• v=fxλ
• Where:
• v = wave speed, measured in metres per second (m/s)
• f = wave frequency, measured in hertz (Hz)
• λ = wavelength, measured in metres (m)

• Wave speed is defined as:

• The distance travelled by a wave each second
WAVE SPEED FORMULA TRIANGLE

• Wave speed is the speed at which energy is transferred through a medium

• Transverse and longitudinal waves both obey the wave equation
WORKED EXAMPLE
WAVE IN A POND HAS A SPEED OF 0.15 M/S AND A TIME PERIOD OF 2 SECONDS. CALCULATE:
A) THE FREQUENCY OF THE WAVE
B) THE WAVELENGTH OF THE WAVE

• Part (a)
• Step 1: List the known quantities
• Time period, T = 2 s
State the equation relating time period and frequency
F=1/T => 1 / 2 Frequency, f = 0.5 Hz
• Step 1: List the known quantities
• Wave speed, v = 0.15 m/s
• Frequency, f = 0.5 Hz

v=fxλ => λ = v/f => 0.15 / 0.5

Wavelength, λ = 0.30 m
WAVE BEHAVIOUR

• Reflection, refraction & diffraction

• All waves, whether transverse or longitudinal, can undergo:
• reflection at a plane surface
• refraction due to a change of speed
• diffraction through a narrow gap
• In optics, a transparent material is called a medium
• When referring to more than one medium these are called media
• Angles of light are measured from an imaginary line called the normal
• The normal is always drawn perpendicular to the boundary between two media
 REFLECTION

• Reflection occurs when:

• A wave hits a boundary between two media
at a plane surface and does not pass through,
but instead stays in the original medium
• An example of reflection
REFRACTION

• When waves enter a different medium, their speed can change

• This effect is called refraction and it occurs when:
• A wave passes a boundary between two different transparent media and undergoes a
change in speed
• When a wave refracts, as well as a change in speed, the wave also undergoes:
• A change in wavelength (but frequency stays the same)
• A change in direction
AN EXAMPLE OF REFRACTION

Waves can change direction when moving between materials with different densities

•The direction of incident and refracted rays is measured from the normal.
•If waves slow down:
•Wavelength decreases.
•Waves bend towards the normal.
•If waves speed up:
•Wavelength increases.
•Waves bend away from the normal.
 DIFFRACTION

• When waves pass through a narrow gap, the waves spread out
• This effect is called diffraction
• Waves diffracting through a narrow gap

Diffraction: when a wave passes through

a narrow gap, it spreads out
FACTORS AFFECTING DIFFRACTION

• The extent of diffraction depends on the width of the gap compared with
the wavelength of the waves
• Diffraction is the most prominent when the width of the slit is approximately equal to
the wavelength

• As the gap gets bigger, the effect gradually gets less pronounced until, in the case that
the gap is very much larger than the wavelength, the waves no longer spread out at all
 EFFECT OF GAP SIZE ON DIFFRACTION

The size of the gap (compared to the wavelength) affects how much the waves spread out

•Diffraction can also occur when waves curve

around an edge or barrier
•The waves spread out to fill the gap behind the
object
•The extent of this diffraction also depends upon
the wavelength of the waves
• The greater the wavelength then the
greater the diffraction
 EFFECT OF WAVELENGTH ON DIFFRACTION AROUND AN EDGE

When a wave goes past the edge of a barrier, the waves can curve around it. Shorter wavelengths undergo less
diffraction than longer wavelengths
 RIPPLE TANK

• Investigating waves with a ripple tank

• Ripple tanks are commonly used in experiments to demonstrate the following properties
of water waves:
• Reflection at a plane surface
• Refraction due to a change in speed caused by a change in depth
• Diffraction due to a gap
• Diffraction due to an edge
 RIPPLE TANK EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

Reflection, refraction and diffraction can be demonstrated using a ripple tank

•Wavefronts from the transverse water surface waves can be viewed and analysed on the screen illuminated to show
below the tank
 INVESTIGATING REFLECTION
• Wavefronts are reflected off a metal bar (plane surface) placed in the water of the ripple tank

• When the bar is placed at an angle to the wavefronts of the waves generated by the paddle reflect according to the Law of
reflection

• Diagram of reflected wavefronts in a ripple tank

Incident wavefronts are reflected at 90 degrees against a barrier

REFLECTED WAVEFRONTS IN A RIPPLE TANK

Wavefronts of incident and reflected waves form right angles to each other
INVESTIGATING REFRACTION

• Refraction can be shown by placing a glass block in the tank

• The glass block should sit below the surface of the water and cover only some of the tank
floor

• The depth of water becomes shallower where the glass block is placed
• Since speed depends on depth, the ripples slow down when travelling over the block

• The water surface waves slow down when passing from deep to shallow water in the
ripple tank
REFRACTED WAVEFRONTS IN A RIPPLE TANK

When water waves travel from deep areas to shallow areas they slow down
INVESTIGATING DIFFRACTION

• Diffraction can be shown in a ripple tank by placing small barriers with a gap or
an edge in the tank
• The amount of Diffraction that occurs can be changed by changing the wavelength of the
waves compared to the gap size
 CHANGING THE GAP SIZE FOR DIFFRACTION IN A RIPPLE TANK

Changing the wavelength of waves in the

ripple tank
•The motor creates the up-and-down
movement of the paddle
•The frequency of the motor affects the
wavelength of the waves generated by the
paddle
•The diagram below shows how the
wavelengths differ with frequency in a ripple
tank
• The higher the frequency of the motor,
the shorter the wavelength
• The lower the frequency of the motor, When the gap size is bigger than the wavelength less diffraction occurs and
the longer the wavelength the waves spread out less after passing through
WAVELENGTH AND FREQUENCY OF WAVES IN A RIPPLE TANK

Ripple tank patterns for low and high-frequency vibration