CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the review of related literature and studies

which brings in the discussion of variables stipulated in the conceptual

framework of this study.

The current education system is facing criticism for leaving many

students behind. To address this issue, it is suggested in this document

that one part of the solution is to help students improve their learning

by using effective learning techniques. Luckily, cognitive and

educational psychologists have developed and assessed user-friendly

learning methods that could assist students in achieving their learning

goals. This monograph delves into the detailed explanation of 10 such

learning techniques and provides recommendations regarding their

effectiveness. These techniques were chosen for their ease of use and

because some, like highlighting and rereading, are commonly relied

upon by students, making it crucial to evaluate their efficacy. The 10

techniques include elaborative interrogation, self-explanation,

summarization, highlighting or underlining, the keyword mnemonic,

using mental imagery for text learning, rereading, practice testing,

distributed practice, and interleaved practice.

There is a pressing need to enhance the educational system.

Despite the absence of solid evidence, there are ongoing debates in

5
Congress and the business world about investing in costly

technological solutions to improve education. We contend that there is

a largely overlooked, cost-effective approach to enhance education.

Cognitive and educational psychologists have identified strategies that

significantly boost learning and information retention, yet these

techniques are not commonly integrated into education or taught in

teacher training programs. In fact, educators often employ ineffective

teaching methods, such as presenting examples in a clustered manner

rather than interleaving them. We highlight three key principles that

are budget-friendly and have been proven effective through both lab

and real-world experiments to enhance learning: (1) spacing and

interleaving practice for learning facts and skills, (2) self-testing for

lasting retention, and (3) using questioning and self-explanation as

study techniques. We explain each of these methods, provide

supporting evidence, and discuss their applicability in classrooms.

These principles can be applied across various subjects, from early

education to higher learning. While applying cognitive psychology

findings to classroom teaching isn’t a cure-all for educational

challenges, it represents a valuable and cost-effective strategy.

Educators frequently emphasize elaborative studying over

activities that require students to practice retrieving and reconstructing

knowledge. However, our research demonstrates that practicing

retrieval results in more significant gains in meaningful learning

6
compared to elaborative studying involving concept mapping. This

advantage of retrieval practice applies to texts commonly found in

science education and even extends to test questions assessing

comprehension and inferential skills. Retrieval practice is effective for

promoting conceptual learning in science, suggesting that it enhances

learning through retrieval-specific mechanisms rather than elaborative

study processes.

Researchers investigated how students’ beliefs about intelligence

influence their study strategies, focusing on mindset, universality, and

brilliance beliefs. They surveyed 345 undergraduates in an introductory

biology class and found that mindset, particularly a growth mindset,

significantly predicted beliefs about and reactions to errors. Adaptive

responses to errors were associated with employing highly effective

study strategies and spaced study sessions. Growth mindset indirectly

influenced spacing study sessions. The findings suggest interventions

targeting both error responses and the belief in intelligence’s

malleability could enhance students’ study strategies in the future.

In recent years, the ability to manage one’s own learning has

become increasingly important due to the growing need and

opportunities for self-directed learning outside traditional classrooms.

However, research on learning, memory, and metacognition reveals

that individuals often possess flawed mental models of their own

learning and memory processes, leading to inaccurate self-

7
assessments and mismanagement of learning. We discuss what

learners need to understand to become effective self-regulated

learners, reviewing research on people’s beliefs about their learning

and how their self-assessments are influenced by current performance

and a subjective sense of ease. We conclude by addressing societal

assumptions and attitudes that can hinder individuals from becoming

highly effective learners.

Knowledge and education are public assets, and the acquisition

and application of knowledge are integral parts of a collective societal

effort (UNESCO, 2015). Higher education institutions in the Philippines

face a significant challenge in producing proficient graduates equipped

with the skills and qualities needed to adapt to the ever-evolving 21 st-

century work environment (Magulod, 2017, 2017b). One crucial step in

ensuring a high-quality and continuous learning experience for

university students is to take into account their diverse learning styles

and preferences. Learning style pertains to how students uniquely

learn and process information.

The urgent need to enhance our educational system Is widely

acknowledged. Despite debates in political and business circles

advocating for costly technological solutions, there’s a lack of solid

proof regarding their effectiveness. Surprisingly, there exists a budget-

friendly approach that has been overlooked. Cognitive and educational

psychologists have identified techniques proven to significantly

8
enhance learning and information retention. Strangely, these methods

aren’t commonly implemented in education, nor are they taught in

teaching programs. In fact, teachers often employ instructional

methods known to be ineffective, like massing examples instead of

interleaving them when explaining a topic. The researchers pinpoint

three key principles that are both cost-effective and backed by

laboratory and field experiments for improving learning: (1) distributing

practice through spacing and interleaving when learning facts and

skills; (2) utilizing retrieval practice, such as self-testing, for lasting

learning; and (3) employing explanatory questioning like elaborative

interrogation and self-explanation as study strategies. We delve into

each technique, present supporting evidence, and discuss their

applications in classrooms. These principles can be applied across

various subjects, from kindergarten to higher education. While

applying cognitive psychology findings to teaching isn’t a cure-all for

educational challenges, it does represent a valuable and inexpensive

strategy.

According to the research conducted by Michael Sankey Dawn

(2010). The creative use of educational technologies offers higher

education institutions valuable opportunities to create interactive,

inclusive, and engaging learning environments. The primary drive for

integrating educational technologies into curricula undoubtedly centers

around enhancing student engagement and learning. In this pursuit,

9
the increasing use of multimedia in teaching has opened doors to

presenting content in multiple ways (text, video, audio, images,

interactive elements), effectively catering to the diverse learning styles

of today’s student population. This paper reports the results of an

experiment aimed at assessing the impact of using multiple

representations of content on learning outcomes, encompassing both

learning performance and engagement. While the study did not show

noticeable enhancements in learning performance due to multiple

content representations, students expressed a strong preference for

multimodal learning elements. They believed that these elements

improved their comprehension and retention of the learning material.

Educators can take away from this study the importance of

thoughtfully incorporating selected multiple representations of key

concepts, especially those that combine audio and visual content. The

paper also acknowledges the limitations of the experimental approach

and suggests directions for future research in this area.

While the roots of research on learning styles can be traced back

even further, this field has been actively studied for approximately four

decades. Over this period, the level of research activity has fluctuated,

with recent years witnessing a notable increase in the number of

researchers engaged in this area. What’s noteworthy is the diverse

range of disciplines contributing to this research. Learning style

investigations are now extending beyond psychology, the discipline

10
from which many key concepts and theories originated. This research

spans fields like medical and healthcare training, management,

industry, vocational training, and various educational settings at

different levels. Given that learning, and how to optimize it, is relevant

to nearly every aspect of life, it’s no surprise that the applications of

these concepts are extensive.

Due to the volume of research, the interdisciplinary nature of the

studies, and the varying research objectives, the topic of learning

styles has become fragmented and diverse. This complexity can be

challenging for newcomers in the field, making it hard to grasp.

Therefore, it seems timely to provide an overview of the core themes

and issues related to learning styles and to discuss the available tools

for measuring them. This paper intends to offer such an overview,

aiming to clarify common areas of confusion, especially those

concerning measurement and suitable assessment instruments. The

goal is to synthesize essential aspects of the field, making learning

styles more accessible and promoting a broader understanding of the

subject across various disciplines and among researchers and

practitioners who are new to this area.

In recent, according to Barry J Zimmerman (2023) the way

students planned, utilized, and assessed their time during learning was

overshadowed by the notion that learning time primarily reflected

innate mental abilities or personality traits. Initially, study time wasn’t

11
considered a factor that learners could strategically control to improve

their academic performance. Instead, it was seen as an outcome of

underlying differences in aptitude or motivation, measured in seconds,

minutes, or days required to complete a task, rather than considering

the cognitive and behavioral processes involved. Recently, several

researchers have shifted their focus towards understanding the

cognitive and behavioral processes students employ to plan and

manage their learning time effectively. It’s been suggested that

effective use of study time is influenced by students’ adoption of

learning strategies like planning and goal setting (as observed in works

by Weinstein & Mayer, 1986, and Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1986).

These preparatory strategies can prompt students to engage in self-

regulatory processes, such as monitoring their progress speed and

adjusting their efforts accordingly. Consequently, time management

can be seen as a crucial performance measure that students can use

to self-regulate their current and future learning and academic

achievements.

Several prior studies have explored the connection between

college students’ learning styles and their academic performance.

Indeed, Mocinikia and Zahed-Babelan (2010) and Williams, Brown, and

Etherington (2013) have affirmed a positive correlation between

learning styles and academic achievements in university settings.

Learning style is described as an individual’s distinctive characteristics,

12
strengths, and preferences in receiving and processing information

(Isich, Jang, Hwang & Chen, 2011). It also acknowledges that each

person employs their own methods or strategies for learning (Gokalp,

2013). Similarly, James and Gandince (2010), as cited by Dung and

Florca (2012), define learning styles as a complex process by which

individual learners effectively acquire information. Consequently, Reid

(2011), as cited by Ghedi and Jam (2014), defines learning styles as

the variations among learners in utilizing one or more of their senses to

comprehend, structure, and retain experiences.

Understanding the diverse learning style preferences of students

pursuing applied sciences courses can ultimately lead to more

effective learning experiences. Alavi and Tooandchiani (2017)

determined that being aware of students’ learning styles can enhance

their learning and contribute to their self-actualization. Teevan,

Michael, and Schlesselman (2011) also stress that knowledge of

learning styles enables teachers to employ appropriate teaching

strategies, fostering students’ academic performance. This knowledge

provides valuable feedback for both teachers and students, helping

them identify strengths and weaknesses in the teaching and learning

process. Additionally, awareness of learning styles can inform

curriculum design, allowing teachers to implement a learner-centered

approach in the classroom, as suggested by Dalmolin, Mackevicz,

Pochapski, Pilami, and Santos (2018). Previous research affirms that

13
learning styles predict students’ academic success. Jiraporncharoen,

Angkamwaranon, Chockiamsai, Deesomchok, and Euathrongchit

(2015) found a positive link between learning styles and academic

achievement among undergraduate students in Thailand. Barman,

Aziz, and Yusoff (2014) also explored the impact of students’

awareness of their learning styles on academic performance,

concluding that such awareness can enhance their educational

outcomes.

As Kumar (2015) further explains, study habits refer to the

habitual tendencies and practices that students exhibit during the

process of acquiring information through learning. Various study habits

have been identified, encompassing activities such as time

management, setting appropriate goals, choosing a conducive study

environment, employing effective note-taking strategies, selecting

main ideas, and organizing materials (Proctor et al., 2011). These

methods have been either utilized or demonstrated to be effective by

many students as they contemplate ways to conduct a comprehensive

study that evaluates the relationship between the two variables under

consideration in their research: students’ study habits and academic

performance. This enables them to provide precise data and address

potential inquiries about the research.

Research conducted by Freeman and colleagues in 2014

underscored the advantages of actie learning strategies, such as group

14
discussions, problem-solving activities, and peer teaching. Active

learning engages students in the learning process, fostering better

comprehension and retention of knowledge. The majority of students

perceived that active learning improved their understanding of

content, developed skills in critical thinking and communication, and

corrected misconceptions. Nevertheless, 53% of students felt they

“learnt better” in traditional lectures than with active learning during

the pilot phase. After strategies to improve student understanding of

the generic skill benefit of active learning were implemented, this

proportion fell to 34% in year one of implementation and 15% in year

two. Students who reported that they “learnt better in traditional

lectures” valued clear content presentation, whilst students who

disagreed with this statement valued communication and critical

thinking skills development and problem solving. Student attendance

was 73% higher in active learning units than untransformed units

during the implementation phase.

According to some study conducted using both behavioral and

eye-tracking methods to investigate the effectiveness of asking

students to make predictions as a learning technique. Our goal was to

determine if generating predictions, especially in cases where the

outcomes were surprising, could enhance learning. We designed two

tasks to explore this. In the first task, participants were asked to

generate predictions, and we found that this approach improved their

15
acquisition of geography knowledge when compared to making post

hoc evaluations. Pupillometry measurements showed that surprise

responses, triggered by outcomes that violated expectations, only

occurred when a prediction was made in advance. The strength of this

surprise response was directly related to the level of learning. In the

second task, making predictions about the outcomes of soccer

matches specifically improved memory for unexpected events. These

findings suggest that making predictions in a learning context has a

unique benefit in that it creates opportunities for learners to

experience surprise. We discuss the implications of these results for

both learning theory and educational practices.

Based on Norhayati Zamri (2023). My e-Mind Maps delve into the

utilization of electronic mind maps as an educational tool that

combines both visual and auditory elements to enrich the learning

experience for students. Learning styles are the various ways

individuals acquire knowledge based on their abilities, preferences,

motivation, and the learning environment they’re in. In 1979,

educational psychologist Walter Burke Barbe and his colleagues

introduced three distinct learning modalities: visual, auditory, and

kinesthetic. To identify the most favored learning styles, a

questionnaire was distributed to students. The results highlighted the

need for a multi-modal approach to create an effective learning tool. As

a response to this, My e-Mind Maps merge visual and auditory learning

16
modalities to assist students in reviewing topics and facilitating a

deeper understanding of the subject matter. Visual learners benefit

from the inclusion of colors, shapes, and visual cues, which aid in

processing and retaining information more efficiently. On the other

hand, auditory learners engage their auditory senses by listening to

and observing the content being explained, thus enhancing their

comprehension and memory retention. Consequently, the utilization of

My e-Mind Maps encourages a superior learning method that captures

students’ attention while fostering a more effective and comprehensive

learning experience. Educators can use this approach to create a

dynamic and engaging learning environment that caters to the diverse

learning preferences of their students.

As stated by Kiruthiga Nandagopal (2012), a defining

characteristic of expert performance in adolescents and adults is the

ability for self-regulation. This paper explores various methods for

evaluating the application of self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies in

high school and college students and their capacity to predict

academic performance. In this particular study, SRL strategies are

assessed using interviews and diaries, and their correlation with grade

point averages (GPAs) is examined within a group of sixty upper-level

college students majoring in science. The diaries employed In the

study revealed distinctions in the overall use of SRL strategies and the

specific strategies used during various weeks among students with

17
high, average, and low GPAs, which were determined prior to the

semester’s commencement. The paper also evaluates and discusses

methods for assessing and comprehending variations in adult self-

regulation and how they relate to subsequent academic performance.

Purdie, N., Hattie (2016) find out the distinctions in how

secondary school students from Australia and Japan perceive learning

and employ self-regulated learning strategies. Australian students tend

to have a more limited, school-focused perspective on learning, while

Japanese students view learning as a broader concept encompassing

not only school-related activities but also as a lifelong, experiential

journey towards personal fulfillment. Despite these differing

conceptualizations of learning, students from both Western and

Japanese contexts employ similar learning strategies. The study also

found that students who view learning as a quest for “understanding”

tend to use a wider range of strategies, irrespective of their cultural

background.

Mimi Wagner (2010) has investigated that peer-to-peer teaching,

a collaborative learning approach, to enhance student learning in non-

studio landscape architecture courses. The aim is to integrate the

valuable “learning-by-doing” model that is central to our curricula and

profession. A peer-teaching case study is presented, and qualitative

research analysis is employed to investigate how students perceive the

impact of this method on their learning. The findings from the study

18
indicate that students felt the peer teaching experience improved their

grasp of the subject matter, enabled them to apply course concepts in

new contexts, and promoted initiative and self-responsibility in their

learning. The research suggests that peer teaching holds significant

value, perhaps even a critical role, within a professional education

program. However, it’s important to note that this study is based on a

single case and involves a relatively novel pedagogical approach,

especially in the context of landscape architecture education.

Therefore, the study encourages further research to explore the

broader implications for student learning.

Recent work by Joy Xu (2021) stated that in the realm of

academic development, the adoption of effective study strategies is

vital for enhancing the learning process. These strategies encompass

techniques like note-taking, time management, self-testing, and active

recall, which are explored to help students achieve their academic

goals. To systematically assess this, a mixed-methods systematic

review was carried out, incorporating peer-reviewed articles and grey

literature, following predefined criteria using a convergent integrated

synthesis approach. Databases such as PsychInfo (Ovid), Web of

Science, and ProQuest were scoured, guided by a PICO-P logic grid and

keyword search strategy focused on students, study strategies, and

achievement, applying appropriate filters. The initial screening of

studies was conducted by two independent authors, assisted by a

19
screening tool. The quality of included studies was assessed using the

Mixed Methods Assessment Tool (MMAT), and data extraction was

performed by two authors independently.

Rabia et al. (2017) studied similar findings in their study on study

habits and academic performance. Their research aimed to explore a

direct association between these variables, involving a sample of 270

students from two colleges. They utilized the Chi-square test to

establish a link between study habits and academic performance,

revealing a significant relationship among the respondents.

Furthermore, the Chi-square test was employed to investigate potential

extraneous variables like gender or pre-examination stress that might

influence students’ study habits.

In a separate analytical-descriptive study, Looyeh et al. (2017)

aimed to determine the relationship between study habits and

academic performance among Medical Science Students. Their study

included 461 students, employing the Palsane and Sharma Study

Habits Inventory (PSSHI) as the data collection tool. The findings

indicated a correlation between study habits and academic

performance, with a score of (p < 0.0001 and r = 0.229). The mean

score for study habits was 48.35 ± 10.37 out of 90, and the academic

performance of the majority of students was estimated to be

intermediate or moderate.

20
 Based on Siahi and Maiyo’s study (2015), the results indicate a

significant positive relationship of 0.66 between study habits and

academic achievements. Additionally, Chilca (2017) explored the

potential impact of study habits on the academic performance of

Peruvian university students and concluded that study habits do

influence academic performance. Ebele and Olufu (2017) also found a

significant relationship between students’ study habits and academic

performance.

However, this is not the case in other studies of the same

variables. Jafari (2019) discovered only a moderate positive correlation

between the study habits of medical students and their academic

performance. As a result, it is recommended that students in that study

undergo specific training to modify their study habits and improve their

academic performances.

Conceptual Framework

INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

21
 Learning outcomes
Study Techniques among the Grade
10 students

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study

Definition of Terms

To facilitate the understanding of this study, different terms are

defined herein:

Learning Outcomes. The academic achievements understanding

and knowledge gained by students as result of using specific study

techniques.

Learning Process. Encompases the entire journey of acquiring

knowledge and understanding. It involves cognitive emotional, and

behavioral aspects through study techniques to the eventual mastery

and application of that knowledge.

22
Perpetual Exploration. Imply a continuous process of exploring new

study techniques and their effects on learning outcomes.

Study Habits. Refer to the routines, behaviors and practices that

students regularly follow while preparing for their academic studies.

Study Techniques. These are methods, strategies or approches that

grade 10 students employ to enhance their learning and understanding

of academic materials.

23