1

Defence Services Academy

Higher Education Centre, Department of
English
English Master Second Year Course (First
Semester)
Handout: Syllabus Design
What is Syllabus?
A syllabus is a document that outlines the content, structure, expectations, and
requirements of a course. It serves as a roadmap or guide for both instructors and
students, providing essential information about the course's goals, learning
objectives, instructional methods, assignments, assessments, and policies. It guides
the teachers what to teach and informs the learners what to be learnt. A syllabus in
ELT is a description of the contents of a course of instruction and the order in which
they are to be taught. It actually performs as a guide for both the teachers and the
learners by providing some goals to be accomplished.
According to Breen (1984), a syllabus can be seen as:
“ … a plan of what is to be achieved through our teaching and our students’
learning”
Yalden (1982) also refers to syllabus as:
“ … a summary of the content to which learners will be exposed”
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) define a syllabus at its simplest level as
follows:
“ … as a statement of what is to be learnt”
They further add that it reflects of language and linguistic performance. In
simple words, a language teaching syllabus involves the combination of subject
matter (what to teach) and linguistic matter (how to teach).
A syllabus typically includes the following components:
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Course Information: This section provides basic details about the course,
such as the course title, course number, meeting times, location (if applicable), and
the instructor's contact information.
Course Description: The course description provides a concise overview of
the course content, highlighting the main topics, themes, or skills that will be
covered.
Learning Outcomes: Learning outcomes specify the knowledge, skills, or
attitudes that students are expected to acquire or demonstrate by the end of the
course. These outcomes reflect the overall goals and objectives of the course and
serve as a guide for instructional planning and assessment.
Course Schedule: The course schedule outlines the sequence of topics, units,
or modules that will be covered throughout the course. It includes information about
readings, assignments, assessments, and any important dates or deadlines.
Required Materials: This section lists the textbooks, readings, software, or
other materials that students are required to obtain for the course. It may also include
recommended or supplementary resources.
Instructional Methods: Instructional methods describe the approaches and
strategies that will be used to facilitate learning in the course. This may include
lectures, discussions, group work, presentations, hands-on activities, or online
components.
Assessment and Grading: The assessment and grading section explains how
student’s learning will be evaluated and how grades will be assigned. It includes
information about exams, quizzes, papers, projects, presentations, participation, and
any specific criteria or rubrics that will be used for evaluation.
Policies: This section outlines important policies and expectations related to
attendance, participation, late submissions, academic integrity, accommodation for
students with disabilities, and any specific guidelines or rules for the course.
Resources and Support: This section provides information about resources
and support services available to students, such as tutoring, academic advising,
library resources, or online learning platforms.
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It is important to note that the specific structure and content of a syllabus may
vary depending on the institution, department, and instructor. However, the main
purpose of a syllabus is to provide a comprehensive overview of the course, establish
clear expectations, and guide the learning process for both instructors and students.

Etymology
The etymology of the term "syllabus" provides insight into its historical
origins and how it has evolved over time. The term "syllabus" originated from Latin,
where it referred to a "parchment label" or "table of contents." In ancient Rome, a
syllabus was used to denote a summary or list of topics or subjects to be covered in a
course of study. It served as a concise overview, allowing students to understand the
scope and content of their studies. As education systems developed and became more
structured, the concept of a syllabus expanded beyond a simple list of topics. It
evolved into a comprehensive document that outlines not only the content of a course
but also its objectives, assessments, resources, and policies. The modern syllabus
encompasses a broader range of information and serves as a guide for both
instructors and students throughout the course.
In recent years, syllabus design has gained increased attention as an integral
part of effective teaching and learning. It is now recognized that a well-designed
syllabus can set clear expectations, establish learning outcomes, guide instructional
strategies, and promote student engagement. Modern syllabus design incorporates
student-cantered approaches, emphasizing the importance of aligning learning
objectives with teaching methods and assessments. It also recognizes the value of
creating an inclusive learning environment that respects diverse backgrounds,
accommodates different learning styles, and promotes accessibility.
Overall, the evolution of syllabus design reflects a shift from a simple list of
topics to a comprehensive document that serves as a roadmap for the learning
journey. Its development has been influenced by changes in educational
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philosophies, pedagogical practices, and the need for effective communication

between instructors and students.
What is Syllabus Design?
Syllabus design refers to the process of creating a well-structured and
comprehensive document that outlines the content, objectives, instructional methods,
assessments, and policies of a course. It involves carefully planning and organizing
the various components of a syllabus to ensure effective teaching and learning. A
breakdown of the key elements involved in syllabus design can be witnessed as
follows:
Course Overview: The syllabus begins with a clear and concise course
overview that provides essential information about the course, including the course
title, number, description, and the instructor's contact details. This section sets the
stage for understanding the purpose and scope of the course.
Learning Outcomes: The syllabus specifies the learning outcomes or
objectives that students are expected to achieve by the end of the course. Learning
outcomes are specific, measurable statements that describe the knowledge, skills, or
attitudes students should attain. They serve as a guide for instructional planning and
assessment.
Course Content: The syllabus outlines the main topics, themes, or units that
will be covered in the course. It provides an overview of the content that students
will engage with during their studies. This section may include a breakdown of the
sequence or order in which topics will be covered.
Instructional Methods and Strategies: The syllabus describes the
instructional methods, strategies, or approaches that will be employed to facilitate
learning. It outlines how the course will be taught, whether through lectures,
discussions, group work, hands-on activities, technology-enhanced learning, or a
combination of methods. This section highlights the instructional techniques used to
engage students and promote effective learning.
Assessments and Grading: The syllabus explains the assessments and
grading criteria used to evaluate student learning. It provides details about exams,
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quizzes, projects, papers, presentations, and other assessment methods that will be
used. It includes information on grading scales, weightage assigned to different
assessments, and any specific criteria or rubrics that will be used for evaluation.
Course Schedule and Timeline: The syllabus includes a detailed course
schedule or timeline that outlines the sequence of topics, readings, assignments, and
assessments throughout the course. It may also include important dates such as exam
dates, assignment due dates, and holidays.
Policies and Expectations: The syllabus specifies the course policies and
expectations related to attendance, participation, late submissions, academic
integrity, and other guidelines relevant to student conduct. It ensures that students are
aware of the expectations and rules set forth by the instructor and the institution.
Resources and Support: The syllabus provides information about additional
resources and support services available to students, such as recommended
textbooks, readings, online platforms, tutoring services, or library resources. This
section helps students access the necessary materials and support their learning.
Accessibility and Inclusivity: Inclusive syllabus design ensures that the
document is accessible to all students, regardless of their diverse needs or
backgrounds. It may include information on accessibility accommodations,
alternative formats, or strategies for creating an inclusive learning environment.
Revision and Updates: The syllabus may include a statement about the
possibility of revisions or updates throughout the course. It highlights the instructor's
commitment to adapt and improve the course based on student needs or unforeseen
circumstances.
Syllabus design is an iterative process that involves careful thought,
consideration of pedagogical principles, and alignment with course objectives. It
aims to provide students with a clear roadmap for their learning journey, while also
ensuring transparency, fairness, and effective communication between instructors
and students.
Purposes of Syllabus Design
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The purposes of syllabus design are multifaceted and serve several important
functions in the context of education. A syllabus represents "A Formal Academic
Agreement" between instructors and students. So the syllabus has a dual purpose,
serving as both the students and the instructors such as:
The syllabus provides a basis upon which to resolve academic
misunderstanding. Students should be encouraged to consult the syllabus throughout
the course and to ask question about the syllabus.
It is the official document of record regarding all classroom activities. Without
such a record, misunderstandings between students and faculty may occur.
Key Differences Between Syllabus and Syllabus Design
The key differences between a syllabus and syllabus design lie in their scope
and focus.
Syllabus: A syllabus is the final written document that outlines the essential
information and requirements of a course. It serves as a communication tool between
the instructor and the students, providing a comprehensive overview of the course.
The syllabus typically includes details such as course title, course description,
learning outcomes, assessment methods, policies, and resources. It serves as a
reference for students throughout the course, helping them understand what will be
covered, how they will be assessed, and what is expected of them.
Syllabus Design: Syllabus design refers to the process of creating the syllabus.
It involves the deliberate and intentional planning, organization, and decision-making
that goes into developing an effective syllabus. Syllabus design is a dynamic and
iterative process that takes into consideration various factors, such as educational
goals, learner needs, instructional strategies, and institutional requirements. It
requires the instructor to make thoughtful choices about the course content, learning
outcomes, assessments, instructional methods, and policies. Syllabus design involves
aligning the different components of the syllabus to create a cohesive and coherent
learning experience for the students.
In summary, while a syllabus is the end product, the tangible document that
provides course information, syllabus design is the process of intentionally and
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thoughtfully designing that document. Syllabus design involves careful consideration

of the educational context, learning objectives, instructional strategies, and student
needs. It requires the instructor to make informed decisions about the structure,
content, assessments, and policies of the course. Syllabus design aims to create a
well-organized and effective syllabus that promotes student engagement, facilitates
learning, and sets clear expectations.

What is the Concept of Syllabus and Curriculum?

The Concept of Syllabus
A syllabus, which is descriptive, serves as an outline and summary of topics to
be covered in an education or training course. It is often formulated by an exam
board or prepared by the professor who holds crucial responsibility for supervising
and maintaining the course's quality. The syllabus can be provided in either paper or
electronic form. Syllabus and curriculum are frequently intertwined and typically
distributed to each student during the initial class session to ensure clarity regarding
the objectives and the methods of achieving them.
A syllabus generally includes specific information about the course, such as
how, when, and where to contact the lecturer and teaching assistants; an overview of
the course content; a schedule of test dates and assignment due dates; the grading
policy; and specific classroom disciplinary measures, among others. In many courses
that culminate in an exam, syllabi are employed to ensure consistency across schools
and to establish a common understanding of the required content among teachers.
Exams can only assess knowledge based on the information provided in the syllabi.
The Concept of Curriculum
Curriculum refers to the comprehensive framework and plan for teaching and
learning in an educational program or institution. It encompasses the content,
instructional methods, assessments, and learning experiences designed to facilitate
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the achievement of educational goals and objectives. Some key points to understand
about curriculum can be seen as follows:
Content: The curriculum defines the subject matter or knowledge areas that
students are expected to learn. It outlines the specific topics, concepts, and skills that
will be covered in the educational program.
Objectives: The curriculum establishes clear educational objectives or
learning outcomes that describe what students should know, understand, and be able
to do by the end of the program. These objectives guide instructional planning and
assessment.
Instructional Methods: The curriculum determines the instructional strategies
and methods employed to facilitate learning. It involves decisions about the use of
lectures, discussions, hands-on activities, group work, technology, and other
pedagogical approaches.
Assessment and Evaluation: The curriculum outlines the methods and criteria
for assessing student learning. It specifies the types of assessments, such as tests,
projects, portfolios, or presentations, and provides guidelines for evaluating student
performance.
Learning Experiences: The curriculum encompasses a range of learning
experiences designed to engage students and support their understanding and
application of the content. These experiences may include field trips, laboratory
work, simulations, projects, or real-world applications.
Sequence and Progression: The curriculum establishes a logical sequence
and progression of learning. It ensures that content is scaffolded and builds upon
prior knowledge and skills, enabling students to develop a deeper understanding over
time.
Adaptation and Flexibility: Curriculum should be adaptable and flexible to
meet the diverse needs of learners. It may be adjusted based on individual student
needs, cultural considerations, or evolving educational trends.
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Integration of Values and Skills: The curriculum may incorporate the

integration of values, ethical considerations, and the development of transferable
skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaboration.
Continuous Improvement: Curriculum development involves an ongoing
process of evaluation and improvement. Feedback from students, educators, and
stakeholders is used to refine and enhance the curriculum over time.
It is important to note that curriculum can refer to a specific program of study,
such as a high school science curriculum or a university engineering curriculum. It
can also refer to broader frameworks, such as national or state curricula that guide
educational standards and practices. Overall, curriculum plays a crucial role in
shaping the teaching and learning experiences in educational settings, providing a
structured framework for educators and learners to achieve educational goals.
Differences Between Curriculum and Syllabus
Syllabus and Curriculum are two words that are often confused as having the
same meaning. However, linguists like Widdowson and Brumfit (1984), Dubin and
Olshtain (1996), and Richards and Shaw (1977) assert that these are two different
words with distinct meanings. Syllabus usually refers to the program or outline of a
specific course of study. Curriculum, on the other hand, refers to the subjects that are
studied or prescribed for study in a school or college. This is the main difference
between syllabus and curriculum.
A syllabus is typically prescribed once a year, and the designated syllabus for
that year should be covered by both the teacher and the student during that period.
Examinations are conducted at the end of the year based on the specific syllabus for
each subject. This indicates that in the following year of a three or four-year
undergraduate course, the student will follow a different syllabus.
On the other hand, a curriculum refers to the entire span of study in a college
or school. For instance, the curriculum of a particular course of study, such as B.Sc.
Chemistry, includes all the subjects, including related subjects, that are part of the
entire course. Therefore, it can be said that syllabus is a component of the
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curriculum, as syllabi collectively form the curriculum. A curriculum is considered

complete when all the syllabi have been covered.
While the terms "curriculum" and "syllabus" are often used interchangeably,
there are differences in their scope and focus. A full explanation of the distinctions
between curriculum and syllabus is as follows:
Curriculum: Curriculum refers to the overall framework and plan for teaching
and learning in an educational program or institution. It is a broad concept that
encompasses the entire educational experience, including various aspects such as:
Content: The subject matter, topics, and knowledge areas that students are expected
to learn. Goals and Objectives: The educational aims and desired learning outcomes
that guide instruction. Instructional Strategies: The methods, approaches, and
pedagogical techniques employed to facilitate learning. Assessments: The methods
and criteria used to evaluate student learning and progress. Learning Experiences:
The range of activities, projects, fieldwork, and interactions designed to promote
learning. Resources: The materials, textbooks, technologies, and other resources
used to support teaching and learning. Evaluation and Feedback: The ongoing
process of assessing and improving the curriculum based on feedback and outcomes.
Curriculum is typically designed at a program or institutional level, providing a
broader framework that may encompass multiple courses and learning experiences
over an extended period.
Syllabus: A syllabus, on the other hand, is a specific document that outlines
the content, structure, expectations, and requirements of an individual course. It is a
more focused and detailed document that serves as a guide for a particular course
within the broader curriculum. The syllabus typically includes: Course Information:
Title, instructor's name, course number, meeting times, etc. Learning Outcomes:
Specific objectives and expected student outcomes for the course. Content: The
topics, concepts, and materials that will be covered in the course. Assessments: The
types of assessments and their weightage in determining student grades. Policies:
Expectations regarding attendance, participation, late submissions, academic
integrity, etc. Resources: Textbooks, readings, online materials, and other resources
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required for the course. Schedule: A timeline or schedule indicating the sequence of
topics and important dates. The syllabus is more focused on the details of a particular
course and serves as a contract between the instructor and students, providing them
with specific information about the course requirements, expectations, and
guidelines.
In summary, the main differences between curriculum and syllabus are: Scope:
Curriculum is a broader framework that encompasses the overall educational
program or institution, while the syllabus focuses on a specific course within that
program. Detail and Focus: Curriculum provides a high-level overview, guiding
principles, and educational goals, while the syllabus offers detailed information about
a specific course, including content, assessments, and policies. Level of Planning:
Curriculum is developed at a program or institutional level, often involving
collaboration among educators and stakeholders, while the syllabus is developed by
individual instructors for their respective courses. It's important to note that the
relationship between curriculum and syllabus is interconnected. The curriculum
provides the overarching guidelines and learning objectives, while the syllabus
translates those objectives into specific details for a particular course.
Syllabus Curriculum
- For students - For teachers
- Accessible for teachers - Not accessible for teachers
- Made by teachers - Developed by school district
and college administration
- Descriptive list of the concepts - Guideline set for educators that
that will be taught in particular prescribe what they need to
class teach to their students
- Not seen by students unless by
- Handed out on the first day of requests
the class

Guideline in Designing a Syllabus

It is important to note that the specific structure and content of a syllabus may
vary depending on the institution, department, and instructor. However, the main
purpose of designing a syllabus is to provide a comprehensive overview of the
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course, establish clear expectations, and guide the learning process for both
instructors and students. As mentioned in the preceding paragraph, the following
elements are vital to consider when designing a syllabus:
1) Course Information
2) Course Description
3) Learning Outcomes
4) Course Schedule
5) Required Materials
6) Instructional Methods
7) Assessment and Grading
8) Policies
9) Resources and Support
In an elaborative way, the following things should be considered when
designing a syllabus:
 The needs, wants, and interests of the students, as well as their learning
styles.
 Setting achievable objectives that provide a clear focus for the course and
are laid out in manageable steps.
 Having a clear statement of global goals, explaining why the course is
being taught and what the end goals are.
 Considering the physical constraints of the teaching environment.
 Taking into account the nature of the course, such as a Business English
Course.
 Determining the order of the syllabus elements.
 Finding the right balance between skills and systems.
Similarly, there are principles and practices to consider in syllabus design:
 Providing a way to communicate with students before the course starts.
 Establishing a positive tone for the course.
 Defining student and instructor responsibilities.
 Helping students assess their readiness for the course.
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 Placing the course in a broader context of learning.

 Communicating how technology will be utilized in the course.
These considerations and practices contribute to a well-designed syllabus that
effectively guides the teaching and learning process. Remember that flexibility is
also important, as syllabi should be adaptable to meet the needs of the students and
the evolving nature of education.
The Syllabus as a Contract
A syllabus serves as a tool to clearly establish the rules and expectations for a
course. It should outline what is anticipated to occur throughout the semester, define
the responsibilities of both students and the instructor, and describe appropriate
procedures and course policies. To achieve this, a syllabus should include the
following:
 Topics and readings to be covered in sequential order, along with
corresponding dates.
 Important dates such as assignment due dates, exam dates, and holidays.
 Standards and criteria for graded assignments.
 Description of how the final grade will be calculated, including a
breakdown of the ranges for each letter grade and whether pluses/minuses
will be used.
 Policy regarding late assignments, incomplete assignments, and revision
opportunities.
 Academic integrity policy, emphasizing the importance of maintaining
academic honesty.
 Attendance policy, specifying expectations for attendance and any
consequences for excessive absences.
 Accommodation policy for students with special needs, ensuring that
appropriate accommodations will be provided.
 Expectations for classroom interaction. For example, if active learning
strategies such as group work and in-class writing assignments will be
incorporated, it should be mentioned. Similarly, if the course covers
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controversial topics, guidelines for respectful and constructive discussion

may be outlined.
By incorporating these elements into the syllabus, it functions as a contractual
agreement between the instructor and students, establishing a shared understanding
of the course structure and expectations. It provides clarity and transparency,
ensuring fairness and consistency throughout the semester.
The Syllabus as a Permanent Record
A syllabus serves as a valuable tool for accountability and documentation
purposes. It provides a record of what was covered in a course, the level at which it
was taught, and the type of credit associated with it. Such a syllabus contains
information that is useful for evaluating instructors, courses, and programs, and can
be beneficial in situations involving course equivalency transfers, accreditation
procedures, and articulation. To fulfil these functions, a syllabus should include the
following:
 Basic course information, including the course number, section, title, semester,
meeting times, days, place, and format.
 Instructor information, such as the name, title, rank, office location, office
phone number, and email address.
 Description of the course content, providing an overview of the topics and
themes that will be covered.
 Course goals and objectives, clearly stating what students are expected to
achieve by the end of the course. If applicable, these goals and objectives can
be linked to professional standards.
 Required purchases for the course. Additionally, it may be helpful to indicate
where other course texts or resources can be accessed, such as the library,
online platforms, or electronic reserves.
 Prerequisites and co-requisites for the course. This should include not only
specific courses but also any expected skills or knowledge.
 Names and contact information for teaching assistants who may be involved in
the course.
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By including these elements in the syllabus, it serves as a permanent record

that provides important information for evaluation and reference purposes. It ensures
transparency and consistency in documenting course content and requirements,
supporting processes such as transfer credits, accreditation evaluations, and
communication between institutions.
The Syllabus as a Learning Tool
A syllabus should not only provide information about the course but also serve
as a valuable resource to help students become more effective learners. While some
of these items may not be required for all syllabi, including them can greatly enhance
students' ability to engage with the material and succeed in the course. To fulfil this
role, a syllabus should include the following:
 Ways of contacting the instructor, including office hours, availability for
appointments, and the expected response time via email or other
communication channels. It may also include the instructor's phone number for
urgent matters.
 The conceptual structure used to organize the course, explaining why it is
organized in a particular way. This can provide students with insights into the
underlying logic and connections within the course material.
 The instructor's philosophy about the course content, teaching methods, and
learning goals. This can provide students with a deeper understanding of the
instructor's approach and expectations.
 The relevance and importance of the course to students, such as how it fits into
the overall college or department curriculum and why students should be
motivated to learn the material.
 Campus resources available to support student learning, including tutoring
services, writing centres, counselling services, or other academic support
resources that students can access.
 An estimate of the student workload, including the average time commitment
expected for readings, assignments, and preparation. This can help students
manage their time effectively and plan their study schedules.
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 Hints or tips for effective study strategies, note-taking techniques, or other

suggestions that can aid students in their learning process.
By including these elements, the syllabus not only provides necessary
information but also becomes a valuable tool for students to navigate the course,
understand its significance, and adopt effective learning strategies. It promotes a
proactive and informed approach to learning, empowering students to engage more
fully with the material and achieve academic success.
How do you structure a Syllabus?
A syllabus is more than just a checklist or a collection of policies and
procedures. While the analogy of a "contract" is often used in higher education, it is
not the most effective approach to creating a syllabus. Instead of burdening students
with arbitrary rules, we should aim to create a syllabus that serves as a promise of
what students will achieve through the course. The syllabus is usually the first
contact students have with both the instructor and the course, and it sets the tone for
the entire learning experience. With that in mind, the central question to keep in mind
when creating a syllabus is: What am I conveying to my students?
This guide is intended to help you create or redesign a syllabus that not only
provides logistical information but also invites active engagement in the learning
process. Whether you have years of teaching experience or are teaching for the first
time, this guide provides the necessary resources, recommendations, and tips to craft
a syllabus that guides students through the course and motivates them to succeed.
Before you begin constructing your syllabus, it is helpful to have the following
materials on hand:
Your Course Materials: Gather the books, readings, and other resources
students will need for the course, as well as any additional materials necessary for
their success, such as specific art supplies or access to high-speed internet for media
streaming.
Your Institution's Academic Calendar: Familiarize yourself with the start
and end dates of the term, as well as any holidays, campus events, or important
deadlines that may impact your scheduling of class activities and assessments.
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Other Calendars: Two calendars, in particular, are worth considering. First,

refer to a calendar of major religious holidays from the traditions represented at your
institution, even if the campus does not officially close for those observances.
Second, have your personal calendar available to ensure that you can balance any
other commitments or deadlines, such as conferences, projects, or tenure-and-
promotion requirements.
Any Other Relevant Information or Materials: Some institutions require
specific boilerplate policy statements in every syllabus. You may also have
departmental assessment outcomes that need to be included in your course goals. For
laboratory courses, there may be additional lab-specific materials to include. It is
better to have these materials on hand from the start, rather than having to go back
later and make adjustments. If you are unsure about any specific requirements,
consult your department chair or dean, or check if your department has a syllabus
archive for reference.
While there is a wide range of options when it comes to formats, styles, and
content, every effective syllabus should include certain core elements. Remember, a
syllabus sets the tone, maps the course for students, and explains how they can
succeed. Omitting essential components may convey a lack of professionalism or
concern for student success. Make sure your syllabus includes the following essential
pieces:
Basic Course Information: Clearly state the course title, description (which
may be required), meeting times, location, format (face-to-face, online, blended),
credit hours, and any prerequisites.
Instructor Information: Introduce yourself, including your departmental
affiliation, office location (if applicable), office hours or availability for meetings,
and preferred method of communication (phone, email, etc.).
Course Goals: Clearly articulate what students will be able to do or achieve as
a result of taking the course. These goals can be discipline-specific objectives,
metacognitive goals, or both.
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Course Materials and Requirements: Provide a list of required books,

readings, and other course materials, along with information on where students can
acquire them. Also, highlight any additional skills or requirements students need to
be successful in the course, such as proficiency with specific digital tools or the need
for site visits or fieldwork outside of regular class meetings.
Course Policies: Clearly communicate your policies regarding attendance,
missed work, classroom expectations, and technology use. It's important for students
to be aware of these policies to ensure a smooth learning experience.
Grading and Assessment: Explain how student performance will be
evaluated, including the types of assignments, assessments, or projects they will be
required to complete. Specify the grading scale and whether any extra credit
opportunities will be offered.
Course Schedule or Calendar: Provide a detailed schedule that outlines what
students will be doing during each class session, including any quizzes,
examinations, or due dates for papers, projects, or other assessments. If there is a
final exam, indicate the date and any special considerations for final-exam week, if
applicable.
Although courses may differ in size, subject matter, or level, following a
systematic process will help you plan and structure your course and syllabus
effectively to achieve desired instructional goals. The following steps will guide you
from the initial design phases of your course to the final distribution of your syllabus:
 Course design
 Syllabus design
 Additional resources
Course design
Effective course design begins with understanding who your students are,
deciding what you want them to learn; determining how you will measure student
learning: and planning activities, assignments and materials that support student
learning. For all interactions with students plan ahead by ask yourself:
 Who are the students?
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 What do I want students to be able to do?

 How will I measure students’ abilities?
By asking yourself these questions at the onset of your course design process
you will be able to focus more concretely on learning outcomes, which has proven to
increase student learning substantially as opposed to merely shoehorning large
quantities of content into a quarters worth of class meetings.
1. Who are the students?
Before the class begins, find out as much as you can about the students.
Consider the level of your course and the type and level of students who typically
enrol in this course. If you are new to teaching the course, you may want to consult
with colleagues who have previously taught the course to gather some of this
information. It is also helpful to review your class roster before the quarter starts.
Additionally, the Office of the Registrar publishes a snapshot view of enrolled
students for a given quarter.
 Are your students new to the university? Are they new to the topic of the
course or the department? What are the students' motivations for taking the
course?
 What might you expect students to know before the first class? Consider
previous courses they may or may not have taken. Are the students majors in
your department, or are they fulfilling a distribution credit?
 What range of backgrounds and previous experience is typically represented
among students in this class?
 What problems do students typically encounter with this material at this level?
2. What do I want students to be able to do?
After considering the characteristics of your students, it's essential to define
what specific skills or abilities you want them to acquire by the end of the course.
Try to be as specific as possible and use measurable terms that highlight observable
student competencies. For instance, it can be more challenging to assess students'
knowledge or understanding compared to evaluating their abilities to perform tasks
such as identifying, differentiating, applying, or producing. This process will help
 20

you establish clear course goals. To assist you in designing course objectives, the
following tools can be helpful:
 Understanding by Design (Centre for Teaching, Vanderbilt): This resource
describes the Backward Design process outlined in "Understanding By
Design" by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe.
 Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: A widely used framework for
categorizing cognitive skills and learning objectives.
 Course Design Tutorial: Although this tool draws examples from geoscience,
its basic principles can be applied to a wide range of fields.
3. How will I measure students’ abilities?
When designing your course, it's crucial to select activities that are likely to
help students achieve the goals you have defined and acquire and retain skills
effectively. Some goals can be attained through activities like listening to lectures or
reading assigned texts, while others may require more active approaches such as
experimentation, practice, discussions, writing, field work, service learning, problem-
solving, or small group collaboration. Regardless of the activities chosen, always
consider how the core activity, rather than just the subject content, will advance
students' abilities.
You also need to consider how you will gather reliable evidence throughout
the course to assess your students' learning progress and determine whether they have
attained or mastered the desired abilities by the course's end. This is the phase where
you decide on assignments, activities, and assessment methods. Will you incorporate
weekly quizzes, objective tests, research papers, presentations, performances, or
group/individual projects? Assessment plays a vital role in student learning, so it's
important to carefully align assessments with your learning objectives.

Types of Syllabus
 21

In language teaching contexts, there are six types of language syllabus:

Structural or Grammar Syllabus; Situational Syllabus; Notional/Functional Syllabus;
Task-Based Syllabus; Skill-Based Syllabus and Content-Based Syllabus.
A structural syllabus focuses on teaching the forms and structures of a language,
typically grammar-related. It includes elements like nouns, verbs, adjectives,
statements, questions, complex sentences, subordinate clauses, and past tense.
Additionally, formal syllabi may cover other aspects of language form such as
pronunciation or morphology.
A notional/functional syllabus focuses on teaching the functions and notions
expressed through language. Functions include informing, agreeing, apologizing,
requesting, promising, and more. Notions encompass concepts such as size, age,
colour, comparison, time, and others.
A situational syllabus teaches language through real or imaginary scenarios
involving multiple participants in specific settings. It focuses on the language used in
these situations and prepares learners for real-life contexts. Examples include visiting
the dentist, lodging complaints, buying books, meeting new people, and asking for
directions.
A skill-based syllabus focuses on specific abilities necessary for language use.
These skills are essential for language competence, regardless of the situation. While
situational syllabi group functions in specific settings, skill-based syllabi group
linguistic competencies (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, sociolinguistic, and
discourse) into general behaviours like listening for main ideas, writing well-formed
paragraphs, giving effective presentations, taking language tests, and reading for
main ideas or details. The primary goal of skill-based instruction is to learn specific
language skills, with the potential for developing broader language competence
incidentally.
A task-based syllabus focuses on learners completing meaningful tasks using the
target language. It moves away from traditional grammar or vocabulary-based
teaching and emphasizes real-life or simulated tasks that require language use. Tasks
can include surveys, problem-solving, presentations, or role-plays. The approach
 22

promotes communication, learner autonomy, and critical thinking. Teachers act as

facilitators, providing guidance during task performance. The goal is to develop
learners' communicative competence and their ability to use the language effectively
in different contexts.
A content-based syllabus is not really a language teaching syllabus at all. In
content-based language teaching, the primary purpose of the instruction is to teach
some content or information using the language that the students are also learning.
The students are simultaneously language students and students of whatever content
is being taught. The subject matter is primary, and language learning occurs
incidentally to the content learning. The content teaching is not organized around the
language teaching, but vice versa. Content-based language teaching is concerned
with information, while task-based language teaching is concerned with
communicative and cognitive processes. An example of content-based language
teaching is a science class taught in the language the students need or want to learn,
possibly with linguistic adjustments to make the science more comprehensible.
In general, the six types of syllabi or instructional content are presented
beginning with the one based most on language structure and ending with the one
based most on language use. If language is viewed as a relationship between form
and meaning, and instruction as emphasizing one or the other side of this
relationship, then the six types of syllabi can be represented as a continuum, ranging
from the one based most on form to the one based most on meaning. This
relationship can be represented in graphic form as shown in Figure 1.1.
Structural Notional - Situational Skill- Task- Content-
Functional Based Based Based
Emphasis on form Emphasis on meaning

Figure 1.1. Continuum of syllabi.

What is a Structural Syllabus?

Introduction
 23

The structural or grammatical syllabus is a well-known type of syllabus in

language teaching. It has a long history and has been widely used in language
instruction. This syllabus is based on the assumption that the grammatical or
structural aspects of language are fundamental and essential for functional language
proficiency. It embodies a theory of learning that suggests functional ability arises
from a solid understanding of language structure.
Content Focus
The structural syllabus primarily emphasizes language form, especially
grammatical form. Teaching is centred around teaching the form of language.
Traditional, Latin-based, descriptive/prescriptive grammatical classifications and
terminology are commonly employed in this syllabus. The grammatical categories
covered typically include nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, singular and plural
forms, tenses, and other related aspects. The structural syllabus often focuses on the
sentence as the main unit of discourse. Sentence types such as statements, questions,
exclamations, as well as simple, compound, and complex sentences are commonly
taught. Morphology, including singular and plural marking, tense markers,
determiners, articles, prepositions, postpositions, gender markers, and other related
aspects, may also be included. Vocabulary aspects like prefixes and suffixes are
sometimes covered within the scope of morphology.
Synthetic Nature
The structural syllabus is considered "synthetic," involving the analysis of
language content through various means like word frequency counts, grammatical
analysis, and discourse analysis. The syllabus designer utilizes the elements isolated
from these analyses to create the syllabus content. The content typically consists of
rules, patterns, and grammatical elements, along with guidelines for their
combination and usage. It is believed that learners can synthesize the material being
taught in two ways. First, learners can use the analysed information (rules and
patterns) during linguistic communication, either to generate utterances or to check
their accuracy. Second, the analysed information can be transformed from conscious
knowledge into the largely unconscious behaviour that constitutes language use.
 24

Different Uses of Structure

Structural teaching can involve different uses of structure in the classroom.
Descriptive or explanatory ability requires explicit instruction that includes stated
rules and explanations. Recognition or judgmental ability focuses on learners' ability
to judge the acceptability of language forms and correct unacceptable forms, similar
to what native speakers do. Accurate productive behaviour aims to develop learners'
ability to use language structures correctly without necessarily being able to describe
or make judgments about them. These three uses of structure may overlap in practice,
making it challenging to keep them clearly distinct.
Associated Language Teaching Methods
Structural syllabi have been associated with cognitive language teaching
methods such as audiolingual, grammar-translation methods, and innovative
approaches like the Silent Way. Cognitive theories propose that conscious
knowledge of language forms and rules, along with their application, leads to
effective language learning. Audiolingual methods follow a behaviourist learning
model to instil structural knowledge and behaviour. Grammar-translation methods
explicitly present grammatical rules and patterns and focus on translation practice.
More recent cognitive methods have moved away from translation but still
emphasize explicit identification of language forms and structures combined with
application and practice.
Content Selection and Sequencing
Selecting instructional content for structural syllabi is usually straightforward,
as the grammatical structure of the language being taught is typically well-known.
However, determining the level of detail in the instruction can pose some challenges.
Deciding how extensively to cover a grammatical point, including exceptions and
intricacies, requires careful consideration to provide learners with useful knowledge.
Sequencing or grading the content is a more complex task. Several criteria
have been proposed, including complexity, regularity, productivity, communicative
facility, communicative generalizability, facilitation of acquisition of other
structures, perceptual accessibility, dialectal markedness, difference from the
 25

learners' first language, communicative need, and natural acquisition sequence.

However, there is no consensus on a definitive sequencing approach. Sequencing
decisions are often based on presumed simplicity, frequency, and need. For example,
the simple present tense is usually introduced before the more complex present
continuous, and the past tense before the present perfect. However, the ordering of
structures like present continuous and past tense can vary, and clear sequencing
principles for them are lacking.
Conclusion
The structural syllabus is a well-established approach in language teaching that
emphasizes grammar and language form. It has been associated with various
language teaching methods, and its content selection is usually straightforward.
However, determining the sequencing of structures can be challenging due to the
lack of a definitive approach. Different criteria are considered, but no single criterion
or empirical evidence provides a clear solution.
Examples of Structural Syllabi
Textbooks are not syllabi, but they frequently become syllabi, and they
certainly reflect what informed writers believe should be the content and order of
teaching. Rather than provide an example of an imaginary structural syllabus, or of a
real but unrepresentative one, the content and order of several representative ESL
textbooks are provided as examples of structural syllabi.
The following partial content list is from a textbook series for beginning
students of ESL that is structurally organized, although it contains some situational
content. The book is New English 900, published in 1978 by Collier Macmillan.
This and that Third singular present tense
My, Your Simple past
Be, present tense Negative questions
Subject pronouns Going to future
Predicate adjectives Could as possibility
Subject pronouns- plural Adjectives of comparison
Possessive adjectives -er; -est
 26

Demonstrative pronouns Two-word verbs

Imperatives Could - have of can
Negative of be Infinitives
Tag questions Indirect object position
Count, non-count Will future
Present continuous Would like, would rather
Possessive pronouns Must, must not
Past of be Past continuous
Simple present Embedded wh-clauses
May, may not - relative clauses
Can, can't Reflexive
Simple present, negative -ly adverbs
Count and mass nouns Should
Frequency adverbs If + real condition

Note that the groupings and grading tend to follow an order of difficulty and
frequency of use, and that not all formally related material is presented at once. The
modals, for example, are presented separately from each other, presumably in an
order based on frequency or communicative need.
The second example is from Understanding and Using English Grammar
(Azar, 1981), one of the most widely used recent ESL structural texts. The contents
of the book are as follows (with some abbreviations):
Questions
- Yes/no
- Wh-questions
- Negative questions
- Tag questions
Singular and plural
- subject-verb agreement
 27

- Pronoun agreement
- Some singular, plural usages of nouns
- Irregular noun plural, count and noncount nouns, etc.
Verb tenses
- Irregular verbs and spelling
- An overview of English verb tenses
- Simple, progressive, perfect, etc.
- Using verb tenses
- Simple present, present progressive, etc.
The passive
Modal auxiliaries
Gerunds and infinitives
Adjective clauses
Noun clauses
Conjunctions
Adverb clauses and related structures
- Time, cause, and effect
- Opposition and condition
Comparison
Conditional sentences
Gerunds and infinitives (advanced)
*** Note that structural material is grouped in this handout according to type.
Obviously, this handout is not intended as the sole learning source for students;
otherwise, all they could do for the first bit would be to ask questions. Presumably,
this is a remedial or review grammar, intended to increase students' existing
knowledge.
Positive Characteristics of Structural Syllabi
Structural syllabi, despite their limitations, also have positive characteristics
that contribute to language learning. Here are some of the positive aspects associated
with structural syllabi:
 28

Clear Language Structure: Structural syllabi provide a systematic and

organized approach to teaching language by focusing on the underlying grammatical
structures. Learners gain a solid foundation in understanding the rules and patterns of
the target language, which can enhance their overall language competence.
Incremental Learning Progression: Structural syllabi often follow a logical
progression, starting with basic language structures and gradually introducing more
complex ones. This incremental approach allows learners to build their knowledge
step by step, consolidating their understanding of grammatical concepts before
moving on to more advanced topics.
Accuracy in Language Production: The emphasis on grammatical forms and
rules in structural syllabi promotes accuracy in language production. Learners
become familiar with the correct usage of tenses, verb forms, sentence structures, and
other grammatical aspects, which can help them communicate effectively and avoid
common errors.
Transferable Knowledge: The explicit focus on grammar in structural syllabi
equips learners with transferable language skills. Once learners grasp the underlying
patterns and rules, they can apply their knowledge to a wide range of contexts and
language tasks, including reading, writing, listening, and speaking.
Systematic Error Correction: Structural syllabi provide ample opportunities
for teachers to identify and correct language errors. By focusing on specific
grammatical points, teachers can provide targeted feedback and guidance, helping
learners improve their accuracy and refine their language use.
Foundation for Language Analysis: Structural syllabi lay the groundwork for
deeper language analysis. Learners develop the ability to deconstruct sentences,
identify grammatical components, and understand how language structures
contribute to meaning. This analytical skill can support learners in their language
development beyond the scope of the syllabus.
It is important to note that while structural syllabi have their advantages, a
balanced approach that integrates communicative and functional elements is often
 29

recommended for more comprehensive language instruction, taking into account the
broader communicative and sociocultural aspects of language use.
Negative Characteristics of Structural Syllabi
While structural syllabi have their benefits, they also have some negative
characteristics. Here are a few drawbacks associated with structural syllabi:
Overemphasis on Form: Structural syllabi tend to prioritize the teaching of
grammatical forms and rules over functional or communicative aspects of language.
This narrow focus on form may lead to a disconnect between language instruction
and real-life communication situations. Learners may become proficient in
manipulating grammatical structures but struggle to apply their knowledge in
authentic conversations.
Limited Contextualization: Structural syllabi often present language items in
isolated contexts, focusing on individual sentences or grammatical patterns. This
limited contextualization may hinder learners' ability to understand how language is
used in various communicative situations or discourse. Real-world language use
involves more than just grammatical correctness; it requires an understanding of
pragmatics, sociocultural norms, and discourse strategies.
Lack of Authenticity: Structural syllabi may rely heavily on artificial or
contrived language examples, which may not reflect the authentic language use
encountered in real-life interactions. Learners may find it challenging to transfer their
knowledge from controlled classroom exercises to authentic communicative
situations.
Insufficient Focus on Speaking and Listening Skills: Structural syllabi often
place less emphasis on developing speaking and listening skills compared to other
language skills, such as reading and writing. This can result in a lack of oral fluency
and effective communication abilities, as learners may not have enough opportunities
to practice and engage in meaningful spoken interactions.
Limited Attention to Language Functions: While structural syllabi focus on
grammatical structures, they may not adequately address the functional or
communicative aspects of language. Language learners need to acquire not only
 30

grammatical accuracy but also the ability to use language for various purposes, such
as making requests, expressing opinions, or negotiating meaning in different
contexts.
To address these limitations, a more balanced approach that combines
structural elements with communicative activities, authentic materials, and
meaningful language use is recommended for comprehensive language instruction.
The Application
Structural or grammatical syllabi can be applied in various language teaching
situations. Here are some examples of how, where, and when they can be used:
Foundational Language Instruction: Structural or grammatical syllabi are
often used in the initial stages of language learning, where learners need to establish
a solid foundation in the grammatical structures and rules of the language. This
approach helps learners understand the fundamental components of the language and
develop their accuracy in using grammatical forms.
Exam Preparation: Structural syllabi can be beneficial for exam preparation
courses, especially those that focus on standardized language tests. These syllabi help
learners become familiar with the grammatical structures and vocabulary typically
assessed in the exams, enabling them to perform well in the specific test format.
Grammar-Focused Courses: Structural or grammatical syllabi are suitable
for courses that have a primary focus on explicit grammar instruction. These courses
aim to provide learners with an in-depth understanding of the language's grammatical
rules, sentence structures, and syntactic patterns.
Writing and Editing Skills: Structural syllabi can be applied in courses that
specifically target writing and editing skills. By focusing on grammatical accuracy,
sentence structures, and paragraph development, learners can enhance their writing
proficiency and produce well-structured and grammatically correct texts.
Language Analysis and Linguistics Studies: Structural syllabi are relevant in
academic settings where the focus is on language analysis and linguistic studies.
These syllabi delve into the detailed analysis of grammatical structures, sentence
 31

types, syntactic phenomena, and language variation, facilitating a deeper

understanding of the language system.
It is important to note that while structural or grammatical syllabi provide a
strong foundation in language structures, they should be supplemented with other
communicative activities to ensure the development of overall communicative
competence. Integrating speaking, listening, reading, and writing tasks alongside
structural instruction helps learners apply their grammatical knowledge in real-life
communication contexts.
What is a Notional/Functional Syllabus?
Introduction
The notional/functional syllabus is a widely recognized approach to language
teaching that emphasizes the importance of language use and function. While it has
often been misunderstood and its definition remains ambiguous, it provides a
valuable framework for designing language instruction content. This written work
aims to shed light on the key aspects of notional/functionalism, including its
theoretical foundations, the role of notions and functions, syllabus design, and
potential challenges.
Theoretical Foundations of Notional/Functionalism
Notional/functionalism emerged from a functionally oriented linguistic
tradition that stresses the contextual and practical aspects of language. Linguists such
as Firth and Halliday emphasized the significance of using language in its social
context. The philosophical work of Austin and sociolinguistic research by Hymes
contributed to the theoretical basis of notional/functionalism in language teaching. It
views language as a relationship between form and function, with functions taking
precedence over forms.
Notions and Functions in Notional/Functional Syllabi
Notional/functional syllabi revolve around notions and functions, which
constitute the core elements of instructional content. Notions are categories of
meaning, representing semantic grammatical categories such as duration, quantity,
agent, and instrument. Functions, on the other hand, refer to the practical uses of
 32

language, including greetings, predictions, requests, and apologies. Each notion or

function can be expressed through various forms, such as prepositions, verbs, and
phrases.
Each notion or function can be associated with a variety of forms, of course.
Instrumentality can be expressed with prepositions (e.g., “by bus,” “with an axe”),
with verbs (e.g., “used an axe,” “chopped”), and with prepositional phrases (e.g., “by
chopping it”). Future time can be expressed by future tense forms (e.g., “I’ll go
tomorrow,” “I’ll going to go tomorrow”), present tense forms (e.g., “I leave
tomorrow”), or present continuous forms (e.g., “I’m leaving tomorrow”).
Notional/functionalism is not a new concept. In structural teaching, the focus is on
language forms, with some indications on how to use them.

From structure to function

Function (future)

Form (e.g., “will” ) Function (promising)

Function (prediction)

From function to structure

Form (be going to)

Function (e.g., “future” ) Form (will)

Form (be + ing)

Syllabus Design and Content Selection:
The design of a notional/functional syllabus involves determining the notions,
functions, and forms to be included. The selection of specific content requires
 33

analysing the types of discourse learners will engage in and identifying the relevant
language elements. The focus is on creating a syllabus that addresses learners'
functional needs and incorporates the association between form and meaning. The
emerging field of discourse analysis provides valuable insights for content selection.
Sequencing and Grading of Material
Sequencing material in notional/functional syllabi has received limited
attention in the literature. While there is no consensus on specific principles, factors
such as the simplicity of form, learners' needs, pre-existing linguistic knowledge, and
grammatical complexity are considered. Grading material involves determining the
appropriate level of difficulty and the length of utterances required to perform
specific functions.
Challenges and Potential Limitations
Notional/functional syllabi face challenges similar to those encountered with
structural syllabi, including transferability issues and sequencing difficulties. Without
incorporating interactive and experiential classroom activities, notional/functional
syllabi may not fully realize their potential. Critics argue that notional syllabi can
perpetuate the perception of language as isolated units, hindering true communicative
competence development.
Conclusion
The notional/functional syllabus represents an important approach to language
teaching, emphasizing the use and function of language. Notions and functions form
the basis of instructional content, highlighting the practical aspects of language.
While content selection and sequencing pose challenges, incorporating interactive
and experiential learning activities can enhance the effectiveness of
notional/functional syllabi. By understanding the key principles and considerations,
language educators can effectively utilize this approach to promote communicative
competence among learners.
Examples of Notional/Functional Syllabi
The major source of information on the content of notional/functional syllabi
is van Ek (1976), who presents the general syllabus for the European unit/credit
 34

system, plus inventories of notions and functions and their formal exponents. A
number of textbooks, many British, same American, have been written using notions
and functions as their content. Two widely used series are the “In Touch” and “Lift
Styles” series, the former (a series for beginning students) by Castro and Kimbrough
(1980) and the latter (an intermediate series) by Lozano and Sturtevant (1981).
Bothuse a situational organization with functional content. A sample unit from each
follows:
What's the matter?
Talking about sickness
Making a suggestion
Accepting or rejecting a suggestion
Making a request
Agreeing to a request
(Castro &Kimbrough, 1980)
Do you want to come with me?
Invite someone to do something
Refuse an invitation
Ask for and give information about people
Offer to do something
Accept an offer
Ask someone to give a message to another person
Mention a condition for doing something
(Lozano & Sturtevant, 1981)
Finocchiaro and Brumfit provide a sample "curriculum" (i.e., syllabus) that
illustrates the organizing role of functions and the possible relationship of the
functions to situations, structures, and activities (See Fig. 1.2).
A MINI-CURRICULUM
Title and Apologizing Requesting Expressing
Function directions frustration
Situation Department store At the bus stop Home (dinner
(returning guest late)
 35

something)
Communicativ I’m sorry. Would it I beg your How
e Expressions be possible…? pardon. Could inconsiderate!
and Formulas you tell me…? Why couldn’t they
have telephoned?
Structure Simple past, present Interrogatives be+ V(ed)
perfect (simple present) It’s (time)
Modal - must
Nouns Shirt names of places food, deserts,
roast
Verbs buy, wear must get to, get ruin, spoil, serve
off, take
Adjectives small late
Adverbs Too how, where so
Structure You us
Words
Miscellaneous dates numbers time, numbers
Activities Aural Reading Role play; aural
comprehension; questions and comprehension;
indirect speech; answers; close dictation
changing register procedures; comprehension
dictation
Fig. 1.2. Syllabus with functions as organizing principle
Note. From The Functional- Notional Approach: From Theory to Practice by
Mary Finocchiaro and Christopher Brumfit. Copyright@ 1983 by Oxford
University Press, Inc. Adapted by permission.
Positive Characteristics of Notional/Functional Syllabi
When notional/functional syllabi are based on accurate analyses of the
learners' required discourse types and followed accordingly, they have a higher
chance of developing effective language users within a limited domain and in a
relatively short time. This success stems from the inherent relationship between form
and function upon which notional/functional syllabi are built. The positive
characteristics of notional/functional syllabi can be summarized as follows:
Increased usefulness: Including information about how language is used in a
teaching syllabus enhances the effectiveness of language instruction. It provides
 36

learners with practical knowledge and skills that enable them to function in real-life
communication situations.
Focus on language use: Notional/functional syllabi go beyond mere grammar
and vocabulary instruction. They incorporate notions (concepts) and functions
(communicative purposes) of language, offering a comprehensive understanding of
how language is used in different contexts.
Development of overall language ability: Notional/functional syllabi aim to
develop learners' overall ability to function in a new language, going beyond isolated
language elements. By focusing on communication and meaningful language use,
learners gain the skills to engage in written and spoken interactions effectively.
Exposure to authentic interaction: Notional/functional syllabi provide
learners with exposure to real or simulated interactions in the target language. This
exposure helps learners build confidence, improve their language skills, and
understand how linguistic forms are employed in practical communication.
Viewing language as a communicative system: Notional/functional syllabi
promote a shift in learners' perspective, viewing language as a communicative system
rather than an abstract set of elements and rules. Learners gain a deeper
understanding of the purpose and function of language, enabling them to use it more
effectively.
Tailored to learners' needs: Notional/functional syllabi are designed based
on accurate and adequate analyses of the types of discourse learners will encounter.
By addressing learners' specific communication needs, these syllabi provide targeted
instruction, increasing the likelihood of developing effective language users.
Overall, notional/functional syllabi offer a communicative and functional
approach to language learning, emphasizing the practical use of language in various
contexts. They provide learners with the necessary tools and skills to engage in
meaningful communication, enhancing their language proficiency and overall
language ability.
Negative Characteristics of National/Functional Syllabi
 37

Notional/functional syllabi that focus solely on isolated form-function pairings

do little to develop interactional and communicative ability because they fail to
synthesize these functions into meaningful discourse. Teaching notions and functions
based on cognitive learning theory alone may not be significantly more effective than
structurally based instruction. While notional/functional syllabi have many positive
characteristics, they also have some potential drawbacks or negative characteristics.
These may include:
Lack of focus on form: Notional/functional syllabi primarily prioritize
language use and communication, which can result in less emphasis on the formal
aspects of language such as grammar and pronunciation. This may lead to learners
having gaps in their understanding of the structural elements of the language.
Limited coverage of topics: Due to the emphasis on specific notions and
functions, notional/functional syllabi may have a narrower scope in terms of the
topics and content covered. This can result in learners having limited exposure to a
range of vocabulary and subject matter.
Difficulty in sequencing and grading: Notional/functional syllabi may lack
clear principles or guidelines for sequencing and grading language material. This can
make it challenging for teachers to determine the appropriate order and level of
difficulty for introducing concepts and functions, potentially leading to confusion or
gaps in learning progression.
Insufficient attention to cultural aspects: While notional/functional syllabi
focus on language use, they may not adequately address cultural aspects and
sociolinguistic variation. This can limit learners' understanding of how language is
influenced by cultural norms and can impact their ability to navigate diverse
communicative contexts.
Insufficient attention to individual learner differences: Notional/functional
syllabi often adopt a one-size-fits-all approach, which may not account for the
individual needs, preferences, and learning styles of different learners. This can result
in some learners feeling disengaged or struggling to adapt to the instructional
approach.
 38

Potential for oversimplification: In an attempt to prioritize communication

and practical language use, notional/functional syllabi may oversimplify or overlook
the complexity of certain language features or contexts. This can result in learners
having a limited understanding or mastery of more intricate linguistic aspects.
It is important to note that these negative characteristics are not inherent to all
notional/functional syllabi, and their impact can vary depending on how they are
implemented and supplemented with additional teaching strategies. Additionally,
these potential drawbacks can be mitigated by careful curriculum design, teacher
guidance, and incorporating a balanced approach that considers both form and
function in language instruction.

The Application
Notional/functional syllabi can be applied in various language teaching
situations. Here are some examples of how, where, and when they can be used:
General Language Instruction: Notional/functional syllabi are applicable in
general language instruction settings where the goal is to develop overall
communicative competence. They can be used to teach language skills such as
speaking, listening, reading, and writing, focusing on functional language use in
everyday situations.
Specific Purpose Courses: Notional/functional approaches are valuable for
designing courses tailored to specific purposes. They can be applied in situations
where learners need language skills for specific domains such as business, travel,
academic studies, or healthcare. By analysing the discourse and specific functions
relevant to those domains, the syllabus can be designed to address the learners' needs
effectively.
Language for Specific Skills: Notional/functional syllabi can be utilized for
teaching language skills required for specific tasks or professions. For example, they
can be employed in teaching presentation skills, negotiation skills, or customer
service language in a professional context.
 39

Communicative Language Teaching: Notional/functional syllabi align well

with communicative language teaching approaches. They emphasize the use of
language for real-life communication and promote meaningful interaction among
learners. Therefore, they can be applied in classrooms where communicative
competence is the primary objective.
Intensive Language Courses: Notional/functional syllabi can be useful in
intensive language courses where learners need to acquire language skills within a
limited time frame. By focusing on essential functions and forms necessary for basic
communication, learners can make rapid progress in a relatively short period.
It is important to note that the application of notional/functional syllabi should
consider the specific context, learners' needs, and teaching objectives. The syllabus
can be adapted and customized to suit different situations, ensuring that learners
develop the necessary language skills to function effectively in their target language.
What is a Situational Syllabus?
Introduction
The situational syllabus has a long history in language teaching, often used as
a supplement to instruction focused on language form and structure. Throughout
various language teaching methods, from grammar-translation to Berlitz to modern
integrated textbooks, examples of language being learned in different situations and
settings have been employed. These situations range from short dialogues to
elaborate themes with complex characters. Many collections of conversation and
communication activities are organized based on different situations.
Types of Situational Syllabi
It is important to recognize that there is not just one situational syllabus, but
rather multiple variations that differ in terms of informational and linguistic content.
Alexander (1976) distinguishes three types of situational syllabi based on
information: "limbo," concrete, and mythical situations. In limbo situations, the
specific setting holds little or no importance. For instance, introductions at a party
focus primarily on the language used rather than the party setting. Concrete
situations, on the other hand, involve enacting situations within specific settings,
 40

where the setting itself becomes significant along with the associated language.
Examples of concrete situations include ordering a meal in a restaurant or going
through customs. Mythical situations depend on fictional storylines, often featuring
fictional characters in a fictional place.
Linguistic Focus in Situations
Situations can emphasize different linguistic aspects. They can be structured to
highlight specific grammatical structures or sets of structures, pronunciation
challenges, or specific vocabulary items. Situations may also emphasize language
functions, such as introductions or apologies, or notions, such as time, colour, or
comparison. Additionally, situations can be constructed to present various types of
discourse or interactional phenomena.
Presentation Formats
Situations can be presented to students as completed discourse or as
opportunities for students to create or modify parts or the entirety of the discourse. In
some cases, situations are presented in full, and students are then encouraged to act
out the same situation using their own language and, possibly, settings. Alternatively,
situations can be presented as role plays, where students are expected to create,
supply, or fill in much of the language used in the situation.
The Versatility of Dialogues
Dialogues are a commonly used format for presenting situations, typically at
the beginning of a lesson. Dialogues can be handled in various ways in the
classroom, including passive listening, active listening, memorization, and serving as
models for student improvisation.
Infinite Variation
Situational content offers infinite possibilities in terms of topics, settings, and
participants. Any language use can be represented through dialogues or situations
specifically created or selected for that purpose. The content of situations can be
entirely created by materials writers or teachers, or it can be derived from real-life
situations.
Role Plays and Scenarios
 41

Role plays provide learners with opportunities to act out or perform roles
within defined situations. Language may be provided for the role play, or learners
may engage in ad-lib dialogue. A more sophisticated version of situational content is
DiPietro's scenarios, which require learners to play out roles in complex problem-
solving settings with unexpected elements. Learners, usually in groups, write or
prepare the language and perform the scenarios. Personalizing situations by
incorporating students' names and personalities is also suggested by Alexander
(1976).
Real vs. Realistic Language
In incorporating language use into instructional content, it is essential to
distinguish between "real" and "realistic" language. Language created for the
classroom that aims to mirror authentic language use is at best "realistic." Authentic
language use occurs outside the classroom with minimal artificial constraints. While
most classroom dialogues are semi-realistic, it is crucial to expose learners to
authentic language for effective language acquisition.
Integration and Practice
Situations are often used to introduce new language material, providing
examples of the phenomena being taught. They are followed by focused exercises or
practice. Dialogues and role plays can also be employed to practice previously
learned material in a more contextualized manner. Situational materials, in their
various forms, can also serve to provide comprehensible input to learners, supporting
their language development.
Situational Content and Learning Theories
Situational syllabi have been associated with different theories of learning,
including audio-lingual (behaviourist), cognitive, and experiential (acquisition-based)
instruction. Situational content is adaptable to various theoretical perspectives on
language learning. A syllabus that heavily relies on realistic situations, rather than
contrived or artificial situations solely designed to exemplify linguistic structures,
aligns closely with a communicative view of language and an experiential theory of
learning.
 42

Conclusion
Situational syllabi play a significant role in language teaching, offering a range
of applications and adaptability across different theories of learning. The use of
realistic situations enhances the communicative approach to language learning and
supports experiential language acquisition. By incorporating situational content
effectively, language instructors can create engaging and authentic language learning
experiences for their students.

Examples of Situational Syllabi

As already indicated, situations rarely make up the entire content of a language
course. They may, however, form the backbone or continuing story line of a course.
One example of this is the story line that unifies the integrated course text, Intercom.
A representative list of the situations used in the continuing story is as follows:
1. What's in the news
2. More news
3. Fun and games
4. TV news: Fire at the Ritz
5. Newspaper headlines
6. At the dentist's office
7. A weight problem
8. On a diet
9. A visit to the doctor
10. The wedding
11. Vacation places
12. Travel plans
13. On the way
14. Away from home
(Yorkey, Barrutia, Chamot, Rainey de Diaz,
Gonzalez, Ney, & Woolf, 1984; Book 3, pp.
iii-iv)
 43

Another representative list of situations is taken from a supplementary

conversation text:
The pet shop
The service station
Advertising
Downtown
Fire!
The working woman
The universe Housework
(Dobson & Sedwick, 1975,p. vii)
Positive Characteristics of Situational Syllabi
Situational syllabi in language teaching have several positive characteristics
that enhance the learning process. These characteristics contribute to the practical
application of language, contextualized learning, learner engagement, integrated
skills development, personalization, and exposure to comprehensible input. By
leveraging these strengths, situational syllabi offer effective language instruction and
meaningful language learning experiences.
Practical Language Application: Situational syllabi provide learners with
opportunities to apply language skills in real-life situations and settings. This
practical application allows learners to immediately use their knowledge and skills in
authentic contexts, promoting effective communication skills.
Contextualized Learning: Situational syllabi facilitate contextualized
learning by presenting language functions, structures, and vocabulary in meaningful
contexts. Learners gain a deeper understanding of language rules and can transfer
their knowledge to real-life situations.
Engagement and Motivation: The use of dialogues, role plays, and scenarios
in situational syllabi creates an engaging and dynamic learning environment.
Learners actively participate in using the language in realistic scenarios, which
enhances motivation and promotes active learning.
 44

Integrated Skills Development: Situational syllabi integrate various language

skills, such as speaking, listening, reading, and writing, within situational contexts.
This approach fosters a well-rounded proficiency in the target language and prepares
learners for real-world language use.
Personalization and Creativity: Situational syllabi allow learners to
personalize and adapt situations to their own experiences. This personalization
fosters a sense of ownership and autonomy, leading to increased engagement and a
deeper connection with the language being learned.
Comprehensible Input: Situational syllabi provide learners with
comprehensible input, which is essential for language acquisition. Exposure to
meaningful language use helps learners comprehend and internalize language
patterns, vocabulary, and cultural nuances, facilitating natural language acquisition
and enhancing overall fluency.
These positive characteristics of situational syllabi contribute to effective
language instruction and promote meaningful language learning experiences. They
empower learners to apply their knowledge in practical contexts, engage actively in
the learning process, develop integrated language skills, personalize their learning,
and acquire language naturally through exposure to comprehensible input.
Negative Characteristics of Situational Syllabi
Limited Contextualization: Situational syllabi often provide language
instruction within specific contexts or situations. While this can be helpful for
learning vocabulary and basic language structures, it may limit learners' ability to
apply language skills in real-life, varied situations.
Lack of Authenticity: Situational syllabi often rely on contrived or artificial
situations to teach language concepts. This artificiality may not fully reflect the
complexities and nuances of real-life language use, leading to a gap between
classroom learning and authentic language usage.
Insufficient Focus on Language Use: Situational syllabi primarily focus on
presenting language form and structure within specific situations. This may result in
 45

limited emphasis on developing learners' actual language use and communicative

competence in diverse contexts.
Overemphasis on Pre-Scripted Dialogues: Situational syllabi often rely
heavily on pre-scripted dialogues as the primary mode of language practice. While
dialogues can be useful for initial exposure, an overreliance on scripted dialogues
may hinder learners' ability to engage in spontaneous and authentic conversations.
Neglect of Individual Learner Needs: Situational syllabi typically follow a
predetermined sequence of situations and language content, which may not cater to
the specific needs and interests of individual learners. This one-size-fits-all approach
may limit personalization and customization in language instruction.
Lack of Integration with Other Language Skills: Situational syllabi may
focus predominantly on oral communication skills, neglecting the integration of other
language skills such as reading, writing, and listening. This limited scope may hinder
learners' overall language proficiency development.
Potential for Stereotyping and Cultural Bias: Situational syllabi often
present cultural and social contexts through fictional or simplified scenarios. This
approach runs the risk of reinforcing stereotypes or biases, as it may not adequately
reflect the diversity and complexity of real-world cultures and interactions.
Inadequate Preparation for Spontaneous Communication: Situational
syllabi may not adequately prepare learners for spontaneous and unpredictable
communication situations. Overreliance on controlled and predictable situations may
limit learners' ability to adapt to real-life language use, where interactions can be
dynamic and unscripted.
Limited Application to Specific Language Functions: Situational syllabi
may focus on teaching language functions or specific communicative purposes
within certain contexts. While this can be beneficial for targeted learning, it may
overlook the broader communicative needs and functions required in real-world
language use.
Potential for Repetition and Monotony: Situational syllabi that heavily rely
on repeated practice of similar situations or dialogues may lead to monotony and lack
 46

of engagement. Learners may become bored or lose motivation due to the repetitive
nature of the instructional content.
It is important to note that these negative characteristics are not inherent to all
situational syllabi and can be mitigated through thoughtful curriculum design,
integration of authentic materials and tasks, learner-centred approaches, and a
balanced focus on language form, function, and communication skills.
The Application
Situational syllabi can be applied in various ways, depending on the language
learning context and goals. Here are some examples of how, where, when, and what
situations situational syllabi can be used:
How:
Role-plays and simulations: Students can actively participate in role-plays
and simulations that replicate real-life scenarios, allowing them to practice language
skills and apply language knowledge in authentic contexts.
Dialogues and conversations: Situational syllabi often include dialogues and
conversations as a means of presenting language in context. Students can engage in
dialogues with their peers or with the teacher to practice specific language functions
and structures.
Where:
Classroom settings: Situational syllabi are commonly used in traditional
classroom settings, where teachers can create controlled environments for learners to
practice language skills. Classroom activities can be designed to simulate real-life
situations such as ordering food in a restaurant or making travel arrangements.
Language labs: Language labs provide a controlled environment where
students can practice language skills using audio or video materials that present
situational contexts. Learners can listen to dialogues, engage in pronunciation
exercises, and practice speaking in simulated situations.
When:
Introduction of new language concepts: Situational syllabi are often used at
the beginning of a lesson or unit to introduce new language concepts. By presenting
 47

language in context, learners can better understand and grasp the meaning and usage
of new vocabulary, grammar, or language functions.
Reinforcement and practice: Situational syllabi can be used throughout a
course or curriculum to reinforce and practice previously taught language content.
Learners can revisit situational contexts and apply their knowledge and skills in
communicative activities.
What situations:
Everyday life situations: Situational syllabi can include common everyday
situations, such as greetings, making introductions, shopping, or asking for
directions. These situations reflect the language needs of learners in practical, real-
life settings.
Work-related situations: Situational syllabi can incorporate language use in
professional or work-related contexts. This can include business meetings, job
interviews, or customer service interactions, depending on the learners' language
learning goals.
Cultural situations: Situational syllabi can address cross-cultural
communication by presenting language use in cultural contexts. Learners can explore
situations that involve cultural customs, traditions, or social norms to enhance their
intercultural communicative competence.
Problem-solving situations: Situational syllabi can incorporate problem-
solving scenarios that require learners to use language to resolve conflicts, negotiate,
or make decisions. These situations promote critical thinking and the application of
language skills in challenging contexts.
It is important to adapt situational syllabi to the specific needs and interests of
learners, considering their proficiency levels, learning objectives, and cultural
backgrounds. Flexibility in designing and selecting situations allows for a more
personalized and engaging language learning experience.

What is a Skill-Based Syllabus?

Introduction
 48

Skill-based syllabi are an important but less explored type of instructional

content in language teaching. Unlike other types, such as situational or task-based
syllabi, skill-based syllabi have not received significant attention in the literature. In
this essay, we will examine the characteristics and applications of skill-based syllabi,
highlighting their definition, examples, and the role they play in language instruction.
Definition and Examples
Traditionally, the term "skill" in language teaching refers to one of the four
language modes: speaking, listening, reading, or writing. However, in the context of
skill-based syllabi, it takes on a broader meaning. A skill is defined as a specific way
of using language that combines structural and functional ability and exists
independently of specific settings or situations. For instance, reading skills like
skimming and scanning, writing skills such as crafting topic sentences and specific
types of discourse, speaking skills like giving instructions or delivering public talks,
and listening skills such as obtaining specific information over the telephone or
taking orders in a restaurant are examples of language skills.
Competency-Based Instruction
Another perspective on skill-based instruction is competency-based
instruction, which focuses on defining what learners can do as a result of instruction.
Competencies outline specific abilities that learners should possess. For instance, in
adult ESL programs, extensive lists of competencies have been developed to cater to
the needs of refugees and immigrants in the United States.
Variations in Competence and Language Use
Not all individuals, including native speakers, have equal competence in all
language skills. Each person may excel in different skill areas. For example,
someone may be a skilled reader but struggle during emergency conversations, while
another person may excel in persuasive communication but have limited reading
efficiency. Additionally, specific language skills are often influenced by experience
and the need for those skills in particular settings. This means that individuals may
possess specific skills tailored to certain contexts, such as restaurant work or
academic tasks like note-taking and formal writing.
 49

Applying Skill-Based Syllabi

Teaching specific occasions of language use is possible to some extent,
depending on the complexity and predictability of the task. Skill-based syllabi have
found application in language for specific purposes (LSP) programs, where learners
have well-defined activities they need to carry out in the target language. These
programs integrate competencies, structures, functions, situations, and skills to meet
learners' specific needs.
Skill-based syllabi are also prevalent in adult education ESL programs,
particularly those serving immigrants and refugees. The aim of such programs is to
equip students with functional competence in society and the workplace within a
limited timeframe. By focusing on specific skills, these syllabi facilitate faster
language acquisition and application in real-life contexts.
Conclusion
Skill-based syllabi offer a valuable approach to language teaching,
highlighting specific ways of using language that combine structural and functional
ability. By emphasizing particular skills, learners can develop targeted competencies
for various language modes. While skill-based instruction is not associated with a
specific theory of learning, it follows the principle of breaking complex behaviours
into smaller components and teaching them individually. Skill-based syllabi
contribute to the overall goal of fostering language proficiency and enabling learners
to effectively use language in diverse settings and situations.

Examples of Skill-Based Syllabi

One example of a skill-based syllabus is used in an advanced-level reading
course for students preparing for higher education:
Guessing vocabulary from context
Scanning of non-prose material
Reading for the main idea
Using affixes as clues to meaning
Inferencing
 50

More scanning of non-prose material

Summarizing readings
More work on affixes
Dictionary work
Restatement of informational content
More inference work
More affix work
More restatement
More inference
Analysis of paragraph structure
More affix work
Critical reading skills
Using context clues
Using expectations
(1983, pp. 477478)
Examples of some competencies in adult education ESL are as follows:
Student will be able to identify common food items from each food group.
Student will be able to read name and price labels.
Student will be able to identify coins by name (e.g., nickel, dime) and amount.
Student will be able to give correct change.
Student will be able to identify family members by name and relationship.
Student will be able to write name, address, telephone number, and age in
appropriate place on form.
(Centre for Applied Linguistics, 1983, p. 17)

Positive Characteristics of Skill-Based Syllabi

Skill-based syllabi in language teaching prioritize the development of specific
language skills, such as reading, writing, speaking, and listening. These syllabi offer
several positive characteristics, including targeted language development, practical
application, customization, progress tracking, integration of language components,
 51

task-oriented learning, efficient time management, transferability of skills, learner

autonomy, and real-world language use. Understanding these positive characteristics
can help educators effectively implement skill-based syllabi to enhance language
learning outcomes.
Targeted Language Development: Skill-based syllabi focus on developing
specific language skills, such as reading, writing, speaking, and listening. This
targeted approach allows learners to concentrate on improving particular areas of
their language proficiency.
Practical Application: Skill-based syllabi prioritize practical application by
teaching learners how to use language effectively in real-life contexts. By mastering
specific skills, learners gain the ability to engage in tasks and activities relevant to
their personal, academic, or professional lives.
Customization and Relevance: Skill-based syllabi can be tailored to meet the
specific needs and goals of learners. Teachers can adapt the content and activities to
align with learners' interests, abilities, and language requirements, ensuring the
relevance and applicability of the instruction.
Progress Tracking: Skill-based syllabi often involve clear learning objectives
and measurable outcomes. This allows both learners and teachers to monitor progress
and evaluate the effectiveness of instruction. Regular assessments and feedback
enable learners to track their development in specific language skills.
Integration of Language Components: Skill-based syllabi integrate various
language components, including grammar, vocabulary, and discourse features, within
the context of specific skills. This integration helps learners understand the
interconnectedness of different language elements and how they contribute to
effective communication.
Task-Oriented Learning: Skill-based syllabi often involve engaging and
interactive tasks that simulate real-life language use. Learners actively participate in
activities that require them to apply the targeted skills, promoting practical learning
experiences and enhancing motivation.
 52

Efficient Time Management: By focusing on specific skills, skill-based

syllabi enable efficient use of instructional time. Learners can make significant
progress in developing targeted skills within a shorter timeframe compared to more
comprehensive approaches that cover a wider range of language areas.
Transferability of Skills: The skills acquired through skill-based syllabi are
transferable across different contexts and domains. Learners can apply the acquired
skills to various situations, tasks, and language functions, enhancing their overall
communicative competence.
Learner Autonomy: Skill-based syllabi often encourage learner autonomy as
learners actively participate in skill-building activities and reflect on their own
progress. Learners have the opportunity to take ownership of their learning, set goals,
and identify strategies to improve their language skills.
Real-World Language Use: Skill-based syllabi emphasize authentic language
use, enabling learners to develop the ability to comprehend and produce language in
real-world settings. By practicing specific skills, learners become better equipped to
navigate and communicate effectively in various practical situations.
Overall, skill-based syllabi offer a focused and practical approach to language
instruction, promoting targeted skill development, learner engagement, and the
application of language in real-life contexts.
Negative Characteristics of Skill-Based Syllabi
While skill-based syllabi in language teaching offer various benefits, it is
important to consider their potential negative characteristics. These drawbacks
include limited focus on holistic language proficiency, potential neglect of certain
language components, challenges in achieving balance and coherence in instruction,
reduced exposure to authentic language use, possible disjointedness between skills,
difficulty in assessing overall language competence, and the need for careful
planning and sequencing. By understanding these negative characteristics, educators
can address them proactively and design effective skill-based syllabi that cater to
learners' diverse language needs.
 53

Limited Focus on Holistic Language Proficiency: Skill-based syllabi may

prioritize specific language skills over overall language development, leading to
potential gaps in learners' proficiency in other aspects like grammar, vocabulary, and
pronunciation.
Neglect of Certain Language Components: Due to the emphasis on
particular skills, other essential language components might receive less attention,
affecting learners' ability to use language comprehensively.
Challenges in Achieving Balance and Coherence: Integrating various skills
coherently within a skill-based syllabus can be challenging, potentially resulting in
disconnected and fragmented learning experiences.
Reduced Exposure to Authentic Language Use: Skill-based instruction may
offer limited exposure to authentic and natural language use, hindering learners from
developing the ability to understand and interact in real-life situations.
Disjointedness Between Skills: Isolated focus on individual skills might lead
to difficulties in applying these skills harmoniously during actual communication,
where multiple language elements are involved.
Difficulty in Assessing Overall Language Competence: Evaluating learners'
overall language proficiency can be complex when the syllabus primarily
concentrates on discrete skills, making it challenging to gauge their overall language
competence accurately.
Need for Careful Planning and Sequencing: Designing a skill-based
syllabus requires careful planning and sequencing to ensure a logical and progressive
development of skills, which demands significant instructional effort.
To address these negative characteristics, educators can complement skill-
based instruction with activities that promote comprehensive language learning, offer
authentic language exposure, and carefully structure the syllabus to foster a well-
rounded language proficiency in learners.
The Application
Skill-Based syllabi can be applied in various contexts and situations,
depending on the specific language skills being targeted. Here are some examples:
 54

Language Centres and Schools: Skill-Based syllabi can be implemented in

language centres and schools to teach specific language skills such as reading,
writing, speaking, or listening. They can be incorporated into language courses or
specialized programs focused on developing particular skills.
Professional Training Programs: Skill-Based syllabi are commonly used in
professional training programs where learners need to acquire specific language
skills relevant to their fields, such as business communication, medical terminology,
or legal writing.
Workplace Settings: Skill-Based syllabi can be applied in workplace settings
to enhance employees' language skills related to their job roles. For example,
customer service representatives may receive training in effective speaking and
handling customer interactions, or employees in multinational companies may
undergo language training to improve their cross-cultural communication skills.
Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) Programs: LSP programs cater to
learners who require language skills for specific domains or purposes, such as
academic English, technical writing, or tourism. Skill-Based syllabi can be employed
to address the specific language needs of these learners.
Task-Based Learning: Skill-Based syllabi can be integrated into task-based
learning approaches, where learners engage in real-world tasks that require the
application of specific language skills. For instance, learners may work on projects
that involve reading and summarizing articles, writing reports, or delivering
presentations.
Language Exchanges and Language Learning Communities: In language
exchange programs or language learning communities, skill-based instruction can be
provided to enhance learners' abilities in specific areas like conversational skills,
pronunciation, or listening comprehension.
Self-Study and Online Learning: Skill-Based syllabi can be adapted for self-
study purposes or incorporated into online learning platforms. Learners can access
resources and materials targeting specific language skills, allowing them to practice
and develop their proficiency at their own pace.
 55

The application of Skill-Based syllabi depends on learners' needs, goals, and

the specific language skills they aim to acquire or improve. It is important to align
the syllabus with the learners' contexts and provide opportunities for meaningful
practice and application of the targeted skills.
What is a Task-Based Syllabus?
Introduction
The task-based syllabus is a lesser-known approach to language learning that
emphasizes the use of real-world tasks and activities as opportunities for language
acquisition. It is based on the work of scholars such as Krahnke, Candlin, Murphy,
and Johnson, and aims to bring the authentic experiences of language use into the
classroom. This essay explores the positive characteristics of task-based syllabi and
their potential application in language learning contexts.
Definition and Characteristics of Task-Based Syllabi
Task-based syllabi utilize activities with non-instructional purposes and
measurable outcomes to facilitate language learning. Unlike regular activities, tasks
require learners to engage in cognitive processes such as evaluation, selection, and
modification of information. They encourage the application of higher-order thinking
skills and involve both new and old information. Moreover, tasks are not static but
involve a process of informational manipulation and development.
Authenticity and Relevance
One key advantage of task-based learning is its focus on real-life needs and
activities, making the learning experiences immediate and relevant for learners. By
connecting language learning to learners' authentic contexts, task-based syllabi
provide motivation and foster a deeper understanding of language use. Learners are
able to see the practical application of language skills in meaningful and purposeful
ways.
Language Acquisition and Comprehensible Input
Task-based instruction aligns with Krashen's acquisition theory, which
suggests that language is best acquired through exposure and participation. In task-
based syllabi, language is not taught explicitly but rather supplied as needed to
 56

complete the task. By providing maximal amounts of comprehensible input, task-

based learning enhances language acquisition in various linguistic domains,
including sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competences.
Integration into Language Learning Programs
Task-based learning can constitute the entire curriculum of a language
teaching program. Its immersive and experiential nature fosters overall language
proficiency by engaging learners in meaningful language use. However, it may not
address explicit metalinguistic knowledge, such as the ability to analyse and
manipulate language structures. In such cases, task-based learning can be combined
with more traditional instructional activities.
Task Selection and Sequencing
Tasks should be selected based on learners' cognitive and linguistic readiness,
their discourse and interactional needs, and the availability of resources. Sequencing
of tasks should consider their complexity and length, gradually increasing cognitive
demands and incorporating new information and processing abilities. This ensures a
progressive and scaffolded approach to language learning.
Conclusion
Task-based syllabi offer a learner-centred and authentic approach to language
learning, integrating real-world tasks and activities into the curriculum. By focusing
on the practical application of language skills, these syllabi enhance motivation,
relevance, and language acquisition. While task-based learning can constitute the
core of language teaching programs, it can also be combined with other instructional
approaches to address explicit metalinguistic knowledge. Task-based syllabi provide
a dynamic and effective means to develop language proficiency and prepare learners
for authentic language use in various contexts.
Examples of Task-Based Syllabi
Published examples cannot be provided of a fully developed task-based
syllabus because syllabi must be developed for each group of learners in accordance
with each setting in which the instruction will emir. Following are some examples of
tasks that might be used at various levels of instruction for different types of learners.
 57

Beginning
 preparing profiles of class members for other classes or administrators or
teachers
 planning and carrying out a class outing or picnic or dinner
 producing a class cookbook containing recipes from home culture
 filling out applications for drivers' licenses, social security cards, and so on
Intermediate
 preparing a handbook to the school to be used by other students
 producing an employment procedure guide - where to go, what to do,
whom to talk to
 writing various types of letters - requests for information, applications,
complaints
 producing newsletters for the other students in the school
Advanced
 writing term papers for other content classes
 doing a price comparison survey of food stores
 producing collections of the learners' community folk-lore and folkways
(like the Foxfire series published by Arrow Books)
Positive Characteristics of Task-Based Syllabi
Task-based syllabi offer a fresh approach to language teaching by
incorporating real-world tasks and learner-centred activities. This essay explores the
positive characteristics of task-based syllabi, including their authenticity, relevance,
communication focus, development of higher-order thinking skills, alignment with
language acquisition theories, integration of skills, collaborative learning
opportunities, and effective assessment and feedback. By understanding these
characteristics, educators can create engaging language learning environments that
promote meaningful communication and skill development.
Authenticity: Task-based syllabi incorporate real-world tasks and activities,
providing learners with opportunities to engage in language use that mirrors
 58

authentic contexts. This authenticity enhances learners' motivation and relevance, as

they can see the immediate practical application of language skills.
Relevance and Meaningfulness: By connecting language learning to learners'
needs and interests, task-based syllabi create meaningful learning experiences. Tasks
are designed to address learners' real-life situations and challenges, making the
learning process more engaging and purposeful.
Communication Focus: Task-based syllabi prioritize communication and
interaction. Learners are encouraged to use language in order to accomplish specific
tasks, promoting the development of their communicative competence. The emphasis
on meaningful communication enhances learners' ability to use language effectively
in real-life situations.
Higher-Order Thinking Skills: Tasks in task-based syllabi require learners to
apply higher-order thinking skills such as evaluation, selection, modification, and
supplementation. This cognitive engagement not only enhances language learning
but also develops learners' critical thinking and problem-solving abilities.
Language Acquisition: Task-based learning aligns with theories of language
acquisition, such as Krashen's acquisition theory. By providing learners with ample
exposure to comprehensible input and opportunities for language use, task-based
syllabi facilitate the natural process of language acquisition.
Learner-Cantered Approach: Task-based syllabi place learners at the centre
of the learning process. Learners have agency in selecting and designing tasks that
are relevant to their needs and interests. This learner-centred approach promotes
autonomy, ownership, and active engagement in the learning journey.
Integration of Skills: Tasks in task-based syllabi often involve the integration
of multiple language skills, such as reading, writing, speaking, and listening. This
integration reflects the holistic nature of language use in real-life situations and helps
learners develop their overall language proficiency.
Transferable Skills: The skills developed through task-based syllabi are
transferable to various contexts. Learners acquire not only language skills but also
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broader skills such as problem-solving, collaboration, and critical thinking, which

can be applied beyond the language classroom.
Collaborative Learning: Task-based syllabi often involve collaborative
learning, where learners work together to accomplish tasks. This collaborative
environment fosters interaction, negotiation of meaning, and the development of
interpersonal skills.
Assessment and Feedback: Task-based syllabi provide opportunities for
ongoing assessment and feedback. The measurable outcomes of tasks allow teachers
to evaluate learners' progress and provide targeted feedback to support their language
development.
In conclusion, task-based syllabi offer a range of positive characteristics,
including authenticity, relevance, communication focus, higher-order thinking skills,
language acquisition, learner-centeredness, skill integration, transferable skills,
collaborative learning, and effective assessment and feedback. These characteristics
contribute to an engaging, meaningful, and effective language learning experience
for learners.
Negative Characteristics of Task-Based Syllabi
While task-based syllabi have several positive aspects, there are also potential
drawbacks to consider. These negative characteristics include challenges related to
curriculum planning, potential time constraints, difficulty in assessing individual
language proficiency, limited focus on explicit metalinguistic knowledge, potential
lack of coverage of certain language structures, and the need for skilled instructors
who can effectively facilitate task-based instruction. It is important to be aware of
these challenges and address them appropriately to ensure the effectiveness of task-
based syllabi in language learning settings.
Challenges in Curriculum Planning: One of the negative characteristics of
task-based syllabi is the inherent challenge in curriculum planning. Task-based
instruction relies heavily on identifying relevant tasks that align with learners' needs
and interests. This process requires careful consideration and may be time-
consuming for curriculum designers. Additionally, determining the appropriate
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sequencing and progression of tasks can be complex, as it involves balancing the

difficulty level, cognitive demands, and linguistic requirements of each task.
Time Constraints and Task-Based Instruction: Implementing task-based
instruction within a limited time frame can be a challenge. Task-based activities
often involve extended periods of time for students to complete tasks, engage in
discussions, and reflect on their experiences. However, in educational settings with
strict time constraints, such as standardized curricula or intensive language programs,
finding sufficient time for in-depth task-based activities may be difficult. This
limitation can hinder the effectiveness and full realization of task-based syllabi.
Assessing Individual Language Proficiency: Assessing individual language
proficiency becomes more challenging in task-based syllabi compared to traditional
instruction. Traditional assessments often focus on discrete language skills and
knowledge, making it easier to evaluate learners' progress. In contrast, task-based
instruction emphasizes holistic language use in meaningful contexts. Assessing
learners' language proficiency in this context requires more comprehensive and
multifaceted assessment approaches, which can be time-consuming and resource-
intensive for educators.
Limited Emphasis on Explicit Metalinguistic Knowledge: Task-based
syllabi may not explicitly address metalinguistic knowledge, which refers to learners'
ability to analyse and manipulate language rules and structures. While task-based
instruction prioritizes language use and communication, it may not provide ample
opportunities for learners to develop explicit knowledge about grammar, vocabulary,
or pronunciation. This lack of explicit metalinguistic instruction may hinder learners'
ability to fully understand and articulate the underlying rules and patterns of the
language.
Incomplete Coverage of Language Structures and Components: Another
potential drawback of task-based syllabi is the possibility of incomplete coverage of
language structures and components. Task-based instruction emphasizes meaning-
focused communication, which may result in limited exposure to specific
grammatical structures or vocabulary items. While learners acquire language through
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authentic tasks, they may miss opportunities for systematic practice and
consolidation of specific linguistic elements. This limitation may impact learners'
overall language accuracy and range.
Importance of Skilled Instructors in Task-Based Instruction: Effective
implementation of task-based instruction requires skilled instructors who can guide
learners through the process and provide appropriate support. However, not all
educators may possess the necessary expertise in task design, facilitation, and
assessment. Inadequate training or lack of familiarity with task-based approaches can
undermine the successful implementation of task-based syllabi, leading to less
effective language learning experiences for students.
It is important to note that while task-based syllabi have their limitations, they
also offer numerous benefits and promote learner engagement, meaningful language
use, and real-world application of language skills. By being aware of the potential
challenges and addressing them proactively, educators can optimize the effectiveness
of task-based instruction and create rich language learning experiences for their
students.
The Application
Task-based syllabi can be applied in various language learning contexts and
situations. Here are some examples:
Language Classrooms: Task-based syllabi can be implemented in traditional
language classrooms, where learners engage in communicative tasks to practice and
develop their language skills.
Immersion Programs: In immersive language programs, where learners are
fully immersed in the target language environment, task-based syllabi can be used to
encourage authentic language use and interaction.
Language Exchanges: Language exchanges, where learners from different
linguistic backgrounds come together to practice each other's languages, can benefit
from task-based syllabi. Learners can engage in task-based activities to enhance their
language learning experience.
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Study Abroad Programs: In study abroad programs, task-based syllabi can

be utilized to encourage learners to engage with the local community and use the
language in real-life situations. Tasks such as interviewing locals, participating in
cultural events, or conducting research projects can provide rich language learning
opportunities.
Professional Training: Task-based syllabi can be applied in professional
training settings, such as language courses for specific occupations or industries.
Learners can engage in tasks that simulate workplace scenarios and develop language
skills relevant to their professional contexts.
Online Learning: With the increasing availability of online language learning
platforms, task-based syllabi can be adapted for online courses. Learners can
participate in virtual tasks, collaborate with peers, and receive feedback from
instructors through digital platforms.
The specific situations and contexts where task-based syllabi can be applied
depend on the learning goals, target language, and learner needs. By incorporating
task-based approaches, language learners can experience meaningful and purposeful
language use in diverse settings, promoting their language acquisition and
communication skills.
What is a Content-Based Syllabus?
Introduction
Content-based language teaching has emerged as a recognized and effective
method for teaching language as an end in itself. By integrating content and language
learning, this approach offers a valuable opportunity for learners to acquire language
skills in meaningful contexts. This essay explores the concept of content-based
teaching, its historical development, its application in educational settings, and its
potential benefits for language learners.
The Concept of Content-Based Teaching
Content-based teaching involves the instruction of content or information in
the target language, with minimal emphasis on explicit language instruction. The
primary focus is on teaching subject matter while language learning occurs naturally
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as a by-product. This approach recognizes the importance of integrating language

and content to enhance comprehension and language acquisition.
Development and Context of Content-Based Teaching
Content-based teaching gained prominence as a response to the need for
effective instruction for Limited English Proficiency (LEP) children in public
schools. The concept of controlled immersion, where students receive content
instruction in a language they may not fully control, demonstrated the potential for
language and content acquisition. This led to the development of bilingual education
programs aimed at promoting cognitive development and bilingualism among non-
English speaking children.
Challenges and Adaptations in Immersion Education
Despite the benefits of immersion education, challenges have emerged.
Submersion, which refers to placing students with limited proficiency in a class of
native speakers without adequate support, hinders content learning and language
acquisition. To address this, teaching techniques can be adjusted to assist students in
comprehending content material in the new language, facilitating both content
learning and language development. Furthermore, the perception that older children
and adults require extensive formal training has been challenged by research
demonstrating their ability to acquire languages naturally.
Application and Benefits of Content-Based Instruction
Content-based instruction is primarily implemented in school settings, where
subject content serves as the basis for language learning. However, it can also be
applied outside of schools, benefiting learners of all ages when accompanied by
proper support and monitoring. Vocational language instruction, for instance, can
benefit from a content-based approach, enabling learners to acquire language skills
relevant to their specific professional contexts.
Theoretical Framework and Language Acquisition
Content-based instruction aligns with an acquisition theory of language
learning, emphasizing the role of meaningful contexts and communication. It
encompasses various aspects of communicative competence, including grammar,
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sociolinguistic and discourse competence, and strategic competence. By providing

language in authentic contexts, content-based learning facilitates language
acquisition and use.
Conclusion
Content-based language teaching offers a promising approach to language
instruction, integrating content and language learning to enhance comprehension and
proficiency. It has proven effective in educational settings, supporting the cognitive
development and bilingualism of non-English speaking children. Additionally, it
holds potential for adult learners and vocational language instruction. By recognizing
the interplay between content and language, content-based teaching paves the way
for meaningful language acquisition and communication.

Examples of Content-Based Syllabi

Any content-based syllabus is by definition identical to the syllabus of a
content course at any level in science, social studies, or any other school subject.
Extensive reading of literature or other content material in a target language can also
be seen as a type of content-based learning. A content syllabus might be
supplemented with traditional, form-focused, language intensive work on, for
example, vocabulary development, spelling, specific and intensive writing activities,
and so on.
Positive Characteristics of Content-Based Syllabi
Content-based syllabi integrate language learning with subject content,
offering numerous benefits for learners. This essay explores the positive
characteristics of content-based syllabi, including meaningful language use,
enhanced comprehension, motivation, skills integration, cultural awareness, and real-
world language application. Understanding these benefits helps educators design
dynamic learning environments that support language development and academic
growth.
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Meaningful Language Use: Content-based syllabi promote the use of

language in authentic and meaningful contexts. By integrating language learning
with subject matter, learners engage with relevant content, allowing them to apply
language skills in practical and purposeful ways.
Enhanced Comprehension: By learning language in the context of subject
content, learners can improve their comprehension skills. The connection between
language and content aids in understanding complex concepts, as learners develop
both content knowledge and language proficiency simultaneously.
Motivation and Engagement: Content-based syllabi often spark higher levels
of motivation and engagement among learners. By focusing on topics and materials
that are personally interesting and relevant, learners are more likely to be invested in
the learning process and actively participate in classroom activities.
Language Development in Context: Content-based instruction provides
language learners with authentic exposure to language use. They encounter language
in natural contexts, allowing them to develop their communicative competence and
fluency through meaningful interactions and tasks.
Integration of Skills: Content-based syllabi promote the integration of
language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) in a holistic manner.
Instead of isolating skills, learners have the opportunity to apply and reinforce their
language abilities across various modes of communication while engaging with
subject matter.
Cultural Awareness: Content-based instruction often exposes learners to
diverse cultural perspectives and content related to different societies and
communities. This fosters cultural awareness and sensitivity, promoting intercultural
competence and preparing learners for global communication.
Transferable Skills: By engaging with subject matter, learners acquire not
only language skills but also critical thinking, problem-solving, and analytical skills.
These transferable skills can be applied across various academic and professional
contexts, enhancing learners' overall educational and career development.
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Real-World Language Use: Content-based syllabi emphasize the use of

language for real-world purposes. Learners are exposed to authentic texts, materials,
and tasks that reflect the language they will encounter outside the classroom, better
preparing them for communication in real-life situations.
Multidisciplinary Learning: Content-based instruction allows for the
integration of different subject areas, promoting interdisciplinary learning. Learners
gain a broader understanding of topics by exploring connections between language
and various academic disciplines, fostering a holistic approach to education.
Language and Content Integration: Content-based syllabi facilitate the
seamless integration of language and content instruction. Rather than treating
language and content as separate entities, learners develop language skills while
actively engaging with subject matter, resulting in more meaningful and effective
language learning experiences.
Overall, content-based syllabi offer a range of positive characteristics that
enhance language learning, promote meaningful engagement, and prepare learners
for real-world language use and academic success.
Negative Features of Content-Based Syllabi
Content-based syllabi, despite their many advantages in language instruction,
also have certain negative features that should be considered. These drawbacks can
impact the effectiveness of content-based approaches and have implications for
learners' language development. Understanding these negative features is crucial for
educators and curriculum designers to create a balanced language learning
experience. In this discussion, we will explore common drawbacks associated with
content-based syllabi, including language proficiency focus, limited language
variety, potential overwhelm, neglect of language skills, lack of explicit language
instruction, and time constraints. By examining these aspects, we can address the
challenges and limitations of content-based instruction in the language classroom.
Language Proficiency Focus: One drawback of content-based syllabi is that
language proficiency might take a backseat to subject matter comprehension. The
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primary objective of content-based instruction is to learn the content, which means

language development may not receive sufficient attention.
Limited Language Variety: Depending on the subject matter, content-based
syllabi may provide limited exposure to different language registers, genres, or
specialized vocabulary. This can restrict learners' language diversity and hinder their
ability to communicate effectively in various contexts.
Potential Overwhelm: Content-based syllabi can sometimes overwhelm
learners, especially those with lower language proficiency levels. The combination of
complex subject matter and language demands might lead to frustration, hindered
comprehension, and reduced engagement.
Neglect of Language Skills: Due to the emphasis on content, some language
skills, such as pronunciation, listening comprehension, or grammatical accuracy, may
not receive sufficient attention in content-based syllabi. This can result in imbalances
in overall language proficiency.
Lack of Explicit Language Instruction: Content-based syllabi often rely on
implicit language instruction, where learners acquire language naturally through
exposure and context. While this approach can be effective, it may not address
specific language needs or provide explicit language instruction for certain linguistic
elements.
Time Constraints: Content-based instruction requires ample time for both
content delivery and language learning. In contexts with limited instructional hours
or curriculum constraints, it may be challenging to fully implement content-based
syllabi without sacrificing other essential learning objectives.
It is important to note that these negative features can be mitigated through
careful planning, effective instructional strategies, and the integration of explicit
language instruction within the content-based syllabi. Awareness of these potential
drawbacks allows educators to make informed decisions and create a balanced
learning experience for students.
The Application
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Content-based syllabi can be applied in various contexts and situations to

enhance language learning and promote meaningful content engagement. The
application of content-based syllabi depends on factors such as the learners'
proficiency level, educational setting, available resources, and curriculum objectives.
Here are some common scenarios where content-based syllabi can be effectively
employed:
Language Classrooms: Content-based syllabi can be integrated into language
classrooms as a primary approach to language instruction. By incorporating authentic
and relevant content from different subject areas, students can develop language
skills while acquiring knowledge in areas such as science, history, or literature.
Academic Programs: Content-based syllabi can be implemented in academic
programs where language learners need to master specific content knowledge in
addition to language proficiency. For example, in an English for Academic Purposes
(EAP) program, students may study academic subjects such as economics or
sociology while improving their language skills.
Vocational Training: Content-based syllabi can be applied in vocational
training programs where learners need language skills for specific professional fields.
For instance, in healthcare or hospitality training, language instruction can be
integrated with relevant content to develop both language proficiency and vocational
competence.
Immersion Programs: Content-based syllabi are commonly used in
immersion programs, where learners are fully immersed in a language-rich
environment. Immersion settings provide learners with opportunities to acquire
language skills through meaningful content interactions and real-life experiences.
Multicultural Environments: Content-based syllabi are beneficial in
multicultural environments where learners come from diverse linguistic and cultural
backgrounds. By focusing on content instruction, these syllabi foster inclusion and
facilitate language learning among learners with different language abilities.
Project-Based Learning: Content-based syllabi align well with project-based
learning approaches. By engaging in collaborative projects that involve researching,
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analysing, and presenting information, learners can develop language skills while
exploring content areas of interest.
Contextual Language Learning: Content-based syllabi can be used in
situations where language learning occurs naturally in real-world contexts. For
example, during study abroad programs or cultural exchanges, learners engage with
authentic content and use the language in practical settings.
The application of content-based syllabi depends on the specific educational
goals, learner needs, and available resources. By integrating language learning with
meaningful content, learners can develop both language proficiency and content
knowledge, fostering a holistic and engaging learning experience.

Choosing and Integrating Syllabi

The term "syllabus" in this context does not refer to a document guiding the
teaching of a specific language course, but rather to a theoretical notion of content
types and organization in language teaching. This chapter focuses on the factors
influencing the choice of content for a second language teaching syllabus, including
the program, teacher, and students. It also discusses design issues related to syllabus
choice and provides a brief outline of a procedure for creating a course syllabus.
Please note that more detailed discussions on this topic can be found in other sources
(Dubin & Olshtain, 1986; Steiner, 1975; Yalden, 1983).
In practice, language teaching rarely relies exclusively on one type of syllabus
or content. Different types of syllabi are typically combined in integrated ways, with
one type serving as the organizing basis while others are arranged and related to it.
For example, a foreign language course may have a structural syllabus at its core,
focusing on various grammatical features in each unit or chapter. Alongside the
grammatical content, situational (dialogues) and functional (introductions) content
may also be included.
Designing a syllabus involves considering several questions. Firstly, what
types of content should be included or excluded? Secondly, should various content
types be combined or should a single type be relied upon? Thirdly, if multiple
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content types are used, should one type serve as the basis for organizing the others,
or should each type be sequenced somewhat independently? When discussing
syllabus choice and design, it is important to remember that the issue is not about
choosing a single type, but rather about selecting and relating multiple types to each
other. Before delving into this topic, three factors that influence syllabus or content
choice in language teaching - the program, teacher, and students - are examined.
Program Factors Affecting Syllabus Choice and Design
Goals and Objectives
The selection of a syllabus type for second language teaching is primarily
influenced by the goals and objectives of the instructional program. The desired
outcomes of the instruction, such as the desired knowledge or behaviour, play a
significant role in determining the appropriate syllabus type. However, this
connection has not always been consistently acknowledged. While communicative
proficiency has been recognized as a desirable outcome of language instruction, the
focus has often remained on the structural aspects of language, assuming that
structural knowledge would automatically lead to functional ability. However,
evidence has shown that direct routes to functional ability can be achieved through
various types of instructional content, including situational, skill-based, and
notional/functional content. Thus, the relationship between instructional goals and
content has not always been straightforward.
A useful principle in second language learning is that learners acquire the
skills they practice during instruction. For example, students who engage in activities
that simulate real-life situations will develop speaking skills in those specific
contexts. Similarly, students who learn academic subjects through the second
language (content-based instruction) will acquire the language skills needed to excel
in those specific academic areas.
Considering this principle, the question of aligning program goals with
instructional content involves selecting content types that closely match the
program's objectives. Most instructional programs require a combination of content
types to address their complex goals. Functional, structural, situational, and skill-
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based instruction are often combined in general foreign language teaching, aiming
for functional ability in various settings and specific communicative skills in
particular situations. However, in specific second language teaching contexts where
skills and tasks can be more narrowly defined, instructional resources are abundant,
or specific structural knowledge is not essential, a combination of task-based, skill-
based, situational, functional, and content instruction may be preferred. The specific
proportions of each content type should be determined based on narrower student
needs and supported by empirical and theoretical justifications. The outcomes of
each instructional content type have been discussed in previous chapters.
Instructional Resources
The availability of instructional resources significantly impacts the choice of
syllabus types. These resources encompass various elements such as time, textbooks,
visuals (films, slides, pictures), realia, and out-of-classroom resources like native
speakers, radio and television programs, films, and field trips.
Textbooks play a major role in determining the syllabus, often becoming the
sole or primary source of classroom instruction in many programs. Existing texts
frequently form the basis for course syllabi, and when adopting new textbooks, their
adequacy as syllabus foundations should be assessed. Educational publishers offer
textbook series for commonly taught languages, typically with a structural focus but
including situational and skill-based content. Recent English language teaching texts
emphasize functional content and organization, though task-based texts are still
scarce, and content-based teaching generally uses materials intended for native
speakers.
The availability of non-text or supplementary resources influences the ease of
incorporating instructional content beyond the textbook in a language course.
Limited access to native speakers or audio materials can hinder skill-based
instruction targeting comprehension of native-like speech. Likewise, situational
lessons may require maps, diagrams, or pictures to be effectively implemented. Tasks
may demand additional resources like schedules, forms, reference books, people, or
information sources.
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Resourceful instructors or instructional planners can adapt activities and devise

creative resources to utilize available materials. Competent instructors, with the right
textbook, can make native-like lecture and reading material accessible for skill
instruction in academic coursework. For content-based second language instruction,
resources typically required for teaching the content in a native-speaker classroom
are combined with instructional aids to enhance comprehension for students with
limited language ability.
In conclusion, the variety and availability of instructional resources
significantly impact the design and implementation of language teaching syllabi.
Resourcefulness and adaptation play a crucial role in maximizing the use of available
materials and optimizing the learning experience for students.
Accountability and Measurement
Another crucial factor that influences the choice of instructional content is the
need for accountability and measurement, often through external tests. The impact of
tests on instructional content is well-documented. Teachers and instructional
programs tend to focus on teaching the specific knowledge that will be tested, even if
it may not align with the students' actual needs. One example of this phenomenon is
the emphasis on teaching language abilities assessed by tests like the Test of English
as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) in academic-preparation ESL programs in the
United States. In the past, since the TOEFL did not directly test writing skills but
included items that required grammatical judgments, grammar instruction received
more attention while writing instruction was de-emphasized. Another example is the
influence of the new ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines on curricula and syllabi in
foreign language teaching programs in the United States. These guidelines include
evaluative criteria for understanding spoken language in various electronic media,
such as telephone conversations. Consequently, instructional programs are
incorporating more skill-based instruction specifically tailored to these types of
language use.
In summary, the need for accountability and measurement through tests
significantly shapes the instructional content in language teaching programs. Tests
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often drive instruction towards specific areas of knowledge, potentially disregarding

students' actual needs. The impact of tests on syllabi and curricula is evident, as
programs strive to align their content with the evaluative criteria and expectations of
the assessments.
Teacher Factors Affecting Syllabus Choice and Design
In addition to program factors, teachers also play a crucial role in determining
the content of language instruction. Teachers tend to teach what they are familiar
with, based on their knowledge and beliefs. For example, a teacher who lacks
knowledge of the formal aspects of a language may focus on the social uses or
situational aspects of language instead of grammar. Conversely, a science teacher
with a non-English-speaking student may prioritize content instruction in science
rather than providing special language lessons.
Research suggests that teachers may not accurately describe their own
practices, hold contradictory beliefs about language teaching, and rely on their own
experiences as students when they become teachers. As a result, teachers can
significantly influence the actual syllabus of a classroom, even if it differs from the
official program syllabus.
A teacher's belief system and orientation also impact syllabus and content
choices. A teacher may possess linguistic knowledge but believe that language is best
learned through experiential methods rather than analysis and synthesis.
Consequently, they may strive to incorporate task-based and content-based
instruction, even if the explicit syllabus emphasizes a structural approach.
The teacher's ability is another crucial factor in determining instructional
content. A teacher who lacks proficiency in the target language may struggle to
support and guide students in task-based instruction. Similarly, a teacher with limited
knowledge of a scientific topic may face challenges in providing content-based
instruction.
While teachers can be trained, such training is costly, time-consuming, and
may have limited effectiveness, as per previous research. Therefore, it is important to
ensure that teachers are willing and capable of implementing the chosen instructional
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approach. Otherwise, they may default to more comfortable content or struggle to

deliver effective instruction.
In summary, teacher factors such as knowledge, beliefs, and abilities
significantly influence syllabus choice and the actual content implemented in the
classroom. Understanding and addressing these factors are crucial for successful
language instruction.
Student Factors Affecting Syllabus Choice and Design
The characteristics of students also influence the choice of instructional
content in a language program. Key considerations include the students' goals, prior
experience, expectations, knowledge, social and personality types, and class size.
Ideally, the students' goals for language study align with the program's objectives,
making it easy to determine the instructional content. However, there are instances
where program goals and student goals differ. For example, a vocational school
designed an instructional program to teach English for broadcasting. While the
administrators assumed the students' language learning goals were tied to their
professional training, many students were actually more interested in achieving
general English proficiency for broader career opportunities. In such cases, a balance
can be struck by providing a combination of specialized skill and structural content
along with general functional, situational, and skill-based content.
The experience, expectations, and knowledge that students bring to the
instruction also impact syllabus choice, although this factor is not extensively
discussed in the literature. Syllabus and methodological recommendations often
assume that students will readily accept any instructional content, but adults, in
particular, may have preconceived notions of what language instruction should be,
even if these ideas conflict with their language learning goals. A common
discrepancy between students' expectations and the instruction they receive is the
focus on form (structural content) versus function (functional, situational, skill-based,
etc., content). Students who expect one type but receive another may resist the
instruction. In such cases, the instructor has three choices: to continue and potentially
lose students, to compromise or give in to the students' preferences, or to persist with
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the original instructional plan while gradually convincing the students of its
appropriateness. Unfortunately, the first two routes are often chosen without
sufficient effort to win over the students. However, with belief in their approach and
persistence, teachers have been able to overcome initial resistance from strong-
minded students.
It is important to recognize that not all students can easily accept an unfamiliar
or uncomfortable teaching approach. In some cases, syllabus decisions may need to
be made based on students' strong allegiance or resistance to a particular type of
instruction. Two possible solutions should be considered. Firstly, students can be
gradually guided towards accepting a type of instruction they initially reject.
Secondly, if students resist the type of instructional content that aligns with their
needs (e.g., functional content) in favour of a more comfortable option (e.g.,
structural content), a covert syllabus can be implemented. A covert syllabus delivers
the appropriate instruction without explicitly highlighting it in course descriptions or
materials. The overt syllabus may emphasize structural aspects, but the course would
prioritize functional content, specific functions of various structures, and actual
skill-, task-, or content-based instruction, which might be presented to the students as
"practice."
It is crucial to consider students' readiness for different types of instruction
when deciding on a syllabus for a particular teaching setting. However, teachers and
course designers should remember that they have control over the instruction and are
best positioned to determine instructional needs, among other decisions.
Other Considerations in Syllabus Choice
Several other factors influence syllabus choice in language teaching, though
only a few are discussed here.
Needs Analysis
Recent literature on syllabus design emphasizes the importance of conducting
a needs analysis before creating a syllabus. The goal is to determine the linguistic
and communicative materials that students require and develop a teaching syllabus
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accordingly. However, performing needs analyses can be challenging for various

reasons.
Firstly, economic constraints often limit the ability of teaching programs to
conduct comprehensive needs analyses. They may lack the necessary time, financial
resources, and expertise, which typically involve trained linguists and other
professionals. Secondly, needs analyses are often impractical in terms of time
investment. Even analysing familiar activities, such as academic work in a second
language, may require months of observation, interviews, collecting samples, and
text analysis. Converting the analysis into a syllabus is equally time-consuming.
Lastly, a needs analysis may reveal broad student needs that make it difficult to make
a useful content selection. This is particularly evident in the future foreign language
needs of high school and university students in the United States, for example.
Due to these challenges and others, needs analyses are rarely conducted in
practice. More often, syllabus design occurs concurrently with the teaching process,
without a formal needs analysis. Furthermore, few follow-up studies assess whether
the taught content aligns with students' actual needs.
Given the impracticality of needs analyses in syllabus design, it is advisable to
approach syllabus choice and design with caution and scepticism. Recognizing the
potential shortcomings or inadequacies in decisions about instructional content,
instructional designers can opt for a broader range of content to increase the
likelihood of meeting students' future second language needs.
Reductionism in Syllabus Design
To address challenges in syllabus design, such as learnability and
accountability, a reductionist approach has been adopted in instructional content. The
goal is to determine the minimum content necessary to meet a perceived need.
However, reductionist approaches have their drawbacks. In audio-lingual language
teaching, for instance, the focus was on minimizing vocabulary learning to prioritize
the target language's structure. This narrow view of language (emphasizing structure
over semantics) initially resulted in significant gains in learning specific structures.
However, it contributed little to overall language acquisition.
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In ESL writing instruction, a reductionist approach has been taken by

emphasizing the teaching of organizational patterns prevalent in academic writing.
This often involves providing a prescribed method for producing such writing
(product approach). However, this reductionist view restricts and limits the
understanding of writing, leaving students unprepared for the creative and varied
writing tasks encountered in real academic contexts.
Reductionism in syllabus design is tempting due to the perceived success of
teaching and learning limited language content. By eliminating challenging aspects,
the complex process seems simplified. Nevertheless, reductionist approaches do
more harm than good when considering what students ultimately need to succeed in a
second language. Instead, a more practical alternative is to design instructional
content that encompasses a broader range of abilities and knowledge, providing
learners with a comprehensive foundation.
Flexibility in Syllabus Design
The literature provides limited discussion on how to determine the level of
strictness in defining a language teaching syllabus. Like other aspects of syllabus
design, there is no straightforward answer. A narrowly defined syllabus offers little
room for modification by teachers or students, as they strictly adhere to the
predetermined content. These tightly defined syllabi are often referred to as "teacher-
proof." On the other hand, a loosely defined syllabus allows for more flexibility,
modification, and innovation by both teachers and students. The degree of definition
is influenced by the teacher's ability and resourcefulness, interacting with the type of
syllabus employed.
In instructional settings where teachers have limited time, language
competence, instructional skills, or creativity to deviate from an assigned syllabus
and prescribed materials, a narrowly defined syllabus is preferable. It may also be
desirable when teachers lack training or hold contrasting views regarding the
prescribed teaching approach. Conversely, well-trained, competent, resourceful
teachers who align with the prescribed teaching approach may require a less
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narrowly defined syllabus. They might feel professionally constrained by a syllabus

that imposes strict boundaries.
The type of syllabus also impacts the level of definition. While any type of
syllabus can potentially be narrowly defined, structural, functional, and situational
syllabi are more amenable to precise definition compared to skill-, task-, and content-
based syllabi. The latter types often allow for a general definition, but many specific
language aspects may emerge unpredictably and require spontaneous attention. For
example, while teaching business letter-writing skills, a teacher may discover that
students struggle with spelling or punctuation. Instruction in these specific skills may
be necessary before achieving the overall objectives. In general, structural,
functional, and situational syllabi can be carefully defined to minimize unforeseen
learning needs.
Cyclical vs Linear Syllabi
In recent years, there has been much discussion about adopting a cyclical or
spiralled approach to syllabus design, as opposed to a linear one (Dubin & Clshtain,
1986; Yalden, 1983). In a linear syllabus, the material is covered once, assumed to be
mastered by students, and never revisited directly. This approach is based on the
concept of mastery learning, where small, discrete steps are taught and learned,
contributing to the desired overall behaviour. While many language teaching syllabi
follow a linear format, its effectiveness has been questioned. Corder (1973) argues
that "Language learning is not just cumulative, it is an integrative process" (p. 297),
advocating for a cyclical pattern where language material is encountered repeatedly,
with increasing complexity each time. This cyclical design aligns with current
knowledge about linguistic competence development, drawing from research in first
language acquisition (Dulay, Burt, & Krashen, 1982; Ellis, 1986), where language
regularities gradually emerge and refine over time. Thus, a cyclical syllabus, at least
in its general features, mirrors this natural process.
The literature generally favours cyclical syllabus designs, although practical
challenges remain. Designing a syllabus that is both narrowly defined and cyclical
can be daunting. Even ordering items is a theoretical issue for a linear syllabus, and
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creating a cyclical syllabus with well-sequenced and increasingly complex forms

requires intuition, guesswork, and skilful organization. Nevertheless, loosely
spiralled syllabi are the preferred design in modern language teaching.
Linearity and syllabus type also interact naturally. The narrower the
specification of language materials, the more challenging the sequencing becomes.
However, if language materials are integrated with other types of instruction (e.g.,
situations, content, tasks), they naturally cycle and can be addressed as the need
arises within the larger instructional objectives. For instance, in a linear structural
syllabus, a specific verb tense form must be placed at a certain point, with most
relevant knowledge and usage presented only a few times. In a cyclical syllabus, the
same information reappears at multiple points. In a loosely defined situational
syllabus or other types, the verb tense form naturally recurs (potentially with
intentional intervention from materials or the teacher) and appears in various
collocations and contexts.

Combining and Integrating Syllabus Types

Combining and integrating syllabus types can be approached in various ways,
depending on factors such as the context of instruction, learner needs, and desired
outcomes. Here are some suggestions on how, when, and under what conditions
syllabus types can be combined and integrated:
Assess learner needs: Before combining or integrating syllabus types, it's
important to assess the specific needs of the learners. Consider their language
proficiency, goals, and the communicative tasks they will encounter. This will help
determine which types of syllabi are most suitable for integration or combination.
Contextual relevance: Integration works well when there is a natural
connection between different types of content. Look for opportunities to integrate
content where it naturally occurs in real-life situations or authentic language use. For
example, combining structural lessons with communicative tasks that require the use
of those structures in meaningful contexts.
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Building on prior knowledge: Integration can be effective when it builds

upon and reinforces previously learned content. Connect new material to what
learners already know, creating a scaffold for deeper understanding and application.
This helps learners see the relevance and interconnections between different syllabus
types.
Sequential integration: Integrate syllabus types in a sequence that allows for
gradual complexity and development. Start with foundational elements, such as
structures or vocabulary, and then introduce functional or situational aspects. This
sequential integration allows learners to build upon their existing knowledge and
gradually expand their language skills.
Flexibility and adaptation: Syllabus design should allow for flexibility and
adaptation to cater to individual learner needs. Some learners may benefit from a
more discreet combination of syllabus types, where specific skills or language forms
are addressed separately. Others may thrive in an integrated approach that
emphasizes the interplay between different types of content.
Teacher expertise and resources: Consider the level of expertise and
available resources of the teaching staff. Integration requires more planning,
coordination, and instructional design skills. If teachers are well-trained and have the
necessary resources, they can effectively integrate syllabus types. However, in cases
where resources or teacher expertise may be limited, a combination approach with
clear delineations between syllabus types can be more feasible.
Curriculum goals and outcomes: Align the choice of combining or
integrating syllabus types with the desired curriculum goals and learning outcomes.
Some outcomes may be better achieved through integration, where learners develop a
holistic understanding of language use. In contrast, specific outcomes may require
discrete combinations to target particular language skills or knowledge areas.
Remember, there is no one-size-fits-all approach to combining and integrating
syllabus types. The key is to carefully consider the context, learner needs, and
desired outcomes to determine the most effective approach for a particular
instructional setting.
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A Practical Guide to Syllabus Choice and Design

A practical guide to syllabus choice and design involves considering various
factors and making informed decisions based on the specific context and goals of
instruction. Here are some steps to help you navigate the process:
Identify learner needs: Understand the needs, goals, and proficiency levels of
the learners. Consider their linguistic backgrounds, motivations, and the specific
language skills they need to develop.
Determine learning objectives: Clearly define the desired learning outcomes.
What do you want learners to be able to do with the language? Set measurable and
achievable goals that align with the overall purpose of instruction.
Analyse the context: Consider the instructional context, such as the available
resources, time constraints, class size, and the overall learning environment. This
analysis will help determine the feasibility and practicality of different syllabus
options.
Explore syllabus types: Familiarize yourself with different types of syllabi,
such as structural, functional, situational, task-based, or content-based. Understand
the strengths, weaknesses, and theoretical underpinnings of each type.
Consider integration and combination: Determine whether integration or
combination of syllabus types would be most suitable for your context. Evaluate how
different types of content can be effectively combined or integrated to create a
coherent and comprehensive learning experience.
Align with teaching approaches and methods: Consider the teaching
approaches and methods that align with the chosen syllabus. Determine if the
instructional strategies, materials, and assessments required for the syllabus are
compatible with the chosen teaching approach.
Plan the sequencing and progression: Determine the sequence and
progression of content to ensure a logical and effective learning experience. Consider
the order in which language skills or components will be introduced, the scaffolding
of knowledge, and the gradual increase in complexity.
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Ensure flexibility and adaptation: Design the syllabus with flexibility to

accommodate individual learner differences, ongoing assessment, and adaptation
based on learner progress. Allow for adjustments and modifications based on learner
needs and feedback.
Seek input and collaboration: Involve colleagues, stakeholders, and learners
in the syllabus design process. Seek input from experienced teachers or curriculum
specialists to ensure a comprehensive and well-informed decision-making process.
Review and revise: Regularly review the syllabus and gather feedback from
teachers and learners. Assess the effectiveness of the syllabus in achieving the
desired learning outcomes and make necessary revisions based on evidence and
feedback.
Remember, a practical guide to syllabus choice and design is not a one-time
process but an ongoing and iterative one. Continuously reflect on the effectiveness of
the chosen syllabus and be willing to make adjustments as needed to meet the
evolving needs of learners and the instructional context.