英语学科教学论提纲

英语教学论
考试范围：
英文教材十章：1、2、3、4、12、14、16、17、18、19
中文教材八章：第 1、2、4、7、8、10、11、12

题型：
I. Multiple-choice questions (10 items, 1.5 point for each. Total: 15)
II. True-or-false judgment (10 items, 1.5 points for each. Total: 15)
III. Term explanation (3 items, 10 points for each. Total: 30)（提前提供 10 个 terms 供复习，考三个。）
IV. 论述题（三选一） (20 points)（中文题）
V. 案例分析题（20 分）（案例来自中文书）（中文题）

第三大题考 3 个术语解释（用英文），抽自下列 10 个：
Terms to review:
1. Design (pp. 24-31)
2. drills an pattern practice in Audiolingual Method (pp. 60-2)
3. Lexical chunks (p. 132)
4. A "strong" vs. a "weak" version of CLT (p. 155)
5. communicative competence (p.159-60, 194)
6. Holistic practice (p. 173)
7. jigsaw tasks (p. 234)
8. information-gap tasks (p. 234)
9. decision-making tasks (p. 234)
10. Focus on form (p. 239-240)

• (more than 500y ago) The teaching of Latin (…)

• (18th C)The early teaching of modern languages (GTM)
• (end of 19th C) The Reform Movement (DM)
• (1920s-1980s) The methods era (ALM, SLT, CLT, TBLT…)
• (1990s-) The post-methods era
 英语学科教学论提纲

1 A brief history of language teaching

钟摆现象：中文书 P8: 当代的外语教学方法都可以在历史上找到相似的方法
 The teaching of Latin:
1. When:
a) 500 years ago, Latin was the dominant language of education, commerce,
religion, and government
b) 16th century, Latin was replaced by French, Italian, and English
2. Features:
a) “mental gymnastic”:
Studying Latin (esp. Latin grammar) —> developing intellectual abilities
认为学习语法可以培养逻辑思维能力，“磨练智力的体操”
b) rote learning of grammar rules, translation and practice in writing sample
sentences.
3. From Latin to modern languages:
i. When：18th century, English, French and Italian began to enter European schools
ii. They were taught using the same way that was used for teaching Latin:
Textbooks consisted of
a) abstract grammar rules
b) lists of vocabulary
c) sentences for translation to show the grammar rules
iii. By the 19th century, the approach based on the study of Latin had become the
standard way known as the Grammar-Translation Method (GTM).

 The Grammar-Translation Method

概述：…对其进行语法分析，用语法术语详尽地描绘目的语的形态特征和句法结构，以及进行书面语的翻译。这种比较原始
的语言学习和分析方法构成了语法翻译法最基本的要素。（中 P13）
其主要的教学方法是先学文法规则，然后凭借这些知识翻译课文。严格说来，语法翻译法并没有明确的理论基础，其主要观
点和教学原则是在传统中形成并延续下来的。（中 P13）
1. When：
a) GTM dominated European and foreign language teaching from the 1840s to the
1940s.
b) In the mid- and late 19th century, GTM was questioned and rejected in European
countries.
2. Principal characteristics:语法翻译法的特点
1) the goal: to read its literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline ( 智力训
练；心能训练) and intellectual development that result from foreign language study. 该方
法认为，学习语言的目的是阅读，特别是阅读古典文献；
2) Reading and writing are the major focus. Little or no attention pay to speaking or
listening.（重视读写，怠慢听说）
3) Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading texts, and words are taught
through bilingual word list, dictionary study, and memorization.
4) Basic unit of teaching and practice: the sentence. (The distinctive feature)
显著特征：认为语言学习的基本单位是句子
 英语学科教学论提纲

5) Accuracy! High standard in translation.强调准确性、规范性，以语法为纲，

6) Grammar is taught deductively 演绎法
first presentation of rules, then practice through translation exercises（先给出规则，再做
翻译练习）
7) L1 is the medium of instruction (reference system).用母语教授二语

语法翻译法的教学思想可以简要概括为：以语法和词汇为主要内容，以翻译和语法讲解为主要手段，以母语为主要载体，以文字为依托工具，
以系统培养学生的外语理解和翻译能力为主要目标。
阅读-分析-翻译-讲解-背诵
注重形式
以教师为中心
 The Reform Movement:
1. When: the end of the 19th century
2. Background: IPA
a) Revitalization of linguistics from the 1880s
b) Phonetics was established. 语音学的出现
c) Linguists emphasized that speech, rather than the written words, was the
primary form of language.
d) In 1886, the International Phonetic Association was founded, the International
Phonetic Alphabet was designed. 国际语音协会的建立
e) One of the earliest goals: to improve the teaching of modern languages
3. Content:
a) IPA advocates:
1. spoken language
2. phonetic training—to establish good pronunciation habits
3. using conversation texts and dialogues 以问答的形式训练口语交际能力
4. teaching grammar inductively (examples —> rules)也注重语法，用归纳法教
5. teaching meaning through establishing association within the target language
rather than with the mother tongue (→no translation)
b) Henry Sweet’s four principles
1. select carefully what is to be taught
2. impose limits on what is to be taught
3. arrange what is to be taught in terms of the four skills
4. grade materials from simple to complex
c) The reformers generally believed that:
1. The spoken language is primary, and methodology should be oral-based.
2. phonetics should be applied to teaching and to teacher training.
3. listening first
4.Words should be presented in sentences; sentences should be practiced in
meaningful context.
5. Grammar should be taught inductively.
6. no translation
4. Significance:
a) the foundations for a principled approach to language teaching
 英语学科教学论提纲

b) the beginning of the discipline of applied linguistics

c) This led to the DM

 The Direct Method (natural methods)

（作为语法翻译法的对立面出现）
用外语本身进行会话，交谈和阅读，而不是通过学生的母语、翻译或语法规则
仿照幼儿学习母语的自然的过程和方法，来设计外语教学

1.When： 1860s – 1920s

2. Background:
An interest for natural methods (based on naturalistic principles of language learning
(L1 acquisition)直接法又叫自然法！！
3.The nature of language: naturalistic principles
4.Principles and procedures:英 P12
1) target language only 用目的语进行课堂教学
2) everyday vocabulary and sentences 只教授常用的词汇和橘子
3) oral communication skills in graded （ 分 级 的 ， 循 序 渐 进 的 ） progression organized
around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in
small, intensive classes 教师通过精心安排的问题，以问答的形式训练口语交际能力
4) grammar taught inductively 用归纳法进行语法教学
5) new teaching points introduced orally 口头介绍新的教学内容
6) concrete vocabulary (visible) through demonstration ... and abstract vocabulary
(association of ideas) through association of idea…通过展示物体和图片教授具体词汇，通过意义联
系教授抽象词汇（教具、图片等辅助教学工具，结合周围环境，利用环境中的实物）
7) speech and listening 教授语音和听力
8) accuracy in pronunciation and grammar 强调准确的发音和语法

Never translate-demonstrate
Never explain-act
Never make a speech-ask questions
Never Imitate mistakes-correct
Never speak with single words-use sentence

4. Objective: direct and spontaneous use of the foreign language

5. Advantages:
The Direct Method was quite successful in private schools because of the high
motivation of paying clients and the use of native-speaking teachers.
6. Disadvantages of DM
a) It overemphasized and distorted the similarities between naturalistic first
language learning and classroom foreign language learning and failed to consider
the practical realities of the classroom.
 英语学科教学论提纲

b) It lacked a rigorous (very thorough and strict ) basis in applied linguistic theory.(

lack of theoretical basis?)

c) It required teachers who were native speakers or had native-like fluency in the
foreign language. （largely depend on the teacher’s skill）
d) Critics also pointed out that sometimes a simple brief explanation in the
student’s native tongue would have been a more efficient way to
comprehension. （有时为了用目的语解释，要绕一大圈，用母语解释反而会效率高， total avoidance of
students’ L1 也不一定好）

Significance of DM
❖ Decline by the 1920s
❖ the first language teaching method to have caught the attention of both
teachers and applied linguists, moving language teaching into the “methods era”.
❖ In the 1920s and 1930s applied linguists systematized the principles proposed by
the Reform Movement and so laid the foundations for …
❖ the Oral Approach/Situational Language Teaching in U.K.
❖ Audiolingualism in U.S. （同一时代的两种相似方法）

直接法的理论基础;
1. 经验主义哲学：让学生通过经验归纳语法规则
2. 直观性教学原则：直接感知事物，获得感性认识（通过教具，努力接近真实情景）

直接法的基本教学目标：说
语言学习的基本单位是语篇

2 The nature of approaches and methods in

language teaching
3. Anthony’s model (1963) (p. 19)
Approach Method
a philosophy of language a set of derived procedures for
teaching (principles and theories) teaching

• Approach
• a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language
teaching and learning (语言观、语言学习观、语言教学观)
• axiomatic 公理的
• Method
• an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, which is
based upon the selected approach (基于某 Approach 的系统的教学法)
 英语学科教学论提纲

• procedural 程序性的
• Technique
• particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an
immediate objective (为完成教学目标而采用的教学技巧/手段)
• consistent with a method and therefore in harmony with an approach
• implementational 执行的
 Characteristics of Anthony’s Model:
a) The arrangement is hierarchical.
b) The organizational key:
techniques carry out a method which is consistent with an approach
c) a useful way of distinguishing between different degrees of abstraction and
specificity found in different language teaching proposals
 Disadvantages of Anthony’s model
It fails to give sufficient attention to the nature of a method it self.
Nothing is said about the roles of teachers and learners assumed in a method.
It fails to account for how an approach may be realized in a method or how method and
technique are related.

2.Richards & Rogers’ model (2001)

 Method
approach
design
procedure
 A method is theoretically related to an approach, is organizationally determined by
a design, and is practically realized in procedure.

 Figure 2.1 (p. 33) ***

 英语学科教学论提纲

 Approach
1) assumptions and beliefs about
• language
• language learning
• language teaching
2) the source of practices and principles in language teaching

3. Views of Language
Structuralism/ Functionalism/ Interactionalism

A. The structural view 结构主义语言学中 P48

把语言看成一个结构完整的系统；
语言本质上是一种由词汇、语法、语音中相互联系的成分构成的系统；
注重对语言的描写，又被称为描写主义语言学；把口语作为研究重点；
任何一种语言现象都可以从某一特定的结构（语音系统、词汇系统、句法系统）进行描写和解释；
 英语学科教学论提纲

吸收了行为主义心理学的的“刺激-反应”理论，也认为学习一门新语言就是形成一种新的言语行为习惯；
• Language is a system of structurally related elements.
e.g. phonology - morphology - syntax
• The target of language learning is seen to be the mastery of elements of this
system.
Lesson 1 T: He knows my address.
This is …/That is …. S: He doesn’t know my
book, pencil, ruler, desk address.
Lesson 2 T: She calls her parents every
These are …/Those are …. week.
chair, picture, door, window S: She doesn’t call her parents
Lesson 3 every week.
Is this …? Yes, it is. T: They go to work by bus.
Is that …? No, it isn’t. S: They don’t go to work by
watch, box, pen, blackboard bus.

以上表格强调了句子的结构。
B. The functional view 功能观
• Language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning.语言是意义和功能的载体
• semantics
• functions
• The teaching content focuses on meaning and function rather than the
elements of structure and grammar.
• Wilkins’s Notional Syllabuses (1976)： Two types of Meaning
Notions: time, sequence, quantity, location, frequency etc.
Functions: requests, denials, offers, complaints, apologies etc.

C. The interactional view （since 1980s)更语境化、社会行为

• Language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for
the performance of social transactions between individuals.
1）conversation analysis, ethnomethodology, etc.
2）patterns of move, acts, negotiation and interaction
• Teaching should focus on patterns of exchange and interaction.
notion of interactivity in teaching (p.21)
• Related methods：
Task-Based Language Teaching; Content-Based Instruction; Cooperative
Language Learning; etc.

• Communicative/interactive activities：
1. learners working out the correct order of events in a story;
2. discovering missing features in a map;
3. comparing different travel plans and selecting the best one;
 英语学科教学论提纲

4. Views of Language Teaching

A. Behaviorism
B. Cognitivism
C. Constructivism
D. Humanism

B. Behaviorism
• A language is a set of habits.
• Learning a new language is a process of forming a new set of habits.
• The learning process: Modeling–Imitation–Reinforcement-Acquisition
• Input (stimuli) from the environment
• Reinforcement
 英语学科教学论提纲

Say what I say.

Practice makes perfect.

C. Cognitivism
• Supporters: J. Piaget, J. Brunner, N. Chomsky
• Learning Process: Learning is a cognitive process of integrating new
information into what is already known, and thus forming a cognitive structure.
• N. Chomsky’s View:
 Language is a human innate biological capacity.
 LAD=language acquisition device
Children are equipped with "universal grammar" (UG) containing common
features of all human
• Teaching implications:
a) involvement of the learner in the learning process;
b) learner control;
c) facilitating optimal processing of structuring, organizing and sequencing
information (use of cognitive strategies such as outlining, summaries,
synthesizers, etc.);
d) meta cognitive training (e.g., self-planning, monitoring and revising
techniques);
e) encouraging the learner to make connections with previously learned
material.
It’s all in your mind.
You cannot force them to learn.

D. Constructivism 建构主义
• Supporters: J. Piaget, L. Vygotsky (Social Constructivism)
• The Learning process:
Learning is not a process that only takes place inside our minds, nor is it a
passive development of behaviors shaped by external forces.
Learners produce knowledge and form meaning based upon their experiences.
Meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social
activities.
 英语学科教学论提纲

Significance of the socio-cultural context of learning

Learning is active and social.

A little help from others is crucial.

5. Views of Language Teaching 教学观

A. form-based & teacher-centered 形式主义-以教师为中心
B. function-based & learner-centered 功能主义-以学生为中心
C. literacy-based & learning-centered 基于读写-以学生为中心

6. Design
a. Objectives 教学目的，一般分为：学习语法，掌握工具，人文教育
•Different theories of language and language learning influence the focus of a
method. E.g. oral skills; general communication skills; basic grammar and
vocabulary; etc.
•HOWEVER, specification of particular learning objectives is determined at the
level of DESIGN:
Product-oriented (linguistically oriented) objectives vs Process-oriented
objectives

b. A syllabus Model:教学大纲，指教学内容的选择和组织
• A priori syllabus vs. no explicit syllabus：
1.priori syllabus 外显性大纲（事先用文字表达出来）: Audiolingual; Situational
2.no explicit syllabus 隐 含 性 大 纲 （ 看 似 无 大 纲 ， 实 则 教 师 胸 有 成 竹 ） : Content-based
Instruction
• Seven basic syllabus types
1) Structural
2) Situational
3) Topical
4) Functional & Notional
5) Skilled-based
6) Task-based
7) multiple syllabus.

c. Types of learning and teaching activities:教学活动形式，是具体的（可特有，可共享）

• The choice of different types of activities
• Distinguishing features of a method
Audiolingualism: dialogue and pattern drills
CLT: information gap, information transfer
• Different use of the same activity
interactive games in Audiolingual vs. in CLT

d. Learner roles:学生角色：表现为学生在课堂上的主动性和参与程度
• The learner as ____________________.
 英语学科教学论提纲

a) listener, receiver, etc.

b) processor, performer, initiator, problem solver, language detective, etc.
• How to observe:
i. the types of activities
ii. learner autonomy: e.g., control of content, pace of learning, etc.
iii. the patterns of grouping
iv. the degree of peer influence

e. Teacher Roles 教师角色，最能反映一种教学法的特点

• The teacher as ___________ ?
a) model, etc.
b) guide, facilitator, manager, resource provider, etc.
• How to observe:
i. teacher control over content and method
ii. interactional patterns between T and S
iii. T-S relationships:
asymmetrical (非对称的) or symmetrical（对称的）

f. The role of instructional materials:教材的作用

7. Procedure:
• The actual moment-to-moment techniques, practices, and behaviors
• The use of teaching activities, procedures and techniques in
1) presenting new language, and clarifying and demonstrating the target
language;
2) practicing language;
3) giving feedback to learners.

Unit 3. Oral approach and situational language teaching.

口语法和情景法

1930s to the 1960s.

口语法是直接法的演进，情景法是口语法的发展（ the Oral Approach=Structural-Situational Approach=Situational
Language Teaching ）
▪a systematic study of the principles and procedures that could be applied to the selection and
organization of the content of a language course.
▪Vocabulary and grammar
▪The Oral Approach should not to be confused with the Direct Method.
 英语学科教学论提纲

▪Although the Direct Method used oral procedures, it lacked a systematic basis in applied
linguistic theory and practice.（直接法欠缺语言学方面的理论基础）

Approach 关键词：speech, structure, context, situation 紧密相关

Theory of language: British structuralism. 英国结构主义语言观
▪ Basics of language: speech
▪ Speech is the basis of language, and structure is at the heart of speaking ability.
▪ “Word order, Structural Words, the few inflexions of English and Content Words, will form
the material of our teaching.”

▪ a different focus of structuralism: the notion of situation

▪ “Our principal classroom activity in the teaching of English structure will be the oral practice of
structures. This oral practice of controlled sentence patterns should be given in situations
designed to give the greatest amount of practice in English speech to the pupil.”
▪ Emphasize the close relationship between the structure of language and the context and
situations in which language is used.[one of the distinctive features of SLT]

-The structure is in close relation with context and situation.

distinctive feature: knowledge of structures must be linked to situations
(Emphasized on the closes relation between structure and context&situation.)

Theory of learning: behaviorism(habit-learning theory)

“The fundamental is correct speech habits. … The pupils should be able to put the words, without
hesitation and almost without thought, into sentence patterns which are correct. Such speech
habits can be cultivated by blind imitative drill.”
强调：1. process than condition:
-3 process:
receive the knowledge → fix it in the memory(repeat without hesitation and
thought) → use it in actual practice.
2. Induced approach: 归纳法
- induce from the way the form is used in a situation. （归纳）
- explanation is discouraged, the learner is expected to deduce from a particular
situation. （推理）
-The meaning of words or structures is not to be given through explanation in
either the native tongue or the target language, but is to be induced from the way
the form is used in a situation.

对英语单词的掌握并不是从母语或目标语言的解释中获得，而是通过情景（situational）归纳中得出。

Design:
Objectives:
 英语学科教学论提纲

1. 4 basic skills.
2. Developed 4 basic skills on structural drills.
3. Structural drills based on oral practice
4. Accuracy is valued
5. Aim at automatic control: sentence & structure patterns.
Syllabus:
1. Structural syllabus: a list of basic structures
2. Word list: sentences patterns >>>determined>>>>> vocabulary chosen. Vocabulary is
chosen according to how well it enables sentence patterns to be taught.
3. Situation: the manner of presentation and practice sentence patterns.
▪The syllabus was not a situational syllabus in the sense that this term is sometimes
used (i.e., a list of situations and the language associated with them).
▪Situation refers to the manner of presenting and practicing sentence patterns.

An example of the typical structural syllabus

Teaching and learning activities:

General: SLT employs a situational approach to presenting new sentences patterns and
a drill-based manner of practicing them.
（T 拿着一本书，说：look, this is a book.学生跟读: look,this is a book.这是一个为了教学而创设的情境，不是真
正在沟通和交流）
✤ presenting new words and sentence patterns in situations
✤ Practice in situations [mainly oral drilling]
✤ Situations created by means of concrete objects, pictures, and realia together with
actions and gestures
✤ guided repetition and substitution activities, etc.
✤ Other oral-practice techniques, e.g., pair practice and group work.
 英语学科教学论提纲

Learners role:
Initial: simply repeat, no control, listen, respond
Later: more active participation, but still no control of teaching content.
✤ imitators
✤ listen, repeat and responds to questions and commands
✤ no control over the content of learning

Teachers role: The teacher is essential to the success of the method.

Stage 1: presentation stage Stage2: elicitation stage. Stage 3: practice stage

Model >> Conductor. >> Error corrector.
Let students repeat elicit correct sentences from st. On the look out for errors

✤ model (the presentation stage)

[setting up situations in which the need for the target structure is created and then
modeling the new structure for students to repeat]
✤ conductor/manipulator (the elicitation stage)
[using questions, commands, and other cues to elicit correct sentence from the
learners]
✤ Error correction (the practice phase)
[Students are given more opportunities to use the language in less controlled
situations, but the teacher is ever on the lookout for errors.

Instructional material:
Textbook: contains organized lessons
Visual aids: consist of wall charts, flash card, pictures, stick figures...

Procedure: vary according to the level of the class: P 44-45

Controlled >>>>> freer practice of structures. ( automatic use in speech, reading, writing.)
Typical class plan:
Pronunciation, revision, presentation, oral practice (drilling), reading of material on the
new structure or written exercise.
 英语学科教学论提纲

✤ vary according to the level of the class, but …

✤ from controlled to freer practice of structures and
✤ from oral use of sentence patterns to their automatic use in speech, reading, and
writing

Conclusion:
SLT are seen in the P-P-P lesson model.
Presentation: introduction of a new teaching item in context
Practice: controlled practice of the item.
Production: a freer practise stage.

Unit 4 audiolingual method.

an intensive, oral-based approach
背景：
• developed by American applied linguists
• 1940s - 1960s
• “the Army Method”
• The “Informant method”（L. Bloomfield）
ALM 和 SLT 是在不同地区同一时期的两种很相似的 approach.
The ALM and SLT
• similarities in terms of theoretical foundations
• ALM: American structuralism + behavioral psychology + contrastive analysis
(systematic comparisons of languages)
• Typical course books
• English 900 (1964)

Approach:
Systematic attention to pronunciation and intensive oral drilling of basic sentence patterns.
Method:
Language theory: structuralism (1950)
Speech is the primary, writing is the second.
Speech had a priority in language teaching.
Structural refers to:
1. Elements in a language were thought of as being literally produced in
a rule-governed(structured) way.
2. Language samples could be described at any structural level of
description (phonetic, phonemic, morphological etc.)
3. Linguistic levels were thought of as systems within systems,
pyramidally structured: phonemic >> morphemic >> clause sentences...
learning a language is learning to build blocks of language and learn the rules
by which these sentences could combined.
learning theory: behaviorism (skinner)
1.language is a set of habits
 英语学科教学论提纲

2.learning a new language is a process f forming new habits

3.reinforcement is very important.
Stimulus. >>>. Organism >>>> response. Reinforcement(habit formed)
No reinforcement (habit not occurred)
Teaching principles
1. FEL is basically process of mechanical habit formation.
2. If the items are taught in target language, it would be more effective
3. Analogy >>>better than >>> analyses
process of discrimination(对比) grammar is inductive.
4.meaning of words can only be learnt in context.

. Learning and teaching activities

• Dialogues
• to contextualize key structures and illustrate situations
• used for repetition and memorization.
• various kinds of drill and pattern-practice
• a distinctive feature of ALM

Design:
Teaching objectives
Short-range: listening, speaking, writing, reading.
Long-range: use language as the natives does.
Focus: oral proficiency- quick response in oral = pronunciation = grammar.
Syllabus:
Linguistic(Structural) syllabus:
contains key items of phonology, morphology and syntax of the language arranged
according to their order of presentation.
Lexical syllabus: of basic vocabulary items.
Language skills: listening, speaking, writing, reading
Principles: 听说领先，读写跟上
Classroom activities:
Distinctive feature: the use of drills and pattern practice.
1. Repetition: the student repeats an utterance aloud as soon has he heard it. He does
this without looking at a printed text.the utterance must be brief enough to be retained by
the ear. Sound is as important as form and order.
Exp: this is the seventh mouth -this is the seventh mouth.
(After a student has repeated an utterance, he may repeat it again and add a
few words, and then repeat that whole utterance and add more new words.
-i know him. -i barely know him. -I barely know he is such a boy.

2. Inflection: one word in an utterance appears in another form when repeated.

Exp: i bought the ticket. - i bought the tickets.
 英语学科教学论提纲

3. Replacement: one word in an utterance is replaced by another.

Exp: he bought this house cheap. - he bought it cheap.

4. Restatement: 复述 the student rephrased an utterance and addresses it in someone

else, according to instructions:
Exp: tell him to wait for you.-wait for me.
Ask her how old she is. -how old are you?

5.completion: the student hears an utterance that is complete except for one word,
then repeats the utterance in completed form.
Exp: ill go my way and you go... - ill go my way and you go yours.
We all have .... own troubles. - we all have our own troubles.
6. Transposition: 移项 a change in word order is necessary when a word is add.
Exp: I'm hungry. (so) -so am i.
I’ll never do it again. (Neither) -neither will i..

7. Expansion: when a word is added it takes a certain place in the sequence.

Exp: i know him (hardly). -i hardly know him.
I know him. (Well) -i know him well.

8. Contraction: 缩短 a single word stands for a phrase or clause.

Exp:put your hand on the table. -put your hand there.

9. Transformation: a sentence is transformed by being made negative or interrogative

or thought changes in tense, mood, voice, aspect or modality.
Exp: he knows my address;
He doesn't know my address.
Does he know my address?
He used to know my address.
If he had known my address.

10. Integration: two separate utterances are integrated into one.

– Exp: I know that man. He is looking for you. → I know the man who is looking for
you.

11. Rejoinder: 回答 the student makes an appropriate rejoinder to a given utterance. He

is told in advance to respond in one of the following ways:
– BE POLITE: Thank you. —You are welcome.
– AGREE: This is good coffee. —It’s very good.

12. Restoration. 复位
The student is given a sequence of words that have been. Culled from a sentence
but still bear its basic meaning. He use the word with a minimum of changes and
 英语学科教学论提纲

additions to restore the sentence to its original form, he maybe told whether the time
is present, past or future.
Exp: student/waiting/bus - the students are waiting for the bus.
Boys build house tree - the boys built a house in a tree.

Learners roles: imitator, reactive ,little control over the class.

Teacher's role: model, commander, dominator.
• teacher-dominated
• models the target language
• controls the direction and pace of learning
• monitors and corrects the learners’ performance

Textbook and teaching materials:

Textbook: 早期多为听说教学，比较少用；学生会避免与纸质材料接触，因为这类接触会 distract 他们的产出
tape recorders and audiovisual equipment [center!!!!!!!!]
Language labs.

Procedure.
• New material presented in the form of a dialogue.
• Focus on precise native-like pronunciation, intonation, and fluency
• direct and immediate correction of mistakes
• Little grammatical explanation or talking about the language
• The target language as the medium of instruction, translation or the mother
tongue discouraged
• Intensive oral drilling

Strengths of ALM
• It fits into the idea of language as speech, not writing.
• It helps students gain good pronunciation.
• Pattern practice helps students to achieve fluency and accuracy in language production.
• By using language labs, students get more exposure to native speaker language use.

Weaknesses of ALM
• It lacks flexibility.
• Students are unable to transfer skills acquired to real communication.
• Mechanical drilling is boring and unsatisfying.
• Critique on the Behaviorist view of learning
• Much of human language use is not imitated behavior but is created. Sentences
are not learned by imitation and repetition but “generated” from the learner’s
underlying “competence”.

The decline of ALM（Criticism on two fronts）

• the theoretical foundations
• Transformational generative grammar
 英语学科教学论提纲

“Language is not a habit structure.”

innate competence of human beings (LAD, UG)
• Cognitivism
A view of learning that allowed for a conscious focus on
grammar and that acknowledged the role of abstract mental
processes in learning.
• the practical results

中文：听说法
时间：产生于 20 世纪 40 年代的美国，二战爆发之后，美国建立了军队特别项目。
也被称为陆军法（army method）。
战后，该方法被应用到学校的外语教学中，并于五六十年代风靡美国和西方各国，发展成语言教学历史具有里程碑意义的方法，既听说法
（audiolingualism/ audiolingual method）
-语言学基础：建立在美国结构主义语言学的基础上。结构主义语言学的理论和方法成为听说法的五句口号：
1. 语言是“说”，而非“写”。
2. 语言是一套习惯
3. 教授语言，而非关于语言的知识
4. 语言就是操本族语者所说的话，而非别人认为他们应该说的话，也不是说本族语者永远正确。
5. 不同语言之间存在差异。
-心理学基础：行为主义心理学，刺激，反应，强化。
把听说放在首位，主张听说是一切言语活动的基础，读写是派生的。
原则小结：
1.语言学习是一个模仿，重复和习惯养成的过程
2.听说训练时发展其他语言技能必须的基础，“听说领先，读写跟上“是获得语言技能的有效途径
3.学习语言时，类推胜过分析，类推八廓归纳和对比，在充分操练之后再对规则进行解释
4.教师对学生正确或错误的语言运用都要及时给予反馈，以便于正强化或负强化
5.运用教学录音和录像等电化设备来辅助教学。
特点：英语 900 句

Chapter 12 The lexical approach &第十一章词汇法

语言不能划分为语法和词汇两个孤立的部分，介于语法和词汇之间的词汇组块才是语言使用的重点，也是语言教学的重点。“语言是由语法化的词汇，
而不是由词汇化的语法构成的”；
强调词汇及短语在语言习得中的作用；
语法应服务于词汇，而不是词汇服务于语法（没有语法，能表达的意思不多；没有词汇，什么也表达不了）

【名词解释】：
 Lexical chunks (p. 132)[考试要求]: Lexical chunks are multiword lexical units that are learned
and used as single items. A lexical approach believes that the building blocks of language
learning and communication are words and word combinations.
 Lexis(词语): words and word combinations(包括单个词、短语)
 Vocabulary(词汇):指传统意义上的、具有固定意思的单词集合
 Lexicon: 词语库
 Collocation: the regular occurrence together of words
 英语学科教学论提纲

 Prefabricated chunks: stored and retrieved as a whole 预制语件(e.g. If I were you, I would stay
at home. →[If I were you, I’d ]+[stay at home] )

【知识点】
1. Lexical approach(es)
 proposals for syllabus design and language teaching founded on a view of language in
which lexis plays the central role.
 强调语块，使用语料库分析，强调学生自主发现并解决问题；但只涉及到 communicative competence 的一个方面。
 词汇法任务，语言的中心是由各种类型的词块组成的词库，词块的不同（有机的）组合形成句子，进而连成连贯的篇章。
（vocabulary→砖块；lexis→预制件；lexis 组合→房子）
2. Background
 a more central role of lexical units in linguistic description and L1 & L2 acquisition
research
 advances in computer-based studies of language(corpus linguistics)语料库
3. Approach
3.1 Theory of language:
 语言是由语法化的词汇组成的，而不是由词汇化的语法构成的。
 The lexical view: Chunks as the basic unit of language use.
 Chunks form a high proportion of the fluent stretches of speech
（语言的流利性是以活用语言中使用频率较高的预制语块来实现的，而不是熟能生巧）
 Only a minority of spoken sentences are entirely novel creations.
（只有极少数的语言是及时创造的）
 The role of collocation is also important in lexically based theories of language.

3.2 Theory of learning:

 Lexical units are thought to play a central role in learning and in communication.
(studies based on large-scale computer databases of language corpora have examined
patterns of phrase and clause sequences 语料库的作用)
 Lexis is also believed to play a central role in language learning.
 Lewis: the lexical approach has lacked a coherent learning theory. his assumptions:

- Encountering new learning items on several occasions is a necessary but sufficient

condition for learning to occur.
- Noticing lexical chunks or collocation is a necessary but not sufficient condition for
“input” to become “intake”.
- Noticing similarities, differences, restrictions and examples contributes to turning input
to intake, although formal description of rules probably does not help.
- Acquisition is based not on the application of formal rules but on an accumulation of
examples from which learners make provisional generalizations ( 临 时 概 括 ). Language
production is the product of previously met examples, not formal rules.
- No linear syllabus can adequately reflect the nonlinear nature of acquisition.

 Chunking theory: The magical number of 7, plus or minus 2 (7±2)

组块理论:认知心理学家米勒提出，短时记忆储存系统一般接收 7±2 个记忆单位.
 英语学科教学论提纲

 Data-driven learning: (DDL)

- Learning by using digital material related to the respective area of interest.
- Learning from real tasks encouraging exploration & discovery by doing.
- It can be practiced in classroom or distance learning environment, individually or within a group, with
or without support of the traditional face-to-face interaction.
- The students work on suitable corpora of language materials. They research them and draw their own
conclusions.
数 据 驱 动 学 习 ： 让 学 生 自 己 用 语 词 索 引 软 件 去 查 询 语 料 库 ， 观 察 分 析 预 料 ， 主 动 解 决 问 题 。 （ Features of DDL:
autonomous and learner-centred; based on authentic input; exploratory; bottom-up 自主
学习；真实语境；探索发现；归纳学习）
4. Design
4.1 Syllabus
 a syllabus and accompanying materials based on lexical rather than grammatical
principles.
 Word frequency would determine the contents of our course
4.2 Objectives
 The objective of teaching is successful communication, not only master of grammar.
 Key to this success is the awareness and competence of using “chunks”.
 Observe - Hypothesize - Experiment 观察-假设-验证(代替了 3P：Present-Practice-Produce 呈现-操
练-产出)
4.3 Role of teachers
 Teacher talk as a source of input
 Teacher needs to understand and manage a classroom methodology based on
stages composed of Tasks, Planning, and Report.
 Teacher as one of creating an environment in which learners can operate effectively
and then helping learners manage their own learning
4.4 Role of learners
 discoverer
 make use of computers to analyze text data previously collected or made available
“free form” on the Internet
 as a data analyst constructing his or her own linguistic generalizations based on
examination of large corpora of language samples taken from “real life”
4.5 Materials
Type 1: complete course package including texts, tapes, teacher’s manuals, etc.
Type 2: collections of vocabulary teaching activities
Type 3: “printout” versions of computer corpora collections packaged in next format
Type 4: computer concordancing programs and attached data sets to allow students to
set up and carry out their own analyses
5. Procedure
Observe - Hypothesize - Experiment √
Present - Practice - Produce ×
Typical classroom procedures involve:
 activities that draw students’ attention to lexical collocations and seek to enhance
their retention and use of collocations.
 英语学科教学论提纲

 activities that enable learners to discover collocations themselves, both in the

classroom and in the language they encounter outside of the classroom

Chapter 14Communicative Language Teaching&第七章交际法

【名词解释】：
 A "strong" vs. a "weak" version of CLT (p. 155)：
The weak version stresses the importance of providing learners with opportunities to use
their English for communicative purposes. It could be described as “learning to use” English.
The strong version, on the other hand, claims that language is acquired through
communication. It entails “using English to learn it.”
weak(学如何用英语) & strong(用英语去学)
 communicative competence (p.159-60, 194): defined by Hymes, communicative
competence is what a speaker needs know in order to be communicatively competent in a
speech community. A person who acquires communicative competence acquires both
knowledge and ability for language use with respect to “possible, feasible, appropriate,
actually done.”
 Holistic practice (p. 173) ： refers to the simultaneous use of a variety of subskills, rather
than practicing individual skills on piece at a time.
 Information gap：信息差， 交际双方所拥有的信息不相同、不对称。信息差是有效交际的前提。

【知识点】
1. Communicative Language Teaching(CLT) 概况
 An approach, not a method. General aims to make communicative competence the
goal and develop procedures for the teaching of four language skills.There is no single
model: function+grammar; using language in problem-solving tasks in groups
 Two versions: weak(学如何用英语) & strong(用英语去学)
 Essential dimensions: anti-structural view(learning by doing; direct practice of
communicative act); focus on discourse and context; learner-centred and experience-
based view.
 5 principles:
- Learners learn a language through using it to communicate
- Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroom
activities
- Fluency is an important dimension of communication
- Communication involves the integration of different language skills
- Learning is a process of creative constructions and involves trial and error.
 5 core characteristics:
Appropriateness; message focus; psycholinguistic processing; risk taking; free practice
海姆斯：语言能力不该只限于语法知识，还包含语言使用的得体性等因素，即在实际语言交际情境中对潜在语言知识的能力和运用。
交际法最显著的特点是：
以语言的功能项目为纲，以学生的交际需求为出发点，以教学过程的交际化为主要特征，以培养学生的言语交际能力为主要目的。（强
调以学生为中心）
 英语学科教学论提纲

交际法不是按照名词、动词、形容词等语法范畴来安排教学内容，而是按照询问、请求、邀请、同意等 语言功能为主线来组织教学内容；
体现“话题-功能-结构”三者的有机统一，培养学生在真实情境中的语言交际能力。
交际法的理论核心为功能主义语言学、社会语言学、话语分析理论以及人本主义心理学。
交际法的出现具有里程碑意义：语言功能得到认可；CLT 已发展为完整的语言教学体系。后续语言教学法流派在一定程度上是对其继承和发展。
2. Background
Changes: UK(SLT) ; US(ALM)
Theoretical critique of structuralism
Changing educational realities in Europe
3. Approach
3.1 Theory of language
 Language → communication
 Communicative competence: knowledge + ability for language use
- whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible 合法性（形式是否可能）
- whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means of
implementation available 适合性（实际是否可行）
- whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate in relation to a context in
which it is used and evaluated 得体性（实际使用和评估的上下文关系是否合适）
- whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed and
what its doing entails. 实际操作性（实际上是否已经完成）

 7 functions that language performs ( Halliday)

Instrumental; regulatory; interactional; personal; heuristic; imaginative;
representational
 4 components of communicative competence ( Canale & Swain)
Grammatical; sociolinguistic; discourse; strategic
交际能力由四个方面构成：语法能力（语音词汇语法）社会语言能力，即在一定社会情境下得体使用语言的能力；语篇能力，即组句成
篇的能力；策略能力，也叫补偿能力，即运用语言或非语言手段达到交际目的的能力。
 A communicative view of language:
- Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
- The primary function of language is to allow interaction and communication.
- The structure of language reflects its function and use.
- The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but
categories of functional and communicative meaning in discourse

Summary of the theoretical basis for CLT: a communicative view of language

• Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
• The primary function of language is to allow interaction and communication.
• The structure of language reflects its function and use.
• The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural
features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning in discourse.

3.2 Theory of learning

 3 principles: communicative; task; meaningfulness
 Language learning comes about through using language communicatively, rather
 英语学科教学论提纲

than through practicing language skills.

4. Design
4.1 Objectives
specific aspects of communicative competence according to the learner’s proficiency
level and communicative needs.
4.2 Syllabus
One of the first syllabus model: notional syllabus.
Personal syllabus 理想的 syllabus
4.3 Types of learning and teaching activities
 Information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction.
 Major activity types: functional communication activities and social interaction
activities.
Functional: e.g. comparing sets of pictures and noting similarities and differences
Social: conversation; discussion; dialogues and role plays; simulation skits;
improvisations; dibates
4.4 Learner roles
Negotiator
4.5 Teacher roles
Facilitator & participant
Needs analyst; counselor; group process manager
4.6 The role of instructional materials
Text-based materials: Some written around a largely structural syllabus, others look very
different from previous language teaching texts.
Task-based materials: A variety of games, role plays simulations and task-based
communication activities; jigsaw
5. Procedure
a lessen out line P170-1

ALM vs. CLT (pp. 156-7)未看！！

• an anti-structural view
• learning by doing/experience approach
• direct rather than delayed practice of communicative act
• the focus on discourse and context
• Malinowski, Firth
• Halliday, Hymes, etc.
• the learner-centred and experience-based view

Design a lesson under the framework of CLT

• functions
• describing a person
• describing past events
• linguistic features
• adjectives of appearance and character
• past tense
 英语学科教学论提纲

• language skills
• writing, speaking
• challenges
• How to maximize opportunities of language use in meaningful communication?
• How to monitor language use?

Chapter 14 Cooperative Language Learning

1. Cooperative Language Learning (CLL) 概况
 part of a more general instructional approach: Collaborative Learning (CL)
 Goals of CLL:
- naturalistic L2 acquisition through interactive pair and group activities
- focused attention to teaching content through the use of interactive tasks
- successful learning and communicative strategies
- learning motivation, learning stress, positive classroom climate
合作型语言教学，强调小组合作； 将学生之间的互动最大化； 但不足之处为：不同学习水平层次的学生所获不同、对老师的要求较高
2. Approach
2.1 Theory of language
 the interactive/cooperative nature of language and language learning
 CLL is used to support both structural and functional models as well as interactional
models of language.
2.2 Theory of learning
3core dimensions:
- the central role of social interaction in learning: developmental psychology: Jean
Piaget, Lev Vygotsky
- critical thinking skills: the Question Matrix (问题矩阵 )
- cooperation rather than competition in learning
3. Design
3.1 Objectives
- to foster cooperation rather than competition,
- to develop critical thinking skills, and
- to develop communicative competence through socially structured interaction
activities
3.2 Syllabus
no particular form of language syllabus: different curriculum contents can be taught via
CLL. CLL activities can be used in collaboration with other methods and approaches.
3.3 Types of learning and teaching activities
 Informal cooperative learning groups
 Formal cooperative learning groups
 Cooperative base groups
5 key elements of successful group-based learning in CL:
 Positive interdependence
 英语学科教学论提纲

 Group formation
 Individual accountability
 Social skills (explicit instruction)
 Structuring and structures
3 major kinds of CLL tasks:
 Team practice from common input: same materials; skills development and mastery
of facts;
 Jigsaw: differentiated but predetermined input; evaluation and synthesis of facts
and opinions. 拼图式阅读
 Cooperative projects: topics/resources selected by students; discovery learning
Some examples of CLL activities:
Three-step interview; Roundtable; Think-Pair-Share; Solve-Pair-Share; Numbered Heads
3.4 Learner roles: member of a group & director of learning
3.5 Teacher roles:
 to create learning environment, setting goals, planning and structuring tasks,
establishing the physical arrangement of the classroom, assigning students to
groups and roles, and selecting materials and time
 facilitator of learning
 restructuring materials
 speaking less
3.6 The role of instructional materials
to create opportunities for students to work cooperatively
4. Procedure
-The teacher assigns students to pairs with at least one good reader in each pair.
-Student A describes what he or she is planning to write to Student B, who listens carefully,
probes with a set of questions, and outlines Student A’s ideas. Student B gives the written outline
to Student A.
-Reverse the procedure (Student A and Student B swap roles).
-The students individually research the material they need for their compositions, keeping an eye
out for material useful to their partner.
-The students work together to write the first paragraph of each composition to ensure that they
both have a clear start on their compositions.
-The students write their compositions individually.
-When the students have completed their compositions, they proofread each other’s
compositions, making corrections in capitalization, punctuation, spelling, language usage, and
other aspects of writing the teacher specifies. Students also give each other suggestions for
revision.
-The students revise their compositions.
-The students the reread each other’s compositions and sign their name to indicate that each
composition is error-free.

17 Content-Based Instruction(CBI)
 英语学科教学论提纲

一、 方法概述
What is content-based instruction (CBI)?
a) the teaching of content or information in the target language; no direct effort to teach
the language itself separately from the content being taught
b) teaching is organized around the content or information rather than around a
linguistic or other type of syllabus
c) teaching content through language rather than teaching language for its own sake
·是一种在交际语言教学基础上发展起来的教学法
·把语言教学构建于某个学科或某个主题的内容之上，把语言学习和学科知识学习建立起来，在提高学生学科知识和认知能力的同时，也促进
其语言水平的提高；
·使目的语和有意义的内容有机结合起来，使目的语成为学习学科知识的媒介，改变了在大多数教育环境中将语言学习和学科知识学习人为分
割的状态，有利于学生通过目的语进行思考，有利于他们把听说读写四项技能结合在一起；
·不是以语法规则、词汇列表等构建的框架来施教，而是以内容主题来贯穿整个课程

What is “content”?
• substance
• subject matter
• information
• from outside the domain of language
The role of language in CBI
• used to present content
• by-product of learning about real-world content
• give priority to meaning in language teaching
• in accordance with principles of Communicative Language Teaching emerging in
the 1980s

Initiatives of teaching content through language

Language across the Curriculum reading and writing in all subject areas；
跨课程英语学习 “Every teacher, an English teacher.”；
materials integrating subject matter and language teaching
goals；
collaboration between subject-matter teachers and language
teachers
Immersion Education foreign language not as subject of instruction but as vehicle for
沉浸/浸润课程 instruction of all content subjects；
以第二语言作为教学语言 aiming at a high level of foreign language proficiency, positive
在校园时间内都被浸泡在第二语言环境中 attitude toward the language, knowledge and skills in content
第二语言是学习内容和工具 areas, etc.
传统孤立的外语教学外语与学科知识教学相结合的方向改变 first developed in Canada in the 1970s
Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) serving learners with language needs for specific professional
特殊目的语言教学 roles
content and real-world skills through a 2nd language
Subfields: EST, ESP, EOP, EAP
 英语学科教学论提纲

四种常见原型模式
沉浸模式→主题模式→附加模式→保护模式
关注语言能力→关注学科内容
P138 中文书
主题模式 以某个主题为核心设计组织教学活动
保护模式 针对英语有困难的外国留学生（与母语学生分开，教师根据他们的水平用
（强式 CBI 模式， 难度适当的英语进行专业知识的教学）
即总体目标是学科知识而不是语言）
附加模式 将特别设计的语言课程和正常的学科教学结合起来

Approach:
Underlying principles
People learn a 2nd language more successfully when they use the language as a means of
acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself.
CBI better reflects learners’ needs for learning a 2nd language.
Theory of language
▪Language is text- and discourse-based.
how meaning is constructed and communicated through linguistic units longer than the sentence
coherent and cohesive text/discourse within speech events and text types
▪Language use draws on integrated skills.
read-write; listen-write; read-speak; etc.
▪Language is purposeful.
academic, vocational, social, recreational, etc.
Theory of learning
• The core principle
• successful learning occurs when students are presented with target language
material in a meaningful, contextual form with the primary focus on acquiring
information
Derived assumptions
• information (interesting, useful, and leading to a desired goal)
• content areas as basis for language learning (some more useful than others)
• learners’ needs
• students’ prior knowledge and experience
Design
Objectives
• content course objectives
• theme-based model: linguistic objectives
• e.g. ILC at Free U. Berlin (p. 211)
1. to activate and develop existing language skills
2. to acquire learning skills and strategies that could be applied in
 英语学科教学论提纲

future language development opportunities

3. to develop general academic skills applicable to university
studies in all subject areas
4. to broaden students’ understanding of English-speaking
peoples
Syllabus
• content area syllabus
• Theme-based model: topical syllabus determined by language learning goals
• e.g. ILC at Free U. Berlin (p. 212)
– Drugs
– Religious Persuasion
– Advertising Drugs
– Britain and the Race Question
– Native Americans
– Modern Architecture
– Microchip Technology
– etc.
• Other models: Immersion; Theme-based model; Sheltered model; Adjunct
model (see 武&武：138-139)
Types of learning & teaching activities
• Stoller’s (1997) framework (instructional focus)
• language skills improvement
• vocabulary building
• discourse organization
• communicative interaction
• study skills
• synthesis of content materials and grammar
• Mohan’s (1986) framework (knowledge structures)
• description
• sequence
• choice
• concepts/classification
• principles
• evaluation
Learner roles
• autonomous
• collaborative
• active (learning by doing)
• source of content
• joint participant in topic/activity selection

Teacher roles
in addition to typical roles of language teachers
• provide + elicit subject-matter knowledge
 英语学科教学论提纲

• create context for content presentation

• ensure comprehensibility of content
• adapt/develop subject-matter materials
• analyze learner needs
• create learner-centered classrooms
• essential skills for CBI teachers (p. 214)
Role of materials
• authenticity
• language, realia, instructional media
• comprehensibility
• simplification & modification of materials
• guides & strategies for students
• variety
Procedure
Preparation
◦ Choose a subject of interest to students.
◦ Find three or four suitable sources that deal with different aspects of the subject. These
could be websites, reference books, audio or video of lectures or even real people.
During the lesson
◦ Divide the class into small groups and assign each group a small research task and a
source of information to use to help them fulfil the task.
◦ Then once they have done their research they form new groups with students that
used other information sources and share and compare their information.
◦ There should then be some product as the end result of this sharing of information
which could take the form of a group report or presentation of some kind.
Conclusion
• Essential characteristics/principles of CBI
• think and learn through target language rather than about it
• focus on language use (learner needs) rather than usage
• target language as vehicle rather than end of instruction
• Applications
• ESP, Immersion programs, etc.
• widely used in different settings and levels
• advantages and challenges

四、Example: Dali and Surrealist

This activity is a 'Picasso dictation' where the teacher describes a picture and the students draw
it. This is based on Salvador Dali’s 1937 surrealist painting “Swans Reflecting Elephants”. It can be
adapted for the language and artistic skills of your students.
Aims:
Content: introduction to Dalí and surrealism
Language: artistic skills
 英语学科教学论提纲

Skills: listening and speaking/writing

Lexis: vocabulary to describe paintings – the objects in the painting, colours and shades (can be
adapted according to language level of students)
Preparation
All you need for this lesson is one copy of the description of the picture for you, a copy of the
picture to show the students (following copyright regulations)
案例解析：P137 中文书

18 Task-Based Language Teaching

一、 方法概述
What is TBLT?
·an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in
language teaching
·a logical development of CLT (Willis, 1996)
出现时间：1980s
交际法的分支
核心：强调“在做中学”learning by doing
在此过程中，学生始终处于积极主动的心理状态，任务参与者之间的交际也是一种互动的过程；
根据学生不同的水准，设计不同的任务化活动，让学生通过协作完成任务；
最大限度调动学生学习内驱力，提高发现问题、解决问题的能力，培养合作精神、参与意识，体验成功的喜悦、发挥潜能。

二、 对 TASK 的定义
·task [is] a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating,
producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on
meaning rather than form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to
stand alone as a communicative act in its own right.”
·“Tasks… are activities which have meaning as their primary focus. Success in tasks is evaluated in
terms of achievement of an outcome, and tasks generally bear some resemblance to real-life
language use.”
·[A task is] “an activity which requires learners to arrive at an outcomefrom given information
through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulatethat
process.”

a commonsensical understanding that a task is an activity or goal that is carried out using
language, such as ：
·listening to weather forecast and deciding what to wear;
responding to a party invitation;
·completing a banking application form;

三、
 英语学科教学论提纲

Approach Multiple models of language inform TBI：

Theory of language Structural, functional, and interactional models of language
several assumptions about the nature of language：
·Language is primarily a means of making meaning.
·Lexical units are central in language use and language learning.
·“Conversation” is the central focus of language and the keystone
of language acquisition.

Theory of learning Core：social constructivism 要看中文书 P111

强调人的因素在学习过程中的核心作用，学习者是意义的主动构建者，在学习过程中应发挥主体作用
Additional：
Tasks provide both the input and output processing necessary
for language acquisition. 要看 P112-113 中文书语言的输入、输出假说
（ Tasks are believed to foster processes of negotiation,
modification, rephrasing, and experimentation that are at the
heart of second language learning.）
Task activity and achievement are motivational.
Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for
particular pedagogical purposes.
Objectives the ability to communicate accurately and effectively in the most
common English-language activities learners may be involved in
Types of learning and listing; Jigsaw tasks;
teaching activities ordering; information-gap tasks;
comparing; decision-making tasks; and
problem solving; opinion exchange tasks;
sharingpersonal experiences;
creative tasks
Learner roles group participant
monitor
risk-taker and innovator
Teacher roles selector and sequencer of tasks
preparing learners for tasks,
consciousness-raising！！-Focus on Form
The role of Pedagogic materials
instructional materials Instructional materials depend on appropriate classroom tasks
and are limited by the imagination of the task designer, who
creates teacher resource books and textbook form for Ss use.
Realia(实物教具-用于教学的日常用品)
authentic tasks are supported by authentic materials, e.g.,
Newspapers, Television, Internet
Procedure Pre-task activities 前任务（Introduction to topic and task）
Task activities 或 task-cycle 任务环
（task-planning-report 任务-计划-报告，PPT28）
Post-task activities 后任务（Analysis 分析-Practice 操练）
 英语学科教学论提纲

五、Conclusion
• Learning by doing
• Criteria of a task
• meaning
• outcome
• can be assessed
• authentic: related to real world/life experience

19 The post-methods era 后方法

一、 概念和背景
1. The history of language teaching in the last one hundred years has been characterized by a
search for more effective ways of teaching second or foreign languages 对最佳教学方法的追寻和追捧、
对“专家生产方法、教师消费方法”的方法至上的神话的怀疑
2. The commonest solution to the “language teaching problem” was seen to lie in the adoption
of a new teaching approach or method.
3. One result of this trend was the era of so-called designer or brand-name method, packaged
solutions that can be described and marketed for use anywhere in the world.
4. 后方法滥觞于 20 世纪后半叶的后现代主义思潮。后现代主义思想的典型特征是摒弃绝对价值，倡导怀疑论、相对主义、去中心化和价值多元；
这些思想反映在外语教学上，就是怀疑任何单一方法的有效性和普适性，强调教学法的多元性、开放性、相对性和特殊性。显然，后方法是对传
统方法的批判、颠覆和反动。

二、 Method 和 approach 的比较分析

Approach Method
a set of beliefs and principlesabout the nature of a specific instructional design or system based on a
language and language learning particular theory of language and of language
The basis for teaching a language learning;
lack of detail→a source of frustration and irritation for detailed specifications of content, roles of teachers
(new) teachers and learners, and teaching procedures and
techniques.
no clear application basic decisions about what to teach and how to
teach it-*new teachers；
a rich resource of activities, can be adapted or
adopted, e.g.
P-P-P: present, practice, produce, a method offers to
the novice teacher the reassurance of a detailed set
of sequential steps to follow）
flexibility and possibility of varying interpretations and Littlescope for individual interpretation
application;
individual teacher’s interpretation, skill, and expertise
a long shelf life relatively short shelf life
 英语学科教学论提纲

Approach Method
CLT Audiolingualism
Cooperative Learning P-P-P
Lexical Approaches
TBLT

三、 Criticism
By the end of twentieth century, mainstream language teaching no longer regarded methods as
the key factor in accounting for success or failure in language teaching.
20 世纪 50 年代以前：方法（语法翻译法、听说法）
50 年代——八九十年代：途径 Approach（交际法、词汇法）
The “top-down” criticism Methods: prescription of what and how to teach
Good teaching = correct use of the method and its prescribed
principles and techniques
role of teacher:
understand+apply method correctly (vs. teacher creativity)
role of learners:
passive recipients (vs. learner-centeredness, individual needs,
interests & learning style)
Role of contextual factors Approaches and methods as “all-purpose solutions”
contexts of teaching and learning
CLT as “correct” vs. those of target culture in need of replacement
(cultural imperialism)
The need for curriculum debates over teaching method as part of a broader set of
development processes educational planning decisions (p.248)
Choices of the teaching method cannot, therefore, be determined in
isolation from other planning and implementation practices
(Richards 2000).
Lack of research basis Approaches and methods are often based on the assumption that
the processes of second language learning are fully understood.
Few claims and assertions about how people learn language are
based on SLA research or empirically tested.
Exceptions: e.g. Krashen
Much research does not support the often simplistic theories and
prescriptions found in some approaches and methods.
e.g. Skein’s comment on SLT and PPP (p. 249).
Similarity of classroom practices It is very difficult for teachers to use approaches and methods in
ways that precisely reflect the underlying principles of the methods.
Swaffar et al. (1982)
many of the distinctions used to contrast methods, particularly those
based on classroom activities, did not exist in actual practice.
Brown (1997)
within a matter of weeks, such classrooms (community language
 英语学科教学论提纲

learning) can look like any other learner-centre curriculum.

四、 后方法的教学策略
教学是创造和利用学习机会的过程
教师：教学行为的计划者-学生行为的促进者
学习机会最大化
根据学生需要调整教学计划
教师和学生都是课堂活动的贡献者
教学理念透明化 无论课堂设计如何巧妙都会有教师意图与学生理解错位的现象
明确告知学生理念（p165 中文书）
语言输入语境化 不能把句法语义语用特征孤立
教师要把语篇整体输入
语言技能综合化 语言是完整的有机体
语言各种技能本质上相互关联和促进
分割为听说读写单项技能无合理性
激活直觉探索 鼓励学习者通过例子发现语言规则
而不是通过讲解使学生“懂得”规则
通过反复接触语言结构，学习者归纳语言意义
促进协商互动 使学生自由、灵活的发起和引领课堂话语
促进自主学习 学习者是自主学习者
教室要帮助他们切实对自己的学习负责，改变学习态度
保证社会关联 决定外语学习社会关联性的关键因素是学习目的和语言使用
提高文化意识 培养学生对目的语社群的文化认同
培养学生语感 增强对外语的敏感性
五、 后方法的核心理念
语言观 整体语言，意义优先 把语篇作为教学的基本单位，突出语言的完整、自然和真实
教学观 回归生活，体验实践 呈现真实的语言材料，工具性和人文性的有机统一
学习观 互动协商，合作探究 师生互动，生生互动
教师观 赋权增能，自主决策 由教师被动接收方法到教师主动选择方法