(R)Evolution of the Television Superhero:

Comparing Superfriends and Justice League

in Terms of Foreign Relations

KEVIN D. WILLIAMS

T
HE ARCHETYPICAL CHARACTER OF THE SUPERHERO HAS TIME AND
again taught readers and viewers about the values and behav-
iors needed to become a positive force for society. Mike
Benton explains that a superhero appeals to people’s fantasies of
personal power and total freedom and “provides adolescents with a
larger-than-life heroic model as they outgrow their other childhood
heroes and fantasy figures” (The Comic Book 174).
As superhero narratives are passed down and developed over time,
much has been written on how these comics have changed, and have
reflected the political and social values of each era. In particular,
scholars have focused on critical periods in comics publishing such as
World War II and the tumultuous events of the late 1960s and
1970s (most notably Vietnam, Watergate, and youth’s disillusion-
ment with the government).1 Unfortunately, little has been written
on the portrayal of superheroes on television and what changes have
taken place since the early days of superhero cartoons. This is surpris-
ing as the superhero genre has the ability to reach a much larger
audience through television than the printed comic.
John Hartley, in Uses of Television, argues that television is a tea-
cher to its viewers, not in a formal way but rather that “TV can yield
important insights about how knowledge, beliefs, meanings and con-
sciousness are actually communicated and transferred in the gigantic
social systems of contemporary history” if we simply learn how to
read the medium (45). In this manner, television informs viewers

The Journal of Popular Culture, Vol. 44, No. 6, 2011

© 2011, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

1333
1334 Kevin D. Williams

about their own culture, occasionally doing so by “using the myth of

the superhero to make a calculated statement about the culture which
the myth attempts to comprehend” (Reynolds 83).
Although reactions from the audience are beyond the scope of this
study, a closer examination of television’s portrayal of superheroes
will reveal important information about how American values have
been portrayed over time. The focus of this study is to analyze how
American values regarding foreign policy are portrayed. This type of
study would be a mixture of what Geoff Klock calls both a cultural
study and a cultural history.
Klock notes that most of the existing literature on superheroes
focuses on three major factors: 1) structural mythology, 2) cultural
studies, and 3) cultural history (10). Structural mythology involves
studying the mythology created by a superhero narrative: What is a
“superhero?” How does this relate to other concepts of the hero, and
how does this relate to other mythological forms? A cultural study of
superhero comics would ask: How have superheroes reflected or
shaped cultural beliefs in their audience, and how have they added to
or detracted from their cultural views? For example, Jeffrey Brown
examines the cultural significance of black superheroes and devotes a
large discussion to how readers have negotiated with writers the
depiction of black masculinity, seeking to change the historical racist
stereotype of black masculinity. He writes about how fans relate to
black superheroes featured in Milestone Comics and investigates the
history behind Milestone; how Milestone compares to other main-
stream comics; and issues of race, gender, and politics. A cultural his-
tory adds the element of time to the study of the narrative’s values,
namely how is the change in values over time reflected in the narra-
tive? A quick recap of superhero history is necessary in order to know
how America’s foreign policy attitude has changed over time in
superhero narratives.

Historical Relevance of Superheroes

Today’s critics may argue the recent surge in superhero television

series and motion pictures are part of a huge marketing push
toward the child as consumer. Indeed, Mila Bongco notes that, his-
torically, television and cinema have frequently exploited this field
(R)Evolution of the Television Superhero 1335

of mythology for monetary gain. While this is partly true, critics

should not overlook the rich historical legacy and social commentary
that superheroes have added to popular culture. Superheroes were
born from the printed page, and today’s portrayal is based upon the
countless years authors spent building the character and narrative.
The early “Golden Age of Comics,” beginning in 1938 with the
first Superman comic, lasted until the mid 1950s and witnessed the
birth of classic figures such as Batman, Wonder Woman, Green
Lantern, and The Flash (Benton, Superhero Comics of the Golden Age).
The historical and social highlight of this era was World War II.
Golden Age comics reflected this time with some characters coming
to the aid of America to defeat the Axis powers. In doing so, super-
heroes came to represent more authoritarian beliefs. They are united
in solidarity with American troops, always vanquishing evil with
unrivaled superiority and fighting for “The American Way,” which
at its backbone was truth and justice. Central to their belief system
was a sentiment that would be echoed in the future by President
George W. Bush, “You’re either with us or against us…” (“You
Are Either”).
With the end of World War II and the beginning of the Cold
War, declining sales and increasing arguments over the negative
social impact of comic books on young readers harkened the end of
the Golden Age. Frederic Wertham, a vocal critic of comic books,
wrote in Seduction of the Innocent:

What is the social meaning of these supermen, superwomen,

superlovers, superboys, supergirls, super-ducks, super-mice,
super-magicians, super-safe crackers? How did Nietzsche get into
the nursery?…Superheroes undermine respect for the law and
hardworking decent citizens. (15)

Wertham argued that this staunch authoritarianism and control of

power smelled of fascism. Combining this with the violence prevalent
in comic books, Wertham’s book led to a set of Congressional
hearings in 1954 on the impact of comics and ultimately to the Com-
ics Code Authority, which imposed strict industry standards on the
medium (Nyberg). Bongco argues the creation of the Comics Code
solidifies the assumption that comic books are “seen as offering
constructions of social relations which make a certain unified notion
1336 Kevin D. Williams

of ‘the American people’ ” (26). Richard Reynolds concurs stating

that superheroes represent American utopianism (83). In essence,
Congress decided that the superhero narrative taught something to
children about American values, and Congress must guard those
values.
Although the Comics Code Authority’s restrictions along with
declining comics sales resulted in the cancellation of many super-
hero narratives, a handful of superheroes remained (among them
Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, and other core characters).
DC comics decided to gather the superheroes it had left and place
them in a single text, the Justice League of America (JLA). JLA’s
increased sales helped to revive the industry in the 1950s and
1960s, known as the “Silver Age of Comics.” During this time,
Marvel Comics expanded and increased sales with titles like The
Amazing Spiderman, The Incredible Hulk, The Fantastic Four, and
X-Men. As much as World War II propelled the comics industry,
narratives mentioned very little regarding the Vietnam War. As the
questioning of American values and dissension within America
concerning the War grew, so did the questioning of the superhero
character. No longer was the superhero guaranteed to be an
authoritarian do-gooder questioning nothing and blindly carrying
out the crusade for American justice. As Bongco argues, a superhero
comic can be both “constitutive of and rebelling against the ideas of
the people and the nation” (26). Reynolds notes about the super-
hero, “His costume marks him out as a proponent of change and
exoticism, yet he surprises us by his adherence to an almost archaic
code of personal honour” (83). The Silver Age superhero lived in a
quandary, trying to marry his personal values to American values.
As the 1970s began, comics sales again declined. Many writers
believed the superhero narrative was exhausted and such trends as
science fiction and mystery comics would replace them (Benton,
Superhero Comics of the Silver Age 73). This lack of direction and focus
marked the end of the Silver Age. Historically, this era saw the
growth of a vast empire, that of the Communists, and America by
this time was fully entrenched in the Cold War. The current analysis
will focus on the Post-Silver Age and will provide a much needed
examination of how the superhero has changed on television in the
latter part of the twentieth century. A clear, categorical definition of
the superhero helps in analyzing these portrayals.
(R)Evolution of the Television Superhero 1337

Focus of the Current Study

In determining a succinct and clear definition of a superhero, it is

important to recognize key characteristics compared across time to
determine how the superhero has evolved and the cultural implica-
tions of that evolution. Benton lists four characteristics of a super-
hero: 1) the hero must wear a unique distinguishable costume that
sets him or her apart from normal people; 2) the superhero must pos-
sess some form of superpower, be it of alien origin, granted by gods,
a result of science, or developed through years of training; 3) the
character hides by use of a dual or secret identity; and 4) the super-
hero must be driven by an altruistic, unwavering moral desire to fight
evil (The Comic Book in America 174-5).
As all Post-Silver Age portrayals on television would be too
numerous to analyze in a study of this size, the purpose here is to
take one particular instance of a superhero portrayal and compare it
over time. The concept of the Justice League of America offers an
excellent opportunity for study because this particular narrative aired
as a cartoon both in the 1970s and in more recent times, and
included the same characters.
The television series Superfriends (from 1973 to 1986) actually rep-
resented a continuum of several shows in the same vein. Every few
years, the title, villains, and line-up of superheroes changed spawning
shows such as The All-New Super Friends Hour, Challenge of the Super
Friends, The World’s Greatest Super Friends, Super Friends: The Legendary
Super Powers Show, and finally The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guard-
ians. These shows were similar in animation style and narrative, and
revolved around the same core characters, such as Superman, Batman,
Green Lantern, Wonder Woman, Hawkman, and The Flash. This
study examines all 16 episodes of Challenge of the Super Friends. This
half-hour series ran on ABC’s Saturday morning cartoon programming
block in 1978 and consisted of 11 members of the Justice League of
America fighting against their 13-member rival, the Legion of Doom.
It is important because it was the first season in the Superfriends series
and had many of the same characters as in the more current rendition
of the Justice League of America narrative, Justice League.
Cartoon Network aired Justice League on November 17, 2001, and
later updated it to include more superheroes in the series Justice
1338 Kevin D. Williams

League Unlimited. Justice League, still airing in reruns and sold on

DVD, dealt with superheroes coming together to protect the world
and consisted of seven members of the Justice League: Superman,
Batman, Green Lantern, The Flash, Wonder Woman, Hawkgirl, and
the Martian Manhunter (a.k.a. J’onn J’onzz, pronounced Jon Jones).
This study examines all 26 episodes shown in the first season of Justice
League. Video content for this study was attained through online
retailers on disc with no commercial interruptions.
As superhero narratives have a rich tradition of commenting on
American utopianism, power, and wartime values, the current analy-
sis will compare changes in these concepts between Superfriends and
Justice League, with particular attention paid to costume, superpowers,
secret identity, and altruistic motivation. These changes should reflect
the dominant attitude toward foreign policy in their respective times:
the Cold War, and immediately preceding 9/11. Sorting through the
portrayals of superheroes and placing them in specific categories such
as Benton’s may seem a bit simplistic for a textual analysis, but this
framework will provide future scholars with a much-needed concrete
basis for comparison.

Powers, Costume, Secret Identity, and

Altruistic Motivation

If the use of superpowers is a metaphor for the use of American

power, Superfriends and Justice League represent starkly contrasting
political philosophies. Of the four superhero elements analyzed, the
use of superpowers shows the greatest variation between series. The
first overall difference has less to do with the character’s abilities and
powers and more to do with how much the character can endure.
There is an odd paradox between the series, in that Justice League
superheroes are shown taking much more punishment than
Superfriends; however, Justice League superheroes are capable of being
bruised and cut (we never see a cut or bruise in Superfriends).
These representations mirror the conducting of military actions
during their respective times. The Cold War is often talked about as
being fought without firing one bullet and as a war fought through
espionage and technology rather than aggressive physical conflict.
Military actions preceding 9/11 consisted mostly of quick invasions,
(R)Evolution of the Television Superhero 1339

attacks, and withdrawals, including such actions as patrolling no fly

zones, strategically placed air strikes, weapons inspections, and lead-
ing NATO forces to disrupt civil wars. Both series clearly reflect
these differences in action and conflict. Superfriends downplays and
sanitizes its violence, whereas Justice League portrays it as punishing
and brutal. Often, in Superfriends, a sound effect accompanies a super-
power, making the act more cartoonish. When Superman throws
something in Superfriends, a “wheeee” whistling noise accompanies it
(“Wanted: The Superfriends”). The Superfriends may be weakened or
bound or frozen solid, but those same characters in Justice League are
thrown through walls of buildings, pummeled with items falling on
top of them, and punched or blasted into a state of unconsciousness,
with more physical ramifications. Indeed, Justice League is vastly more
violent. In “War World,” not only is Superman’s costume torn and
ripped, but his face is also cut and bleeding. The superpowers exer-
cised in Justice League are more threatening and more harmful than in
Superfriends. When Superman throws something in Justice League, it
often ends in a violent crash (the only sound effect is of something
breaking).
The character of the Green Lantern provides an excellent example of
the violent differences in use of superpower. The Green Lantern’s
strength comes from a ring, which has power over all things except that
which is yellow. In short, the wearer can create almost anything he/she
(there are also female green lanterns) wishes. In Superfriends, the Green
Lantern tends to be more creative in the use of his power ring. He can
envelope himself in an energy field and fly, which the Justice League
Green Lantern also does. The Superfriend’s Lantern, however, tends to
use his power to create items such as a huge green baseball bat, a mace, a
huge catcher’s mitt, an anchor, a skateboard, and an igloo. He uses all of
these items to fight the villains (a bat to knock away a missile, an anchor
to hold back a ship, an igloo to imprison the villains). Justice League’s
Lantern is much more conservative in his use of the power ring. He typ-
ically uses the ring to shoot quick laser blasts to explode an object or
uses a laser beam to cut through objects. He also uses the ring to create
energy shields either in the shape of a flat wall or a bubble, which encap-
sulates those he is protecting. The Justice League’s Lantern therefore
relies less on creative ways to fight an opponent and more on brute force
and quick attacks. His aim is not to subdue or deflect conflict, but to
strike the opponent directly in order to neutralize the target.
1340 Kevin D. Williams

This approach mimics the policy adopted by George W. Bush.

Colin Powell’s doctrine, the doctrine of overwhelming force (Record),
guided the foreign policy of Presidents Ronald Reagan and George
H. W. Bush. Powell’s doctrine resembled that of Casper Weinberger,
who laid out several different circumstances, which had to be met in
order to engage in military action. However, once in engagement,
there was to be a decisive use of force which we now have come to
label “shock and awe.” Madeleine Albright would later imply that
this doctrine did much to create an isolationist mentality (United
States).
President Clinton’s doctrine, however, lacked the clear-cut circum-
stances prescribed before military action could be taken. Under his
Administration, situations fell into three categories: 1) vital interest
to the United States, 2) important interest, and 3) humanitarian
interest (Record). Trying to understand and define these distinctions
led to sharp criticism about the Administration’s reluctant interven-
tions in hostile areas such as Haiti, Bosnia, and Somalia. Although
Albright sought to foster “first-class diplomacy” (United States) dur-
ing her tenure, little was done to erase the isolationist view of the
United States by most countries of the Middle East. Once President
George W. Bush assumed Office, foreign policy reverted to the Pow-
ell Doctrine which Bush’s father had followed. Justice League superhe-
roes represent “shock and awe” heroes, using unrivaled superior
strength to squash enemies.
The Superfriends’ use of power appears to be in step with that of
the Carter Presidency. During the Superfriends era of 1978, President
Carter realized that his first policy on foreign relations had failed.
After declaring in 1977 that “we are now free of that inordinate fear
of Communism which once led us to embrace any dictator who
joined us in fear,” (Grinter) the end of 1978 witnessed the Soviets
digging deeper into Afghanistan and the final days of the Carter-
endorsed Shah’s reign in Iran. Things were changing as evidenced by
the loss of Western security in Third World countries by Marxist fac-
tions. This ease in détente and growing hostility with the Soviets
reignited the Cold War and was known later as the Carter Doctrine,
which claimed that “vital interests” in the Persian Gulf would be pro-
tected at all costs (Grinter). The public, however, questioned how far
Carter was willing to go to protect national interests. Much like the
actions taken by the Superfriends, America seemed willing to repel
(R)Evolution of the Television Superhero 1341

any foreign threats, but not willing to dominate and subjugate ene-
mies in a manner similar to the Justice League.
Looking at the use of superpowers as a form of technology adds to
the argument that these two series reflect the times in which they are
situated. A popular embodiment of Cold War technology is a spy/
action hero such as James Bond. Bond had an endless arsenal of
gadgets and weapons to help him out of any situation, including a
projectile-firing cigarette, a briefcase which transforms into a gun,
and wristwatches that shoot lasers, grappling hooks, or photos.
Much like Bond, the superheroes of Superfriends have seemingly
limitless powers when compared to Justice League. For example, any
episode involving time travel or interdimensional (alternate universe)
travel in Justice League requires that the superheroes use a device to
accomplish this feat, such as a time machine or interdimensional
gateway machine (“Legends”). However, in Superfriends each superhero
can do something involving his or her own powers to accomplish this
(“Conquerors of the Future”). Flash can run so fast he time travels;
Superman can fly so fast he time travels; and Green Lantern can blast
himself into the past or future. There appears to be no limit to what
the Superfriends can accomplish with their powers.
This seemingly limitless power explains many differences in indi-
vidual powers between the two series. Superman uses a greater variety
of powers in Superfriends than in Justice League. In Superfriends he uses
his super-strength, heat vision, x-ray vision, freeze breath, and ability
to tunnel and dig by spinning quickly, while he uses primarily his
super-strength and heat vision in Justice League. Batman uses more
technology and gadgets in Superfriends than in Justice League. In
Superfriends, he constantly consults the Bat-computer, has every type
of Bat vehicle (Batmobile, Bat-jet, and Bat-rocket), and uses a variety
of bat weapons. The Justice League Batman mainly uses some form of
Bat-a-rang (boomerang), and relies more on stealth and cunning. The
technology in Justice League is more in line with helping the charac-
ters elevate an assault (such as today’s smart missile) as opposed to
investigating or countering a disruption from afar (such as the Cold
War’s Star Wars initiative).
An analysis of costume involves more than the simple description
of the garment itself. There are other important factors involved in
describing the appearance of the superhero. For instance, how the
costume is worn, the frame of the character that gives shape to the
1342 Kevin D. Williams

costume, and how the costume is drawn (since these are animated
shows) are valid features of analysis. Between the two series, the cos-
tumes of the characters change very little as far as their recognizable
features. Superman still wears red and blue with the “S” logo on his
chest. Batman still has the cape, the cowl, and the utility belt.
Wonder Woman still wears the magic bracelets, the knee-high red
boots, and carries a lasso. What has changed are the vibrancy of col-
ors, the hard lines in which the shapes are drawn, the durability of
the costume, and the build of the character that wears the costume.
As discussed earlier in the analysis of superpowers, the world of
the Justice League is much more violent than that of the Super-
friends. In Superfriends, the costume and the superhero wearing it are
equally impervious. The costume is an extension of the superpower or
an extension of technology; it enables the superhero. The viewer never
sees the costume soiled or torn even though the characters fight in
hostile environments such as swamps. Justice League shows various
examples, such as “Injustice For All” and “Fury,” where the costume
gets ripped, torn, or slashed exposing the skin of the superhero. In
Justice League, the costume is just that––a costume. As Bongco notes,
the costume offers insight into the superhero’s powers, identity, and
capabilities; thus, the vulnerability in the costume hints to the
vulnerability and humanity of the superhero (105).
The frame on which the costume rests also comments on the
superhero’s power. The male superheroes in Justice League have notice-
ably broader shoulders and smaller waists that make them look far
stronger than the characters in Superfriends. Wonder Woman’s chest is
much larger and waist much smaller when compared to her frame in
Superfriends. The colors used in Justice League are also richer and more
vibrant than in Superfiends, helping the characters stand out against
the backgrounds better than in Superfriends. The drawing of the cos-
tumes in Justice League emphasizes more hard lines and angular cuts
than in Superfriends. The animators drew the characters in Superfriends
with more curved lines and rounded angles. This change in drawing
styles makes the Superfriends seem more docile and less looming,
while the Justice League superheroes look more authoritative, more
stoic, and more menacing. Again, the focus is on power with the
Justice League portrayed as more aggressive.
There are two characters whose costumes change dramatically from
one series to another: Batman and Green Lantern.
(R)Evolution of the Television Superhero 1343

Batman’s color scheme in Justice League is much darker and more

akin to its original conception during the 1930s and 1940s as well as
its current conception (post-Dark Knight Returns). Justice League’s
Batman wears grey with a large black bat logo on his chest. His cowl
is black with dark blue accents and the ears on his cowl are markedly
tall and narrow. Also his cape, again black with dark blue accents,
drapes over his shoulders and back and brushes against the floor. This
makes him appear more feral and animal-like than in Superfriends. In
Superfriends, Batman’s costume is grey with a yellow and black bat
logo on the chest and a blue cowl with a blue cape spanning down to
his calf muscles. This is more reminiscent of the Batman comics’ cos-
tume of the 1960s and 1970s and the costume worn by Adam West
in the Batman television series. Overall, the Batman in Justice League
when compared to Superfriends appears more threatening, mysterious,
lurking, and powerful.
The first obvious difference in Green Lantern between series is that
he is a different ethnicity in Justice League as he is in Superfriends.
Bruce Timm, creator of Justice League, employed a narrative of Green
Lantern that casts the Green Lantern as John Stewart, a black ex-
soldier. Hal Jordan, a white test pilot, was the Green Lantern in
Superfriends. Not only is this an important racial commentary but it
also poses a direct Cold War vs. Pre-9/11 comparison. Hal Jordan as
a military figure is not known for his wartime action but rather as a
“removed” test pilot. John Stewart, on the other hand, is a battle-
hardened Marine. There are two other notable distinctions in cos-
tume. The “green power” given to a member of the Lantern Corps
infuses John Stewart’s body. Stewart’s eyes glow green when he is in
costume and the fringes of his hair which would be grey are instead a
greenish-greyish mix. None of Hal Jordan’s body appears to have
taken on this characteristic. The connotation is that while the past
Green Lantern gained power from his ring and from his costume, the
current Green Lantern is infused with power to the point it has taken
over his body; it literally radiates from his body. The other notable
distinction in costume is the fact that Hal Jordan wears a mask to
conceal his identity while John Stewart does not. This raises an inter-
esting question: do costume and the concealing of identity further
separate the superhero from normal society? Much like the secret
agent in the Cold War era, is it necessary for one to hide their true
identity in order to successfully achieve their goals?
1344 Kevin D. Williams

A closer examination of secret identity reveals both differences and

similarities between the two series. First, Superfriends is more con-
cerned with explaining and showing secret identities than is Justice
League. Indeed, one episode of Superfriends, “Secret Origins,” (The
Challenge of the Superfriends) deals with how the characters received
their superpowers and how they decided to hide them with alternate
identities. Several episodes of Superfriends mention and remind viewers
that these characters lead double lives. “Wanted: The Superfriends”
begins with Clark Kent (Superman’s alter ego) at his reporting
position with The Daily Planet. “Superfriends: Rest in Peace” also
showcases Lois Lane, Superman’s love interest. These appearances are
in stark contrast to Justice League, where there is almost no reference
to alter egos or appearance of characters relevant to an alter ego’s
identity.
Yet, in both series, heroes consciously struggle to maintain these
secret identities, and they engage in deceit in order to keep the gen-
eral public from learning their superhero status. In “Conquerors of
the Future,” Hal Jordan takes a vacation in France and muses, “It sure
is nice to take a vacation in Paris as Hal Jordan. No one would ever
guess that I’m actually the Green Lantern.” Even in death, it is
important that the superheroes remain anonymous. While the super-
heroes are standing beside Batman’s grave in “Superfriends: Rest in
Peace,” Superman states, “…although his true identity must remain a
secret, the world will always know him as Batman.”
Although there is no direct portrayal of secret identities in Justice
League, the struggle to maintain a secret alter-ego is evident. In the
Justice League episode “Secret Origins,” a medical technician is about
to remove a seemingly unconscious Batman’s cowl when the super-
hero grabs her wrist and sternly grunts, “Don’t even think about it!”
The superheroes prefer to remain anonymous even in the sole presence
of their compatriots. In two episodes of Justice League, “Fury” and “A
Knight of Shadows,” superheroes require medical attention and lie on
gurneys shirtless; however, they still are in their masks. It is almost
as if the mask is at its core the real superhero’s face. Reynolds notes,
“Costume is the sign of individual identity––a new identity, as the
alter ego has been shed, if not actually hidden under a mask” (26).
This would seem to hint that the alter ego is the real person and the
wearing of a costume transforms that person into a secondary iden-
tity. Justice League gives an opposing interpretation: the costume is
(R)Evolution of the Television Superhero 1345

the real character and a secret identity is the false secondary identity.
Batman is the real person and Bruce Wayne is the façade.
The Green Lantern, who does not wear a mask, is again an inter-
esting outlier in Justice League. John Stewart’s face is the same
whether he is in or out of costume (the only difference being that his
eyes glow green in costume). During “In Blackest Night,” Stewart
uses his powers in front of others while out of costume, and he
changes into his costume in front of people who are familiar with
him. In “Metamorphosis”, Stewart reunites with an old Marine buddy
who tells Stewart that he heard he traded in his Marine uniform in
for another uniform (referring to Green Lantern’s costume). Interest-
ingly, this differs from the comic book conception of John Stewart
whose chief occupation was that of an architect. In the comic book
version, Stewart discards his mask stating that he is not ashamed and
does not need to hide. This attitude remains in Justice League and
combines with the new storyline of Stewart being a Marine who
shows a brazen “come and get me” attitude toward his enemies much
in line with George W. Bush’s statement in 2003, “…bring them
on” (Bring ‘Em On”). Apparently, it is widely known and easily
ascertainable that John Stewart is the Green Lantern.
The altruism of the superhero, or rather what motivates each to be
a part of a superhero team, is the last characteristic of analysis in this
study. Most classic superheroes fight for justice, truth, and the better-
ment of mankind; yet while this is true for both series, differences
suggest that something has changed over time in the personalities of
these characters. It is apparent that the later characters in Justice Lea-
gue have differing ideas about the rewards of being a superhero and
differing opinions regarding how they should protect mankind from
the evils of the world.
Superfriends explains that this association of superheroes came into
being because “the best way for us to combat crime and be prepared
for worldwide emergencies is to work together” (“History of Doom”).
Teamwork is an essential component of Superfriends. Throughout the
series, all members work together to accomplish tasks or fight in bat-
tles. In several episodes, the Superfriends have to combine their
superpowers in order to escape traps or overcome special circum-
stances (“Conquerors of the Future”). In “Wanted: The Superfriends”
Batman lauds at the end of a mission that their success over the
Legion of Doom is attributed to their “brilliant teamwork.”
1346 Kevin D. Williams

This attribution of success being dependent on everyone working

harmoniously side by side is yet another Cold War mentality. Alan
Brinkley states in “The Illusion of Unity in Cold War Culture” that
economic, political, and social events which occurred during the com-
munist threat of the Cold War cultivated a false belief that ethnic,
gender, and economic divisions were disappearing as America united
to fight against the evil empire. Brinkley notes that this shift toward
the middle can even be seen on television:

The world of television entertainment programming was, with only

a very few exceptions, a placid, middle class world. Even the excep-
tions … took images of difference and domesticated them, so that
in the end they too reinforced rather than challenged assumptions
about the universality of middle-class ideas and experiences. (68)

Much like the singularity of facing one enemy in the Cold War,
Superfriends exposed audiences to one clear enemy, the Legion of
Doom. One could argue that Superfriends did exactly what Brinkley
notes. In order to fight the “Legion of Doom,” the Superfriends
achieve unity by completely eliminating and avoiding any discussion
of differences within the group. The illusion was that America had to
unify and put aside its differences if it was to weather the oncoming
storm. For example, Superfriends treats Wonder Woman just like the
rest of the guys; there was no need to call attention to her femininity.
There were never any squabbles or arguments amongst the Super-
friends which could have led to disharmony (and perhaps a victory by
the Legion of Doom). Taking this analysis one step further, the Su-
perfriends can then be viewed as the patriotic American regime,
while the Legion of Doom represented the despotic communist
regime.
While the Justice League superheroes also join forces in order to bet-
ter protect the planet, Batman is not as quick to hail the values of
working side by side. When the group decides to form in “Secret Ori-
gins,” they all put their hands together one on top of the other to
symbolize their union. Batman is the only hand not in the pile. When
the group looks to him he responds, “I’m not really a people person;
but when you need help, and you will, call me.” Also in that episode,
when Superman introduces the Martian Manhunter to Batman,
Batman refuses to shake his hand. Superman responds, “Don’t take it
personally J’onn. He doesn’t trust anyone.” A final example of
(R)Evolution of the Television Superhero 1347

Batman’s reluctance to be a team player comes from “In Blackest

Night.” When the superheroes send out a distress call asking for help
in a mission, Batman responds by telling them that he is busy.
John Stewart is another example of a superhero who hesitates to go
along with the decisions of the team from time to time. Being a Mar-
ine before becoming the Green Lantern, he often verbalizes his own
ideas on the best strategy to accomplish a mission and often works
outside of the group. When told not to retrieve a nuclear submarine
that has become inoperable near the underwater city of Atlantis,
Green Lantern defies the group rationalizing to himself that it should
be done because of its importance to national security. This causes an
argument within the group and a rift between himself and another
superhero in the Justice League (“The Enemy Below”). In the world
of Justice League, one must sometimes work outside democratic guide-
lines in order to accomplish one’s own goals.
In concluding the analysis of altruism or motivation, a final com-
ment should be made concerning how these superheroes view their
function in society: how they see themselves as ultimate heroes. In
Superfriends, every character seems to be pleased and honored to have
this very important job of saving the galaxy. They appear to reassure
themselves at the end of every episode that they are, in fact, the
embodiment of justice. The ending of every Superfriends episode con-
cludes with some tag line or statement re-affirming that the Legion
of Doom could never defeat them because they stand for all that is
right in the world. This is again in agreement with Brinkley’s illu-
sion of unity during the Cold War.
However, the characters of Justice League are more self-doubting
and often wish they had some reprieve from the heavy responsibility
carried by one endowed with superpowers. Several episodes do not
end on the cheery note exhibited by Superfriends. Instead, some epi-
sodes end with a hero longing for the past and for a more innocent
time in their youth when they were not a superhero. John Stewart
provides an excellent example of this in “Metamorphosis.” When his
former Marine buddy jokes with him about all the fame and riches
that must come with superhero status, Lantern replies, “It doesn’t
work like that. I’ve hardly got more than the clothes on my back”
(which incidentally is his costume). Later, Stewart talks with another
superhero questioning his own decision to accept the power ring and
become the Green Lantern. As he wonders about the road not taken
1348 Kevin D. Williams

and if he could have become as wealthy and happy as his old buddy,
there is a sense of regret in Green Lantern’s voice. Perhaps being a
superhero or being forced to become one is not the greatest job in the
world.
There is a sense that even with all the superpowers they possess,
the superheroes of Justice League are lonely isolated characters. It is
important to remember that Green Lantern does nothing to shield
his identity. Reynolds believes that a chief reason for the alter ego is
to protect the superheroes’ friends (14). Enemies could threaten his
friends or use them against him. Justice League hints that this may no
longer be a reason for concern. These characters are isolated from
everyday acquaintances. Viewers see little evidence of close friend-
ships outside of the association in which the characters work. Justice
League may be telling its audience that ultimately, power and the
struggle to control such power lead to isolation and alienation.
Justice League reflects that era as President Clinton is leaving and
Bush is entering the White House, yet it also represents an attitude
that had been building since the end of the Cold War. Justice League
is an analogy for the use of power once one has achieved the “number
one” status and now must struggle with the ultimate question: what’s
next? Instead of a focus on the one primary enemy, now all outside
eyes are focusing on the one superpower. With great power comes
great responsibility2 and Justice League displays how that responsibil-
ity can burden and isolate those who carry it.
During the Justice League era, America had no one absolute strategy
for handling its superior power. The result was a country that was
isolated from the Middle East, did not seem to have a firm backing
from its one-time allies (such as the French and the Germans), and
questioned how to use its power now that it was the only remaining
superpower. The Justice League grapples with similar situations. Each
member sees himself or herself as an isolated superpower unsure of
the appropriate action and attitude to take. The superheroes question
themselves, their obligations, duties, and each other. In doing so,
their differences are now exposed to the world. The vulnerabilities of
the superheroes become evident, even towering structures can come
crashing down. The Justice League quickly reverts to its own form of
the Powell Doctrine, striking quickly, coldly, and calculatingly. They
do not have the limitless power to go trouncing about the globe
striking in whatever manner they please. To do so would eventually
(R)Evolution of the Television Superhero 1349

isolate them even further. The Justice League does not only have to
fear a Legion of Doom; they have to fear attacks coming from anyone
and from anywhere. All eyes are on the Justice League, and the strain
may be too much.

Conclusion

Both of these series should be viewed as texts that teach their viewers
aspects of what it is like to have ultimate power in the world, how that
power should be responsibly wielded, and how we as Americans have
historically treated that power. Superhero comics and cartoons have
always been situated in terms of speaking about power and it would
seem that key moments in superhero narrative history tend to anchor
themselves around wartimes. One needs only to note the use of patri-
otic symbolism and storylines during World War II and Vietnam era
comics to agree to this fact (Benton, Superhero Comics of the Golden Age;
Superhero Comics of the Silver Age). The study of superhero narratives, as
hopefully this analysis has shown, is important in that it informs
America, as the top superpower, how to treat the rest of the world, and
how the rest of the world will respond to that treatment. Being a top
superpower is not an end goal, but rather creates a new position of
struggle, not with the outside world, but within one’s self.
Specifically, this analysis has shown that the Cold War and the
time around 9/11 have both impacted the narrative of the superhero.
It will be interesting to see what impact the current War on Terror
has on the concept of the superhero. Not incidentally, in a recent
comic book storyline, a key patriotic superhero born from World
War II, Captain America, was assassinated on the steps of a federal
courthouse. The assassin delivering the fatal shot was a member of S.
H.I.E.L.D., a group devoted to counterterrorism and international
espionage. It would seem the current war is already having its impact
on the superhero world.

Notes
1. An excellent example of the relationship between comics and the 1960s and 1970s can be
read in Bradford Wright.
2. The phrase, “With great power comes great responsibility,” is a phrase that is popular in the
Spiderman mythology. In the first Spiderman movie of the new millennium (Columbia
1350 Kevin D. Williams

Pictures Industries, 2002), these words are said by Peter Parker’s (Spiderman’s) Uncle Ben
whose death causes Peter to use his new powers for good and not profit.

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Kevin D. Williams obtained his doctorate in Mass Communication from

The University of Georgia in 2005. He is now an associate professor in the
Department of Communication at Mississippi State University. He has dual
research interests in both video game psychology and the use of violence and
power in popular culture.