Introductory guide to research methods for social research

designed for the students enrolled in

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Lecture No. 2

Prepared by:

MELANIE S. SUBILLA
✓Effective research methods are the tools by which information is
gathered.
✓Without the appropriate design and use of research methods, we
are unlikely to gather quality information and as such create a
shaky foundation to any review, evaluation or future strategy.
Types of method (SOCIAL RESEARCH)
Quantitative Research Methods
Quantitative survey
Secondary data collation and analysis
Statistical analysis
Qualitative Research Methods
Social surveys/questionnaires
Interviews
Discussion Groups
Workshops
Observation
Visual Techniques
TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS

In any form of research, you will be required to either count things and/or talk to
people. We can broadly classify research methods using this distinction. These two
types of research method and their output data are classified as:
Quantitative - as the name suggests, is concerned with trying to quantify things; it
asks questions such as ‘how short’, ‘how many’ or ‘the degree to which’. Quantitative
methods look to quantify data and generalize results from a sample of the population
of interest. They may look to measure the incidence of various views and opinions in
a chosen sample for example or aggregate results.

Qualitative – concerned with a quality of information, qualitative methods attempt

to gain an understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations for actions and
establish how people interpret their experiences and the world around them.
Qualitative methods provide insights into the setting of a problem, generating ideas
and/or hypotheses.
The following table provides a breakdown of the key features of each of these categorization of research
method and data.
I. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Qualitative methods are generally associated with the evaluation

of social dimensions. Qualitative methods provide results that are
usually rich and detailed, offering ideas and concepts to inform
your research. Qualitative methods can tell you how people feel
and what they think, but cannot tell you how many of the target
population feel or think that way as quantitative methods can.
A. QUALITATIVE SURVEY (continuation…)
1. SOCIAL SURVEY/QUESTIONNAIRE

What is the method?

Social surveys are a questionnaire-based method of research that can
produce both qualitative and quantitative information depending on how
they are structured and analyzed. This section focuses on the use of surveys
to collect and analyze qualitative data. Many of the issues and
considerations are the same as for the quantitative use of surveys, and
more detail can be found in the earlier section of this handbook.
A. Qualitative survey…continuation...
1. SOCIAL SURVEY/QUESTIONNAIRE (continuation…)

When should it be used?

Questionnaire surveys can be used in a wide range of settings and to gather a
variety of different types of information. You may be evaluating a program in
which a wide range of projects have been commissioned, and want to gather
the views of a wide range of project managers, or you may be measuring the
impact of an initiative on the business community in a specific geographical
area. A small-scale qualitative survey may be conducted to explore in more
detail the findings of qualitative research.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
1. SOCIAL SURVEY/QUESTIONNAIRE (continuation…)
What do I need to consider?
Many of the considerations for a social survey are the same as for a
quantitative survey, however we define a social survey as one where less
statistical rigor is required, where sample sizes are not as large, and with
results not expected to be significant of the wider population. A social
survey may have a greater focus on collecting rich and detailed qualitative
data.
Population – A number of questions about the proposed population for a
social survey need to be considered. Such as are there language issues? And
what are the geographic restrictions? These are the same issues as for
quantitative surveys.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
1. SOCIAL SURVEY/QUESTIONNAIRE (continuation…)

Sampling
The sample is the section of the wider population that will be
engaged in the survey. Detailed consideration of sampling still
needs to be made even when not striving for statistical
significance. It is still important to understand who the
respondent is and what your sampling frame is going to be.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
1. SOCIAL SURVEY/QUESTIONNAIRE (continuation…)

Format
A social survey will usually be a cross-sectional survey used to
gather information on a small sample population at a single point
in time. An example of a cross-sectional survey would be a
questionnaire that collects data on peoples’ experiences of a
particular initiative. However, a qualitative survey could equally
be used in a longitudinal study, perhaps returning to particular
individuals over time to measure the impact of an intervention on
the direction of someone’s life.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
1. SOCIAL SURVEY/QUESTIONNAIRE (continuation…)

Questions
There are a whole range of questions to be asked in relation to
survey design, such as: What types of questions can be asked?
How complex will the questions be? Will screening questions be
needed? Can question sequence be controlled? Will lengthy
questions be asked? Will long response scales be used? A social
survey will be more interested in qualitative findings, in recording
peoples’ opinions and perceptions, and therefore will make more
use of open questions where respondents can give their own
responses to a set question. Open questions will begin with what,
why, how, or describe, to elicit rich qualitative information.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
1. SOCIAL SURVEY/QUESTIONNAIRE (continuation…)
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation)
1. SOCIAL SURVEY/QUESTIONNAIRE (continuation…)

Administration
The costs, required facilities, time, and personnel needed to
conduct an effective survey are often underestimated, even when
it is not on a large scale. There should be an administrative system
in place to deal with the questionnaires for when they are
returned/completed. This may include numbering the
questionnaires, recording what action has been taken with them,
entering the results into a spreadsheet/database etc.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
1. SOCIAL SURVEY/QUESTIONNAIRE (continuation…)

How should it be used?

Surveys can be carried out by phone, post, email, website or face-toface, for
detailed pros and cons of these delivery methods see the earlier section on
qualitative surveys. In collecting rich qualitative survey data, the most
effective method would be via face to face, administered surveys, as the
researcher would be able to use prompts to encourage people to give more
detailed answers. This does however introduce a bias, which needs to be
understood and controlled as much as possible, i.e. by using standard
prompts. In qualitative surveys, it is necessary that the interviewer conduct
the interview with total objectivity, so that respondents are not influenced
by any outside source in their responses. For this reason, interviews should
be conducted by well-trained and qualified interviewers.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
1. SOCIAL SURVEY/QUESTIONNAIRE (continuation…)

What is the output?

The data that a social survey can produce is very much dependent on how
the questionnaire is constructed. However, the data can be very useful for
providing an overall picture of the way in which a project or program is
being implemented and how effectively it is impacting upon its target
audience. Qualitative data output will be in a text, audio or picture format,
and each answer may be very different from another. This can make
collection of data more difficult, and a way of collating data needs to be
considered early in the process.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
1. SOCIAL SURVEY/QUESTIONNAIRE (continuation…)

How should it be analyzed?

The Quantification of Qualitative Survey Data
Surveys can be analyzed by collating the frequency of responses to each of
the questions on the survey form. This can be done manually using a
“frequency table”, which can be easily set up on an Excel spreadsheet to
analyze descriptive statistics.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
B. INTERVIEWS
What is the method?
One of the most popular and frequently used methods of gathering
information from people about anything is by interviewing them. It is also the
most popular method used within the social sciences. There is a continuum of
formality around interviewing and it covers a multitude of techniques, from
informal “chats” maybe arranged as “vox-pops” right through to highly
structured, formal interviews, taped and transcribed. The different types and
styles of interview elicit very different types of information. Conducting
interviews is an interpersonal process and as an investigator you must be very
aware of your own behaviors and assumptions in the context. Interviews are
not “neutral” social spaces and you must be respectful and maintain
appropriate boundaries at all times.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
B. Interviews (continuation…)

Interviews are a qualitative method of research often used to

obtain the interviewees’ perceptions and attitudes to the issues.
The key issue with interviewing is making decisions about who
are the key people to talk to and what type of interview are you
going to use.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
B. Interviews (continuation…)

Interview Style
There are three clearly identifiable styles of interview- structured,
semi structured and unstructured:
Structured - Follows a set of specific questions, which are worked
through systematically. This type of interview is used when the
researcher wishes to acquire information where the responses
are directly comparable.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
B. Interviews (continuation…)

Semi-structured - This is a more commonly used interview

technique that follows a framework in order to address key
themes rather than specific questions. At the same time it allows a
certain degree of flexibility for the researcher to respond to the
answers of the interviewee and therefore develop the themes and
issues as they arise.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
B. Interviews (continuation…)

Unstructured - This method of interview does not follow any

predetermined pattern of questions or themes. Rather, the
interviewer will address the issues as they emerge in the
interview. The method is useful when the researcher wishes to
explore the full breadth of a topic.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
B. Interviews (continuation…)

Interview Type
These are some of the types of interviews:
Fact finder - This type of interview is used to obtain specific information
from an interviewee and usually includes structured or standardized
interview questions (the wording of the questions and the order in which
they are asked is the same). It is used when some information is already
known and there is a need to gain a more in-depth insight. An example of
when a fact finder interview would be appropriate is when interviewing a
project officer as part of an evaluation of their project. Quantitative (or ‘hard’)
information is usually already known (such as outputs and funding data),
therefore the interview could be used to discover qualitative information that
the hard data cannot portray, such as the ‘softer’ outcomes of the project.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
B. Interviews (continuation…)
Interview Type continuation…
Idea generator - In many respects, this type of interview is the opposite of
the fact finder interview. It is used when the interviewer has no
preconceptions about what might be discovered over the course of the
interview and results can be used to set the parameters or framework for
the study. Interview questions are loosely structured allowing maximum
flexibility to explore a range of issues. Idea generator interviews are usually
applied at the start of a research project in order to discover and explore
issues from a particular group or community. For example, in order to
develop a community cohesion strategy, idea generator interviews may be
used to find out what community cohesion means to different groups in the
community.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
B. Interviews (continuation…)
Interview Type continuation…
Exploratory - These are the most frequently used type of interview as they
are relevant to most types of research project. They are usually conducted
with representatives that have a strategic role to play in the research. These
types of interview require some degree of prior knowledge about the
research subject as they are about testing hypotheses, making connections
between other elements of the research, ensuring the strategic fit and
progressing the findings of the research forward (e.g. senior officials from a
local authority may be interviewed using this method in order to find out
future plans and priorities and how they fit in with others’ plans and
priorities).
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
B. Interviews (continuation…)
Interview Type continuation…

Experiential - This type of interview aims to draw out people’s feelings,

perceptions and experiences over a specific period of time (e.g. the duration
of a regeneration program or project). This provides rich, in-depth material
about how the subject under investigation has affected an individual’s life
on a personal level. Experiential interviews may be used to elicit
information from people who have benefited from a community project or
who live in an area that has received regeneration monies. Therefore these
interviews can map the feelings and impressions that any changes have
made and add a ‘story’ to the quantitative or ‘hard’ data.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
B. Interviews (continuation…)

When should I use this method?

Interviews are typically used when seeking the views and opinions of
people with a specific perspective. They can be conducted by phone or face
to face. They offer particular advantages in terms of acquiring information,
which might not otherwise be shared in a group setting.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
B. Interviews (continuation…)
Interview Type continuation…
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
B. Interviews (continuation…)

What type of data is produced?

The nature of the data will vary depending on the specific type of inter
view undertaken by the researcher. Some people prefer to take their
own notes, others prefer to tape and transcribe verbatim, a lot depends
on the preference of the interviewer.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
B. Interviews (continuation…)
How can I analyze and use the data?
The information obtained from interviews can be used in two key ways:
Thematic generation - identifying and drawing upon common themes
across the interviews;

Citation - directly quoting parts of the interview in the main body of the
report.

Quotes have to be referenced properly. For example, you may wish to refer
to the title of the interviewee in identifying who made the quote (e.g.
project manager). Remember that some information provided during
interviews may be confidential. In such cases, you should only refer to the
broad theme or argument being made rather than identifying who said it.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)

C. DISCUSSION GROUPS

What is the method?

Discussion groups (also known as ‘focus’ groups) are an example of a
technique imported into social research from market research. They have
been widely used in political circles to “road test” policies. A discussion
groups consists of a number of individuals you invite to discuss their views
on a particular topic, typically involving between 6 and 12 people, which is
conducted specifically to get a group of people’s views on a subject. Groups
can be constructed in order to attempt to recreate demographics.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
C. DISCUSSION GROUPS (continuation…)

When should it be used?

Discussion groups are best applied when rich, in-depth material from a
number of people is required. Being part of a group often creates a more
relaxed atmosphere than a one-to-one interview. Therefore, information
gathered from discussion groups is often more varied than if participants had
been interviewed on a one-to-one basis. Another advantage of using
discussion groups, as opposed to one-to-one interviews, is that they provide
in-depth information from a number of individuals simultaneously, making it
a time effective method of gathering data.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
C. DISCUSSION GROUPS (continuation…)

What do I need to consider?

Practical issues
Discussion groups usually last one hour or so and include between six to twelve
participants. Participant recruitment is very important and can be done through a
range of methods, including client contact lists, existing networks and databases,
advertising in appropriate public places and via the media, and ‘hanging around’
places asking people to join in. These varied methods of recruitment mean that
discussion groups can be targeted at different participants, including groups
traditionally considered ‘hard to reach’, such as young people and people from
Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) backgrounds. Incentivizing participants for their
time requires some ethical consideration. However, expenses for travel should
always be provided, as well as food and sometimes vouchers or cash payment.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
C. DISCUSSION GROUPS (continuation…)
What do I need to consider? Practical issues (continuation…)
Decide on the make up of the groups - identify the key groups and
individuals that you need to speak to depending on what you need to find out.
Identify the individuals you need to contact. You may know of people directly
or you may require the assistance of others to provide you with a ‘route in’ to
finding participants (e.g. project staff, community champions). If this is the
case, simply outline what you intend to do and enquire as to who they think
the best people to involve in the focus group would be. However, be aware
that you should try to attract a range of participants with different views and
experiences and that relying on one person to find all of your participants
may limit this taking place.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
C. DISCUSSION GROUPS (continuation…)
What do I need to consider? Practical issues (continuation…)

Arrange a location - ideally the discussion group should be held in a location

that is familiar to the participants, as this familiarity reduces the anxiety of
the participant. The next step is to contact all potential participants to invite
them to the group, tell them what it is about, and inform them of the time,
location etc. Ensure that you have more contact names than you need for the
discussion group as some people may not wish to be involved.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
C. DISCUSSION GROUPS (continuation…)

What do I need to consider?

Questions
The types of questions that could be asked during a discussion group can
be similar to interview questions, such as fact-finding, idea generating,
exploratory and experiential. The main rationale for choosing to undertake
group discussions as opposed to interviews should not be the type of
questions you are asking, rather to whom you are asking the questions.
Within group discussions having things to show or to demonstrate can
really help the discussion as people interact with each other and the
stimulus provided.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
C. DISCUSSION GROUPS (continuation…)

What do I need to consider?

Facilitation
Focus group facilitation is a very specific skill, groups are notoriously
susceptible to dynamics and can be quite difficult to “control”, consequently
if your requirements or parameters are very tightly defined then a focus
group may be inappropriate. Some people find such situations intimidating
and do not contribute as much as they would in a one-to-one situation
whilst some people may affect the dynamics by dominating proceedings.
• In preparing for the discussion, it is worthwhile having a shortlist of
questions, ideas and thoughts on the topic. The list could be useful in
starting the discussion and ensuring it flows continuously.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
C. DISCUSSION GROUPS (continuation…)
What do I need to consider? (continuation…) Facilitation (continuation…)
• Ask relevant and open questions so that the discussion has breadth. It is
important that the group has a discussion rather than a question and answer
session. Therefore try to steer clear of questions that are narrow and can be
answered easily without discussion.
• Encourage group interaction and participation. All members of the group
should make a contribution to the discussion. Try to avoid just one or two
people dominating.
• Pursue, capture and develop emerging issues. A good facilitator should spot
issues that are emerging in the discussion and try to get the group to discuss
them in more detail.
• Try to ensure that the discussion remains focused on the key themes or
issues.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
C. DISCUSSION GROUPS (continuation…)

What do I need to consider?

Recording the discussion
This can be done either through the use of a tape recorder or by taking
notes. Tape recording the discussion is useful in ensuring that no important
points are missed and enables the facilitator to focus on guiding the
discussion rather than taking notes. However, you will need to make sure
that you have a good quality tape recorder in order to pick-up the group
discussion. A good alternative is to have a note-taker sit in on the
discussion.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
C. DISCUSSION GROUPS (continuation…)

How should it be used?

Discussion groups are used when seeking the views, perceptions and
opinions of people in an open forum. They are often used when more in-
depth information is required than that which can be gained from a
questionnaire. Compared with interviews, they can be used when
confidentiality is not an issue and where it is felt that participants are more
likely to contribute within a group setting rather than on a one-to-one basis.
They can often be used to explore issues emerging from other types of
research (e.g. interviews, surveys) in more depth.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
C. DISCUSSION GROUPS (continuation…)

What is the output?

The discussion group produces qualitative data about thoughts, views,
experiences etc.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
C. DISCUSSION GROUPS (continuation…)

How should it be analysed?

Use the information from interviews to identify the relevant themes that
emerge from the discussions to put into your evaluation report. There are
also statistical packages that you can use to analyze this type of data
including:
NUD*IST: a qualitative data analysis package which enables non statistical
information from interviews, group work, observation etc. to be analyzed
according to chosen criteria. For example, it is possible to use the package to
pull out all material relating to key words or phrases (e.g. neighborhood
renewal). If recorded, you may not need to transcribe the whole discussion
but just make relevant notes from the tape. This will enable you to quote
directly from the discussion within your evaluation report, remembering to
adhere to any issues of confidentiality.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
C. DISCUSSION GROUPS (continuation…)

PROS AND CONS OF DISCUSSION GROUP

Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)

D. WORKSHOPS

What is the method?

Workshops are a group-based method of research in which there is an
emphasis on activity-based, interactive working. The focus is on everyone
participating and undertaking the work. Therefore, when using this type of
research technique, the researcher acts as a facilitator, rather than leading
the discussion or activity.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
D. WORKSHOPS (continuation…)

When should it be used?

There are a variety of reasons why it would be appropriate to hold
workshop sessions, including:
Raising awareness (e.g. about a new funding stream and how to apply);

Capturing views and information (e.g. about local service provision);

Building consensus (e.g. to take forward a draft strategy or action plan);

Developing skills and capacity (e.g. on how to implement emerging

government policy).
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D. WORKSHOPS (continuation…)

What do I need to consider?

Planning
Workshops need to be well planned, this will often involve establishing the
date/time/location of the workshop as early as possible; inviting potential
participants to the workshop by letter/email and requesting confirmation
of their attendance; distributing background papers and the
objectives/required outcomes of the workshop in advance; and preparing
practical aids for use in the workshop itself (e.g. photos, maps, flipcharts,
presentations, models).
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
D. WORKSHOPS (continuation…)
What do I need to consider? (continuation…)
Planning (continuation…)
Workshops vary in size according to the nature of the subject, the
specific group involved and the required outcomes of the session.
Workshops can contain as few as 4 participants and as many as 25.
The length of the workshop will vary depending on factors such as
the planned activities, the time available and the required outcomes.
Workshops can range in duration from one hour to full day sessions.
However, it is important to be aware of the time pressures under which
people work and to ensure that the scheduling and duration of the
workshop(s) is appropriate.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
D. WORKSHOPS (continuation…)

What do I need to consider?

Interactive
The emphasis during workshops is on participation. This can be
encouraged through stimulating debate (e.g. posing questions) and
encouraging collaborative working (e.g. group activities). A variety of
mechanisms can be employed to encourage interaction, including:
• Brainstorming; • Model making; • Physical and mental mapping;
• Ranking and prioritization; • Drawing and photography;
• Role play.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
D. WORKSHOPS (continuation…)

What do I need to consider?

Interactive (continuation…)
The techniques selected need to be tailored according to the specific
group of participants (e.g. strategic decision makers, project staff,
young people) and the outcomes required.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
D. WORKSHOPS (continuation…)
What do I need to consider? (continuation…)
Outcome focused
It is imperative that workshops have clear objectives and are grounded in
the required outcomes of the session. Key to the achievement of this are the
pre-workshop activities that are undertaken to design, plan and prepare for
the workshop itself (see above). The emphasis on outcomes is important
for all concerned – it enables a gathering of information, perceptions and
responses to contribute to the overall research, whilst enabling participants
to understand the focus of the session, which, in turn, allows them to play a
full role. If your participants understand your aims for the workshop, then
the session is likely to be more productive.
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D. WORKSHOPS (continuation…)

What is the output?

The output of a workshop will be dependent on the types of activities
undertaken, but may include flip chart material, drawings and diagrams
and lists of factors, possibly ranked. It is important that all materials and
notes from the workshop are collated, analyzed and fed into the research
findings.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
D. WORKSHOPS (continuation…)

How it should be analyzed?

QSR International’s NUD*IST & NVIVO computer packages enable non-
statistical information from group work, observations, audio, video,
pictures or documents to be analyzed according to chosen criteria. These
are powerful pieces of software that can provide clarity to a wide range of
often complicated written or media materials (see section on qualitative
survey analysis).
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)

E. OBSERVATIONS

What is observation?
Observation, sometimes referred to as “participant observation” or
“ethnography” is the key method of anthropology and in itself can consist of
a mix of techniques; informal interviews, direct observation, participation
in the life of the group, collective discussions, analyses of personal
documents produced within the group, self-analysis, and life histories,
notes, diaries and transcripts are often kept and the observation method
can generate a lot of written material which the investigator must
synthesize.
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E. OBSERVATIONS (continuation…)

What is observation? (Continuation…)

Participant observation is usually undertaken over an extended period
of time, ranging from several months to many years. An extended
research time period means that the researcher will be able to obtain
more detailed and accurate information about the people he/she is
studying.
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E. OBSERVATIONS (Continuation…)

When should it be used?

Observation is more appropriate when seeking to uncover:
Observable details
Like daily time allotment. For example, the popular management consultancy
technique of the “time and motion study” is a version of observation. The
investigator watches the activities and actions of people involved in a process
and works out the specific time allocation devoted to every single step, with
the objective of improving efficiency by cutting out unnecessary or time
consuming steps.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
E. OBSERVATIONS (Continuation…)
When should it be used? (Continuation…)
Group dynamics
If the subject of your enquiry is a collective, in this context more likely to be a
partnership board or steering group rather than a tribe or sub-culture, then
close attention to the dynamics of the interaction between the people
involved can be very illuminating. The observation method highlights
interpersonal relationships and the investigator can reflect upon social
proximity and distance, observe relationships and explore body language and
other behaviors.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
E. OBSERVATIONS (Continuation…)
When should it be used? (Continuation…)
More hidden details
Like taboo behavior. Observation can be effective in exploring or exposing
secrets or the underlying realities of situations, researchers can discover
discrepancies between what participants say – and often believe – should
happen (the formal system) and what actually does happen, or between
different aspects of the formal system; in contrast, a one-time survey of
people’s answers to a set of questions might be quite consistent, but is less
likely to show conflicts between different aspects of the social system or
between conscious representations and behavior.
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E. OBSERVATIONS (Continuation…)

What do I need to consider?

Observation as part of a mixed methods approach
Observation may be appropriate as a part of your research strategy but it is
unlikely that it would “stand alone” in the research contexts that we have
been describing. It is also worth remembering that it relies very heavily upon
the judgements, assumptions and prior knowledge and experience of the
observer themselves.
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E. OBSERVATIONS (Continuation…)
What do I need to consider?
Observation as part of a mixed methods approach

Reliability vs Validity
Participant observation (whether overt or covert) is not the most reliable
research method. Such studies, by their very nature, are impossible to repeat
and reliability can be further questioned in terms of the extent to which the
presence of the observer actually changes the behavior of those being studied.
As soon as you do or say anything at all, you have slipped from the role of
observer to participant, this boundary can be very hard to maintain.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
E. OBSERVATIONS (Continuation…)
What do I need to consider?
Observation as part of a mixed methods approach

Reliability vs Validity
Participant observers study people in their natural environment, gaining a
depth of insight into behavior that comes not simply from close, detailed,
observation but also from the researcher’s own experiences within the group
being studied – a technique that provides first hand insights into why people
behave as they do. Participant observation does not prejudge issues and
events (in the way a questionnaire may, for example) and, for these reasons it
is possible to argue that such a method provides data that has a high level of
validity.
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
E. OBSERVATIONS (Continuation…)
What do I need to consider?
Observation as part of a mixed methods approach

Skills required
Participant observation requires a great deal of skill and commitment from the
researcher. The success or failure of the research will hinge on such factors as the
ability to fit-in with the people being studied and the ability to communicate with
groups members on their level and terms. It will also, at different times, require
tact, clear and careful observation, the ability to separate the role of participant
from that of observer and so forth. In other words, before committing yourself to
participant observation you need to be certain you have the time, resources and
skills required to carry this type of research.
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E. OBSERVATIONS (Continuation…)

What is produced?
A key feature of participant observation is that data should be collected in ways
that cause as little disruption as possible to the ordinary activities of the research
context. The recording of information largely depends on the research situation.
Fieldnotes are generally kept and sometimes it is possible to use tape recorders
and video recorders. Whichever methods of recording information are used it is
important to be detailed and to devise a system that allows easy retrieval of
information.
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E. OBSERVATIONS (Continuation…)

How should the data be analyzed?

Analysis and interpretation of data is undertaken in a similar way to analyzing and
interpreting data gathered by other qualitative research methods, as detailed in
other sections of this handbook.
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E. OBSERVATIONS (Continuation…)
Qualitative survey in social research (continuation…)
F. Visual techniques

What is the method?

Visual techniques in social research offer an interesting, stimulating and
interactive approach to gathering information. They are appropriate in a variety
of situations, as they fulfil numerous functions. Visual methods such as drawing,
painting, video, photography and hypermedia offer increasingly accessible and
popular resources for research.
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F. Visual techniques

Types of visual research that you might want to consider:

Cartoon test – presented with a picture of a cartoon depicting a specific situation,
the consultees are then asked what they think the character would do, say or
think in response to another character.

Completion technique – using the cartoon test above, the character is shown
thinking or saying something but the sentence is left uncompleted. Participants
are given the opportunity to make suggestions to complete the sentence.
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F. Visual techniques

Types of visual research that you might want to consider:

Collage/concept boards – uses a range of images that can be used to represent
or describe the subject for discussion (e.g. services, project, issues etc). In this
way, the participants can identify the subject with a range of feelings and moods.
There are two ways to approach this technique; either the participants respond
to prepared boards or they construct their own collage or concept boards.

Ideas board – this board invites participants to jot down their ideas on post-it
notes and add them to the board which is grouped by theme.
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F. Visual techniques

Types of visual research that you might want to consider:

Mind mapping – visually representing information in an interesting format
without the limits or formality of standard written text. The open flowing format
appears to support the natural thinking process, which is thought to go on
randomly and in a nonlinear way.

Money well – an interesting way of asking participants to prioritize future actions

or developments. Participants are given a certain amount of fake money, which
they can place on the options displayed.
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F. Visual techniques

Types of visual research that you might want to consider:

Graffiti or ideas wall – a strip of paper is hung on the wall accompanied by
shapes, such as speech bubbles. The participants are able to write comments
about a research topic or discussion statement.

Film and video - video cameras are particularly well suited as data gathering
technologies for ethnography, participant observation, oral history, life history,
etc, preserving things that are not preserved in even the best researchers’ field
notes. Similarly, tape recordings preserve audible data not available in even the
most carefully annotated transcripts.
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F. Visual techniques

Types of visual research that you might want to consider:

Photographic research – consultees are either provided with a series of
photographs by the researchers or given a disposable camera or mobile phone
and asked to take their own. Depending on the nature of the research project,
these photos might include depictions of the local physical environment and/or
reflect how consultees view their community, including what they like and dislike
about it. The use of photographs in research can be used to evoke feelings or
trigger memories that lead to perspectives and explanations that would not have
been unlocked using a more conventional research technique.
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F. Visual techniques

When should it be used?

Deciding to conduct visual research will be dependent upon the type and scale of
the research that you are undertaking. It may be appropriate to conduct this type
of work at the start of the research process as a way of highlighting issues to be
examined further during the course of the process, or it may be something that is
developed as part of a blend of evaluation methodologies. Visual techniques can
be used in many settings, as an alternative to more traditional methods and may
be particularly useful as:
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F. Visual techniques

When should it be used?

• A method for effectively engaging hard to reach groups within areas (e.g. young
people). Pictures and photographs can help evoke opinions and allow the use of
imagination in expanding on a scene.

• Offering an alternative to traditional discussion groups, yet still being able to

draw out the rich variety of qualitative information from participants.

• For use within workshops, providing a task based activity to get members of a
group working and thinking together.
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F. Visual techniques

When should it be used?

• A method of producing tangible outcomes at the end of the research process
(e.g. series of community generated impacts illustrating how local people view
the local area).
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F. Visual techniques

What do I need to consider?

• Consider who should be involved in this type of visual research and that the
technique is appropriate for the type of audience you are seeking ideas and
opinions from.

• Ensure that research is conducted in a neutral venue where people will feel
comfortable and able to share their opinion freely.
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F. Visual techniques

What do I need to consider?

• Think about how the visual research will link into the rest of the methodology
and how you will use it to inform the evaluation process.

• If generating photographic or film media as part of the research, those people

photographed and filmed need to give their consent for their images to be used
for the purposes of research.
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F. Visual techniques

How should it be analyzed?

The interesting thing about data produced through visual research is that you
produce visual data, which can be used to illustrate your research and provide a
very immediate and real way of demonstrating how a project or program has
impacted upon local people and communities.
Thank your for listening….