Journal of Manufacturing Processes 102 (2023) 218–230

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro

Effect of microwave power on the hole characteristics in microwave-drilled

kenaf/polypropylene composites
Rampal , Sunny Zafar *
Composite Design and Manufacturing Research Group, School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Mandi 175075,
India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In the present work, holes were generated in kenaf/polypropylene composites using CNC controlled microwave
Microwave drilling drilling at different microwave powers (180 W, 360 W, 540 W, 720 W, and 900 W). The maximum extent of
Graphite concentrator plasma at different microwave powers was evaluated using high-speed camera images. The surface morphology
Plasma
of the drilled holes was analysed using the SEM micrographs at the entrance, centre, and exit of holes. These
Kenaf/polypropylene composite
Surface roughness
three locations were also evaluated for their surface roughness using an optical profilometer. The 900 W of
microwave power recorded 34.7 mm as the maximum extent of plasma sphere, which was 114 % higher than
that at 180 W microwave power. The holes drilled at 900 W of microwave power recorded the maximum surface
roughness owing to the widely spread plasma sphere. Holes drilled at 360 W of microwave power were found to
have minimum surface roughness.

1. Introduction recyclable and abundant in nature [9]. When compared among natural
fibers, kenaf fibers act as the strong candidate for reinforcements. Kenaf
Fiber-reinforced polymer composites (FRPCs) utilize high strength fibers have less density and more tensile strength than some of the other
fibers embedded in the polymer matrix. The embedded fibers are held natural fibers, such as cotton, hemp, and sisal fibers [10]. Owing to these
together by polymer matrices that act as binders and protect the fibers attributes, kenaf-reinforced polymer composites find their applications
from chemical and environmental attacks [1,2]. Moreover, the matrices in packing material, mobile cases, insulations, bags, soilless potting
also transfer the load to the fibers during service. The FRPCs possess mixes, etc. [8]. Further, polymer matrices can be thermoplastics and
several unique attributes, such as, high strength-to-weight ratio, high thermosets. However, thermoplastics are preferred as they are recy­
stiffness, temperature and wear resistance, non-corrosiveness, dura­ clable and can be fabricated quickly [11,12]. The most commonly used
bility, and good fatigue properties [3–5]. Owing to these exquisite thermoplastics are polypropylene, polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride.
properties, the FRPCs find a wide range of applications. In the auto­ Among these, polypropylene owns some unique attributes, such as heat
mobile sector, they are used to make car bodies, drive shafts, brake pads, and fatigue resistance, toughness, and electrical and chemical resistance
and fuel tanks. In the aerospace sector, parts for aircraft, such as noses, [13].
doors, struts, and trunnions, are made using FRPCs. They are also used to It is difficult to manufacture large-sized FRPC parts due to the
manufacture structural parts of rockets and missiles, such as the body, requirement of enormous space and large capital investment. Even if
nose, and pressure and fuel tanks [6,7]. manufactured, the handling of large-sized FRPCs is challenging.
Fiber reinforcements in polymer matrices can be of natural or syn­ Therefore, FRPCs are manufactured in general and are fastened with one
thetic fibers [8]. Sisal, hemp, kenaf, flax, palm, cotton, and banana are another using bolts and/or rivets during assembly [14]. Good quality
commonly used natural fibers. Among synthetic fibers, glass, carbon, and precise holes are required in FRPC parts for fastening. Conventional
basalt, and kevlar fibers are commonly used as reinforcements. How­ drilling of FRPCs induces some well-known damages such as delami­
ever, natural fibers are preferred over synthetic fibers as reinforcements nation, fiber pull-out, fiber burning, and micro-cracking owing to the
in FRPCs owing to their numerous advantages. Natural fibers possess rigorous tool-workpiece interface [15–18]. These damages significantly
low cost, low weight, less toxicity, less environmental pollution, and are reduce the residual strength of composites and, therefore, are

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: d21039@students.iitmandi.ac.in (Rampal), sunnyzafar@iitmandi.ac.in (S. Zafar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.07.052
Received 3 May 2023; Received in revised form 17 July 2023; Accepted 20 July 2023
Available online 25 July 2023
1526-6125/© 2023 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Rampal and S. Zafar Journal of Manufacturing Processes 102 (2023) 218–230

Table 1
Properties of kenaf/polypropylene workpiece and graphite tool [33–38].
1
Material Density (kg Specific heat (J Melting point Thermal conductivity (W m− K− 1) Electrical conductivity (Ω− 1
m− 1)
m− 3) kg− 1 K− 1) (◦ C)
Along the thickness (Z Along X-Y Along the thickness (Z Along X-Y
direction) plane direction) plane
4 4 15 15
Kenaf/polypropylene 931 1700 194 9.28 × 10− 8.58 × 10− 9.20 × 10− 1.11 × 10−
composite
Graphite 2090–2230 706 3726 167.47 107

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic of CNC controlled microwave drilling experimental set-up, (b) actual photograph of CNC controlled microwave drilling set-up.

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detrimental for the service life of riveted and bolted joints [19]. Table 2
Delamination is also one of the major concerns in abrasive water jet Process parameters in microwave drilling.
drilling of FRPCs where fibrous layers are separated from one another by Process parameters Specifications
the impact of high-velocity water jet [20]. Water impingement generates
Workpiece material and thickness 7 mm thick kenaf/polypropylene composites
the crack that further propagates and causes delamination in FRPCs. Tool material and diameter 2 mm diameter graphite tool
Furthermore, laser drilling of polymer composites having thermally Tool shape Cylindrical shank and conical tip
conductive embedded fibers causes the generation of tapered holes Initial tool-workpiece gap 2 mm
[21,22]. Heat generated from the focused laser beam is conducted Dielectric medium Air
Plasma-holding time 2s
through the fibrous composite around the machining zone. It causes a Tool feed rate 125 mm/min
difference in ablation at the top and bottom of the surface and thus Microwave power 180 W, 360 W, 540 W, 720 W, and 900 W
produces tapered holes. The laser drilling set-up also involves large Microwave frequency 2.45 GHz
capital investment [23].
Microwave drilling is a novel technique that uses the energy of
work due to its higher melting point. Tool tips are subjected to high
electromagnetic waves (within the microwave energy band) to produce
temperature plasma. Lower melting point materials such as copper and
holes in materials irrespective of their electrical properties. Energy of
SS cannot retain their shape and melt at such elevated temperatures.
electromagnetic waves is being utilized in numerous material processing
However, graphite provides good thermal stability at higher tempera­
techniques, such as melting, casting, joining, sintering, brazing, clad­
tures. Relevant properties of the workpiece and tool material are given
ding, and coating [24]. Diversity in the usage of electromagnetic waves
in Table 1.
is attributed to their number of useful attributes. Energy of electro­
Microwave drilling is thermal energy-based drilling process where
magnetic waves is environment friendly, causes the volumetric heating
energy of electromagnetic waves is focused at a particular location to
of materials that further reduces the thermal gradient, and alleviates the
generate high-temperature plasma [39]. In this study, a CNC controlled
processing time also [25]. In the same context, microwave drilling
microwave drilling set-up was fabricated that comprised of a microwave
concentrates the energy of electromagnetic waves at the tip of the tool in
applicator, concentrator, tool holder, stepper motor, motor driver, DC
the form of high-temperature plasma [26]. Interaction of plasma and
power unit, breakout board, Mach3 software-installed computer, and
workpiece melts/decomposes the workpiece material and the tool ad­
high-speed camera (Fig. 1). Microwave applicator (Make: LG, Model:
vances into it. A hole is created in the workpiece when the tool is pulled
MC2886BLT) housed a Teflon fixture to hold the FRPC sample, a tool/
out of it. Microwave drilling so far has been conducted on glass, plastics,
concentrator that was held in a stainless-steel tool holder, and a shaft
ceramics, silicon, concrete, and bone [27]. With elucidations of the
that connected the tool holder with the plate which is provided upward
microwave drilling phenomenon, Jerby et al. successfully drilled elec­
and downward motion by the stepper motor. Teflon, being a microwave
trically non-conductive materials, such as alumina and concrete [28].
transparent material, does not attenuate the microwave field in the
Eshet et al. employed the microwave drilling technique to produce holes
applicator cavity [32]. Moreover, the minor gap between the hole dril­
in fresh wet bone where they studied the mechanical properties of
led at the top surface of microwave applicator and the inserted shaft was
drilled holes [29]. Lautre et al. drilled Perspex material using microwave
completely covered by an aluminium foil in order to avoid the micro­
drilling technique where copper litz wire acted as the concentrator [30].
wave leakage. Aluminium foil reflects the microwaves and does not
The authors predicted the optimum position of tool and workpiece in­
allow them to escape the applicator cavity.
side the microwave applicator for optimum heat generation.
The DC power unit (output: 0–6.25 A, 24 V) converted the high
Therefore, it can be said that variety of materials have been drilled
voltage AC power supply to the 24 V DC power output that is fed to the
using this novel technique, however, no work has been reported on the
motor driver (working range: 4.2 A, 18–50 V DC). The controlling sig­
microwave drilling of FRPCs till date. Delamination is the prominent
nals in the form of G-codes were transferred from open source Mach3-
reason for the rejection of fibrous composites [31]. However, it may be
installed computer to the motor driver through a breakout board that
absent or negligible in the microwave drilling of FRPCs as the damage-
acted as a controller. Further, the motor driver read the controlling
inducing mechanical forces are absent in the microwave drilling tech­
signals, and sent the required voltage and current to the stepper motor
nique. Moreover, plasma is generated at the tip of the tool that gradually
(28 kg-cm torque). It resulted in the upward and downward motion of
advances into the workpiece due to the automatic/gravity feed [32]. The
the aluminium plate through a lead screw connected to the motor shaft.
plasma approaches the exit of the hole, and therefore, less tapered holes
Aluminium plate is further connected to the shaft that held the tool
are expected in the microwave drilling of FRPCs. Therefore, in the
holder. Therefore, the vertical motion of the tool is automatically
present work, holes were produced in kenaf-reinforced polypropylene
controlled using Mach3 software through a set of G-codes. The G-codes
composites using the microwave drilling technique. The drilling exper­
used in the present work are mentioned in the Supplementary file. A
iments were carried out at 180 W, 360 W, 540 W, 720 W, and 900 W of
high-speed camera (Make: Photron, Model: SA 1.1) was employed to
microwave power on CNC controlled drilling setup. The effect of mi­
capture the extent of plasma sphere during microwave drilling of the
crowave power on the hole characteristics was studied in terms of sur­
workpiece.
face roughness and morphology of the drilled holes. The spread of the
The FRPC sample was held in fixture at the height of 30 mm and was
plasma sphere at various microwave power levels has been correlated to
placed at the centre of microwave cavity. The 30 mm was a suitable
material removal mechanisms.
height that acted as one of the hotspot regions. The 2 mm diameter
graphite concentrator having a sharp conical tip, was placed 2 mm
2. Experimental
above the surface of workpiece. The feed rate was provided to the tool
during the operation of drilling. Such feed rate was opted after con­
2.1. Materials and methodology for microwave drilling
ducting number of pilot experiments. Initial plasma holding time was 2
s. Plasma held for 2 s before the drilling ensured the softening of poly­
Kenaf-reinforced polypropylene composite with 8 wt% reinforce­
propylene matrix that further provided ease of drilling. The process
ment was selected as the workpiece. Bidirectional kenaf fibers were
parameters in microwave drilling of kenaf/polypropylene composites
embedded in polypropylene matrix to produce composites using
are tabulated in Table 2.
microwave-assisted compression molding technique. In microwave
With the variation of microwave power, the duration for which the
drilling, graphite, copper, stainless steel (SS) etc. could be selected as the
plasma appears, also changes. As per observations, microwaves are not
tool material (concentrator) due to the presence of free electrons in
continuously generated in the applicator. There are two time-related
them. However, graphite was selected as the tool material in the present

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Table 3 applicator in a number of cycles of exposure and idle times. The expo­
Approximate exposure and idle times at various microwave powers. sure time is the least for 180 W of microwave power and is highest for
Microwave power (W) Exposure time (s) Idle time (s) 900 W i.e., maximum power. Approximate exposure and idle times at
various microwave powers are listed in Table 3.
180 8 24
360 14 18
540 20 12
720 26 6
2.2. Mechanism of plasma generation
900 Continuous –
Graphite concentrator is held by a tool holder in the microwave
cavity. The concentrator was surrounded by air molecules that act as a
terms that can be introduced; one is “exposure time,” and the other is dielectric fluid (Fig. 2, Stage-1). When the microwave power is turned
“idle time”. The time for which microwaves are allowed into the on, electromagnetic waves enter the applicator through the waveguide.
applicator is called exposure time. Following the exposure time is the Under the influence of electromagnetic waves, free electrons of the
idle time for which the microwaves are turned off. During the idle time, graphite concentrator arrange themselves onto the surface in order to
there is no generation of plasma sphere. Both, exposure time and idle cancel out the effect of applied electromagnetic waves (Stage-2) [37].
time together constitute one cycle. Therefore, microwaves access the Electrons have a higher tendency to get accumulated at the tip/edges

Fig. 2. Mechanism of plasma generation in microwave drilling technique.

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Fig. 3. Material removal mechanism in microwave drilling of kenaf/polypropylene composites.

due to their extremely high mobility [40]. Therefore, electron accu­ 2.3. Material removal mechanism in microwave drilling
mulation (shown as a blue shade at the surface) at the sharp conical tip is
much higher than that at rest of the surface of the concentrator. This High-temperature plasma is generated at the tip of the concentrator.
results in greater charge density at the conical tip. Due to the vertically downward feed, the concentrator gradually comes
The accumulated charge at the conical tip induces an electric field near the kenaf/polypropylene composite (Fig. 3, Stage-1). Surface of the
around it [41]. The induced electric field can be represented by electric composite is comprised of the polypropylene matrix. Polypropylene,
field lines. These lines do not cross each other and are pointed towards being a thermoplastic polymer, melts at around 171 ◦ C [44]. Due to the
the conical tip when negative charge accumulation is there. Moreover, heat of continuously generating plasma, a thin molten layer is produced
the electric field is stronger where electric field lines are close to each at the surface of the composite (Stage-2). A hotspot region is also formed
other i.e., around the conical tip. The strong electric field zone is shown around the thin molten layer that softens the matrix material in its vi­
in stage-3 which consists of some air molecules in its vicinity. When the cinity. The concentrator gradually moves downwards, and so does the
induced electric field exceeds the ionization potential of air (dielectric high-temperature plasma. Further interaction of the plasma sphere en­
fluid), the air gets ionized [37]. At the time of ionization, the accumu­ larges the molten layer. The incite of drilling zone is depicted at stage-3.
lated electrons at the sharp conical tip have enough energy to jump out Polypropylene forms a molten pool around the plasma sphere. In be­
of the tool material (Stage-4) [42]. Therefore, some of the electrons tween the plasma and molten pool, there exists a Knudsen layer. The
jump out and collide with surrounding air molecules. The electron-air Knudsen layer is a thin layer of vapors that is formed above the molten
collisions energize the electrons of air molecules and make the air pool by the action of plasma heat [45]. Polypropylene vapors can also be
molecules to lose more electrons. Such emission of electrons from air seen at the surface above the machining zone. Most of the material is
molecules results in the generation of positive ions and more free elec­ removed in the form of vapors from the machining zone. Moreover, the
trons in the vicinity of the ionized zone (Stage-5). When high-energy molten material is expunged out of the machining zone by the action of
electrons and positive ions recombine with each other, then large surface pressure. This pressure is applied by continuously generating
amount of heat and light are liberated, which take the form of plasma plasma sphere and the automatically controlled vertically downward
(Stage-6) [43]. Therefore, the recombination of electrons and positive feed [37]. Further, reinforced kenaf fibers get burn when they come in
ions generates high-temperature plasma that is further employed to drill contact with the plasma sphere. Therefore, with automatic feed, the tool
polymer composites. Microwave induced plasma sphere can attain the gradually advances into the workpiece and the material is removed in
temperature as high as 4100 K [40]. the form of vapors and molten expunge (stage-5). When the tool is pulled

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Fig. 4. Generated plasma spheres and their high-speed camera images at various microwave powers. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

out of the workpiece, then a hole is created in the kenaf/polypropylene profilometer (Make: Bruker, Model: CONTOURGT-K). Therefore,
composite. average peak-to-valley surface roughness was evaluated at the entrance,
centre, and exit of the drilled holes. The experiments were conducted
five times at each parametric combination in order to ensure the
2.4. Hole characterization
repeatability.

A high-speed camera (Make: Photron, Model: SA 1.1) was employed

3. Results and discussion
to capture and observe the plasma generation and drilling of kenaf/
polypropylene composite. The extent of plasma at different microwave
3.1. Effect of microwave power on the plasma generation
powers was evaluated using high-speed camera images with the help of
imageJ software. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Make: FEI, USA,
The electromagnetic waves access the microwave cavity through the
Model: NOVA, NANO SEM) was used to observe the morphology of
waveguide. The total power (PT) carried by electromagnetic waves into
drilled surface along the thickness. Three-dimensional surface rough­
the microwave cavity is:
ness plots of the drilled surface were captured using an optical

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Fig. 5. The SEM micrographs and surface roughness plots at the entrance, centre, and exit of the drilled holes at 360 W microwave power.

aw bw 2 electric field zone is also wider that included a greater number of air
PT = E (1)
4 Z0 rms molecules in its vicinity. Moreover, larger number of electrons jumped
out of the tool tip owing to the higher energy of electromagnetic waves
where, aw and bw are the transverse dimensions of the waveguide, Z0 is above 180 W of microwave power. The electrons leaving the tool tip
the waveguide characteristic impedance, and Erms stands for the root further collided with air molecules. The number of electron-air collisions
mean square value of the electric field in electromagnetic waves. The per unit volume (NC) can be written as:
Erms is the term related to the amplitude of electromagnetic waves and is
directly proportional to the square root of the total applied microwave NC = ne na πr2 v (2)
power [46].
During exposure of electromagnetic waves, electrons accumulated where, ne and na are the particle density of electrons and air molecules,
on the surface of the concentrator. The electron accumulation is repre­ respectively, r is the radius of air molecules, and v is the average velocity
sented by blue shade at the surface (Fig. 4). The charge density at the tip of electrons [47]. Larger particle density of electrons (ne) and air mol­
was much higher, which further induced the electric field (represented ecules (na) in the vicinity of strong electric field zone at higher micro­
by electric field lines). The extent of strong electric field zone comprised wave powers ended up with more electron-air collisions (NC) and
some air molecules that, after getting ionized, generated plasma sphere. therefore, greater plasma spheres were generated.
The high-speed camera image of generated plasma was taken while The greater extent of plasma spheres at higher microwave powers
drilling polymer composite at 180 W of microwave power (Fig. 4(a)). can also be justified by the power absorbed by the plasma sphere (Pabs)
The maximum extent of the plasma was found to be 16.2 mm along the per unit volume V, i.e.:
length of fixture. Pabs 1 e2 ν2
The amplitude of electromagnetic waves increased with an increase = ne E2 (3)
V 2 me ν ν + ω2 0
2

in microwave power from 180 W to 900 W (Eq. (1)). Higher amplitude

carried more energy and, therefore greater electron accumulation was where, ne is the particle density of electrons, e and me are the charge and
there at the surface and tip of the concentrator. Greater charge density at mass of electron, respectively, ν is the electron–air collision frequency,
the tool tip induced more electric field that is represented by more and E0 is the amplitude of electromagnetic waves whose angular fre­
electric field lines at higher microwave powers (Fig. 4(b–e)). The strong quency is denoted by ω [48].

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Fig. 6. The SEM micrographs and surface roughness plots at the entrance, centre, and exit of the drilled holes at 180 W of microwave power.

It can be observed that greater amplitude (E0) of electromagnetic centre, a few air molecules surrounded the tool tip as the tool was
waves and larger electron density (ne) at the tool tip at higher microwave completely surrounded by composite material. Therefore, plasma gen­
powers resulted in the larger absorption of microwave power by the eration was not as rigorous at it was at the entrance which resulted in
plasma sphere. Increased power absorption further increased the extent limited vaporization of composite material and generated small pits.
of plasma sphere at higher microwave powers. The maximum extent of Microcracks were also found at the drilled surface. It was attributed to
plasma spheres was recorded as 19.7 mm, 24.1 mm, 28.9 mm, and 34.7 the generation of residual thermal stresses in the drilled composite [49].
mm at 360 W, 540 W, 720 W, and 900 W of microwave powers, The coefficient of thermal expansion of polypropylene matrix and kenaf
respectively. fiber was evaluated as 118 × 10− 6 K− 1 and 9.7 × 10− 6 K− 1, respectively.
High-temperature plasma heated the composite above its melting point.
3.2. Effect of microwave power on the hole characteristics Once the hole is produced, the drilled composite was cooled to the
ambient temperature and it got solidify. During solidification, volu­
3.2.1. Effect of 360 W of microwave power on the hole characteristics metric shrinkage of the composite occurred. Owing to the difference in
Fig. 5 shows the sectional view of a hole along its thickness drilled at volumetric shrinkage of fiber and matrix, the residual thermal stresses
360 W of microwave power. The SEM images and surface roughness are generated that produced microcracks at the drilled surface. Less
plots are depicted at the entrance, centre, and exit of the drilled holes. surface irregularities at the centre are confirmed by its lowered RZ value
Plasma was quite rigorous at the entrance of hole having the maximum of 163.5 μm (Fig. 5(d)).
extent of 19.7 mm (Fig. 4(b)). It was due to the abundance of air mol­ At the exit of hole, when the tool tip just came out of the composite, it
ecules around the sharp conical tip for plasma generation at the got enough air molecules to generate a widely spread plasma sphere.
entrance. Rigorous plasma vaporized the matrix material which resulted Increased plasma extent increased the surface irregularities. The same
in the generation of craters and small pits (Fig. 5(a)). Recast layers are are depicted in Fig. 5(e), where expunged material and small pits are
also located at the entrance. These are the molten material at the located. These are the result of the local vaporization of composite
machined surface that later on got solidify. Fig. 5(b) shows the irregu­ material. Embedded kenaf fibers in the resolidified matrix were also
larities at the entrance of hole in the form of a surface roughness plot. found at the exit of hole. Fibers were burnt by the plasma sphere at the
The machined surface at the entrance recorded 275.8 μm average peak- vicinity of tool, and some were swept along with the tool that got embed.
to-valley surface roughness (RZ). This increase in surface irregularities at the exit is justified by the
Comparatively few surface irregularities were observed at the centre increased Rz value to 187.8 μm (Fig. 5(f)). Moreover, the exposure time
of drilled surface due to the confined plasma sphere (Fig. 5(c)). At the of approx. 14 s at 360 W of microwave power ensured the complete

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Fig. 7. The SEM micrographs and surface roughness plots at the entrance, centre, and exit of the drilled holes at 540 W of microwave power.

drilling of polymer composite. Therefore, the maximum Rz value is surface at 360 W of microwave power. Further, on its way to the exit of
observed at the entrance of hole owing to the rigorous plasma genera­ the hole, the tool also swept some fibers with it (Fig. 6(e)). These
tion, whereas the minimum Rz value is observed at the centre of embedded fibers in resolidified matrix accounted for the surface
machining surface due to confined plasma sphere. roughness (Rz) of 204.8 μm. Therefore, material accumulation at the
centre of hole recorded maximum surface roughness, whereas the
3.2.2. Effect of 180 W of microwave power on the hole characteristics minimum was observed at the exit of hole while drilling composite at
At 180 W of microwave power, the generated plasma was compar­ 180 W of microwave power.
atively weak having the maximum extent of 16.2 mm (Fig. 4(a)).
Therefore, irregularities were found in the form of a few small craters at 3.2.3. Effect of 540 W of microwave power on the hole characteristics
the entrance of hole (Fig. 6(a)). Surface roughness plot also recorded a The hole entrance at 540 W of microwave power recorded a higher
lesser Rz value of 218.4 μm when compared to that at the entrance of surface roughness (Rz) of 289.5 μm when compared to that at 360 W of
360 W microwave drilled hole. microwave power. Large area of vaporized matrix, some embedded fi­
Although the plasma is confined at the centre of the machining bers, and small pits on the machined surface were the reason behind this
surface yet a hike in the surface roughness was observed (Rz: 230.5 μm). (Fig. 7(a, b)). The 24.1 mm spread plasma sphere (Fig. 4(c)) resulted in
This was attributed to the increased surface irregularities at the centre of the rigorous vaporization of the matrix material. Moreover, localized
machining surface due to material accumulation by the tool motion vaporization of material at the hole entrance resulted in the formation of
(Fig. 6(c)). Microwaves at 180 W of microwave power have an exposure small pits that contributed in the increase of surface roughness. Less
time of approximately 8 s in one cycle. Therefore, when the tool surface irregularities were observed as the tool advanced from the
approached the centre of machining surface, plasma sphere got disap­ entrance to the centre of the machined surface. Resolidified matrix
pear. With no plasma at the tip, further drilling was carried by hot tool. material is located in Fig. 7(c). Graphite deposits were also observed at
The material in contact with the tool got soften and the tool advanced the machined surface. These were the graphite separations from the tool
through it. The tool cooled on its way to the exit of hole. Therefore, part surface during the plasma generation. Less surface irregularities at the
of the softened composite material got stick to the tool surface and was centre lowered the surface roughness to 178.5 μm.
swept by the tool during its upward (withdrawal) motion. The swept At the exit of hole, the extent of plasma suddenly proliferated that
material to the centre increased the surface irregularities that resulted in induced more asperities at the surface (Fig. 7(e)). Graphite deposits are
an increase in Rz value even higher than that at the centre of drilled located along with some microcracks at the exit of machined surface.

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Fig. 8. The SEM micrographs and surface roughness plots at the entrance, centre, and exit of the drilled holes at 720 W of microwave power.

Microcracks might have generated due to the residual thermal stresses observed. Increased value of surface roughness at the exit of hole vali­
induced while drilling the fibrous composite [50]. Small pits were also dated the higher surface damage due to the sudden appearance of
formed as a result of local vaporization of the composite material. The enlarged plasma. Therefore, following the initial trend, microwave-
increased surface damage resulted in a hike in surface roughness and drilled holes at 720 W of power recorded maximum surface roughness
recorded the RZ value of 233.5 μm at the exit of hole (Fig. 7(f)). at the entrance and minimum surface roughness at the centre of drilled
Therefore, surface roughness was found the maximum at the entrance holes.
and the minimum at the centre of the drilled surface.
3.2.5. Effect of 900 W of microwave power on the hole characteristics
3.2.4. Effect of 720 W of microwave power on the hole characteristics The 34.7 mm spread plasma sphere at 900 W of microwave power
The 28.9 mm spread plasma sphere at 720 W of microwave power (Fig. 4(e)) generated more surface irregularities when compared to that
(Fig. 4(d)) resulted in more damage to the drilling surface at the at 720 W of microwave power. Big craters can be seen at the entrance of
entrance of hole. Big craters were formed as a result of intense vapor­ machined surface (Fig. 9(a)). These were the result of intense vapor­
ization by rigorous plasma sphere (Fig. 8(a)). Embedded fibers are also ization of composite material. Large-sized craters recorded the highest
located that might have stuck into the molten matrix which later on got surface roughness of 377.6 μm at the entrance. Owing to the confined
solidify. Greater damage at the entrance of hole recorded the surface plasma sphere, the workpiece recorded small pits and irregularities at
roughness of 322.9 μm which was even higher than that at 540 W of the centre of drilled surface (Fig. 9(c)). Comparatively fewer surface
microwave power (Fig. 8(b)). Confined plasma sphere at the centre irregularities at the centre, lowered the surface roughness value to
didn't produce big craters at the machined surface. However, it melted 249.0 μm. The plasma got widen as the tool tip approached the exit of
and vaporized the composite material in its vicinity. Burnt fibers the workpiece, which further increased the surface damage with more
embedded in resolidified matrix are shown as recast layers in Fig. 8(c). irregularities on it (Fig. 9(e)). Embedded fibers in the resolidified matrix,
The reduced damage at the centre also lowered the surface roughness to and small pits were observed at the surface of drilled hole. Microcracks
236.2 μm. The plasma got increase as the tip came out of the composite were also induced at the exit of machining zone as a result of residual
material. It increased the damage at the exit of hole than it was at the thermal stresses. Increased surface irregularities at the exit increased the
centre of the drilled surface. Expunged matrix material owing to the value of surface roughness to 297.8 μm. Advocating the trend, machined
vaporization is located in Fig. 8(e). Small pits can also be seen at the surface at the hole entrance recorded maximum surface roughness and
surface. Moreover, molten material that got resolidify later was also its minimum value is observed at the centre of drilled hole.

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Fig. 9. The SEM micrographs and surface roughness plots at the entrance, centre, and exit of the drilled holes at 900 W of microwave power.

Therefore, microwave power of 900 W recorded the maximum extent • The extent of plasma sphere is found directly proportional to the
of plasma sphere, which was 114 % higher than that at 180 W of mi­ applied microwave power. It was due to the increased ionization at
crowave power (Fig. 10(a)). Moreover, the drilled holes at 900 W of higher microwave powers. The plasma at 900 W of microwave power
microwave power recorded average peak-to-valley surface roughness of recorded the maximum extent of 34.7 mm.
377.6 μm at the entrance of drilled surface. It was 73 % higher than that • Greater plasma extent induced more surface irregularities and
at the entrance of drilled holes at 180 W of microwave power (Fig. 10 therefore, surface roughness of the holes increased with increased in
(b)) Further, maximum surface roughness was found at the entrance microwave power. The drilled surface at 900 W of microwave power
whereas the minimum value of it was observed at the centre of drilled recorded the maximum surface roughness of 377.6 μm at the
surface at most of the microwave power levels. It was attributed to the entrance of hole.
variation in availability of air molecules at different locations for the • Entrance of the holes recorded maximum surface roughness owing to
generation of plasma sphere. At the entrance, greater number of air the widely spread plasma sphere. The minimum surface roughness
molecules surrounded the tool tip, resulting in widened plasma sphere was observed at the centre of drilled hole due to the confined plasma
that further caused more surface roughness. However, less availability of sphere.
air molecules at the centre of drilled surface generated confined plasma • The holes drilled at 180 W of microwave power recorded higher
sphere that resulted in comparatively less rough surface. surface roughness at the centre when compared to that at 360 W of
microwave power. The disappearance of plasma sphere owing to the
4. Conclusions least exposure time and material accumulation at the centre of
drilled surface are the reasons behind this.
Holes were generated in kenaf/polypropylene composite using the • Microwave power of 360 W is recommended to drill kenaf/poly­
microwave drilling technique. The extent of plasma sphere was evalu­ propylene composites in order to get minimum overall surface
ated and the influence of microwave power on the hole characteristics roughness of the drilled holes. Enough exposure time at 360 W of
was studied. The following conclusions can be drawn from the above microwave power generates plasma that lasts long and ensures
discussions: complete drilling of the polymer composite.

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Fig. 10. (a) The maximum extent of plasma spheres at different microwave powers, (b) average peak to valley surface roughness (Rz) at the entry, centre, and exit of
the drilled holes at different microwave powers.

Funding the work reported in this paper.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding Acknowledgment
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Authors would like to acknowledge assistance received to operate
CRediT authorship contribution statement high speed camera facility during experimentation of microwave dril­
ling form Mr. Saurabh Patel, Ph.D. student of School of Mechanical and
Rampal: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Materials Engineering, IIT Mandi.
Data curation, Investigation. Sunny Zafar: Supervision, Formal anal­
ysis, Resources, Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing. Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.

Declaration of competing interest
org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.07.052.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence

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