Process Dynamics

Process control
• Process: The conversion of feed materials to products using
chemical and physical operations.

• Process control is the branch of automatic control concerned

with production plants in the chemical, petrochemical, food and
related industries.

• Process control plays a critical role in ensuring proper operation

of the plant, in terms of safety, product quality and profitability.
A “primitive” level control system. A “primitive” temperature-control system

Elements of a “primitive” temperature-control system

A computer-based temperature-control system.
Basic elements of a feedback control system and their interconnections
Representative cases of process system transients: (a) fast transient, (b) slow transient, (c) delayed transient, (d) oscillatory
transient and (e) unstable transient.
 NEED FOR PROCESS CONTROL

• A plant during its operation must satisfy many operational requirements such as

• Product quality

• Constraints handling

• Safe operation

• Economic operation

• Pollution control
 Types of control system
• Open loop control system

• Closed loop control system

 Types of Control System
Lumped parameter vs Distributed Parameter

• Control system that can be described by ordinary differential

equations are lumped-parameter control systems.

d 2x dx
M =C + kx
dt 2 dt
• Whereas the distributed parameter control systems are described
by partial differential equations.

2
x x  x
f1 + f2 =g 2
dy dz dz
 Types of Control System
Continuous Data Vs Discrete Data System

• In continuous data control system all system variables are function

of a continuous time t.
x(t)

• A discrete time control system involves one or more variables that

are known only at discrete time intervals.
X[n]

n
 Types of Control System
Deterministic vs Stochastic Control System

• A control System is deterministic if the response to input is

predictable and repeatable.
x(t) y(t)

t t

• If not, the control system is a stochastic control system

z(t)

t
Classification of Control Systems
Control Systems

Natural Man-made

Manual Automatic

Open-loop Closed-loop

Non-linear linear
Non-linear linear

Time variant Time invariant

Time variant Time invariant
 Transfer Function
• Then the transfer function G(S) of the plant is
given as
Y (S )
G( S ) =
U (S )

U(S) G(S) Y(S)

13
 Open loop control system

Figure 1. Block diagram of open-loop control system

Where, r(t) – Input or Reference signal or set point

m(t) – Manipulated variable
d(t) – Disturbance
y(t) – Output or Controlled variable
Open loop control system

Figure 2. Water level control system (Open-loop)

Closed loop control system

Figure 3. Block diagram of closed-loop control system

Closed loop control system

Figure 4. Water level control system (Closed-loop)

 Mathematical model of liquid level system

Mass balance equation

Liquid-level system.
(1)
R - flow resistance (valve)

qo (t) - outflow rate (volume/time) The volumetric flow rate qo (volume/time) is related to the head h as follows

q(t) - Inflow rate

(2)
  Liquid density
 Mathematical model of liquid level system

Combining Eqs. (1) and (2) to eliminate qo (t)

(3)

We will introduce deviation variables into the analysis before proceeding to the transfer function. Initially, the process is
operating at steady state, which means that dh / dt = 0

(4)

where the subscript s indicates the steady-state value of the variable

Subtracting Eq. (4) from Eq. (3) gives

(5)
If we define the deviation variables as

then Eq. (5) can be written

(6)

Taking the Laplace transform of Eq. (6)

Liquid-Level Process with Constant-Flow Outlet
(1)

At steady state
(2)
Subtracting Eq. (1) from Eq. (2) and introducing the
deviation variables Q=q-qs and H=h-hs s give

(3)
The same assumptions of constant cross
sectional area and constant density that
were used before also apply here. Taking the Laplace transform

(4)

Notice that the transfer function 1/ As in Eq. (4) is equivalent to integration.

Clearly, if we increase the inlet flow to the tank, the level will increase because the outlet flow remains constant.
NONINTERACTING AND INTERACTING SYSTEMS

Non-interacting system Interacting system

 NONINTERACTING SYSTEM A balance on tank 1 gives
(1)

A balance on tank 2 gives

(2)

The flow-head relationships for the two linear resistances are

(3)

we shall assume the liquid to be of constant (4)

density, the tanks to have uniform cross-sectional
area, and the flow resistances to be linear. Combining Eqs. (1) and (3)

(5)
The problem is to find a transfer function that relates
h2 to q, that is, H2 ( s )/ Q ( s ).

Combining Eqs. (2) and (4)

(6)
NONINTERACTING SYSTEM

We can obtain the overall transfer function H2 ( s )/ Q ( s ) by

multiplying Eqs. (5) and (6) to eliminate Q1 ( s ):

The overall transfer function of Eq. (6.7) is the product of two first-order transfer functions, each of which
is the transfer function of a single tank operating independently.
 Generalization for Several Noninteracting Systems in Series

We have observed that the overall transfer function for two noninteracting first-order systems connected in series is
simply the product of the individual transfer functions.

Step response of noninteracting first-order systems

in series.

To obtain the overall transfer function, we simply multiply the individual transfer functions;
Two noninteracting tanks are connected in series as shown in Fig. The time constants are
τ1=1 and τ2= 0.5; R2 =1. Sketch the response of the level in tank 2 if a unit-step change is
made in the inlet flow rate to tank 1.
Solution:
The transfer function for this system is

For a unit-step change in Q, we obtain

Inversion by means of partial fraction expansion gives

Substituting in the values of τ1, τ2 and R2 gives

INTERACTING SYSTEM
The flow-head relationship for R2 is

(4)

At steady state
(5)

(6)
Subtracting Eq. (5) from Eq. (1) and Eq. (6) from Eq. (2) and
introducing deviation variables give

(7)

(1) (8)
Expressing Eqs. (3) and (4) in terms of deviation variables gives
(2)

(9)
However, the flow-head relationship for R1 is

(10)
(3)
Transforming Eqs. (7) through (10) gives

These equations may be combined to eliminate Q1 , Q2 , and H1 and to arrive at the desired transfer function
To understand the effect of interaction on the transient response of a system, consider a two-tank system for which the
time constants are equal (τ1= τ2 = τ).
If the tanks are interacting, the overall transfer function
If the tanks are noninteracting, the transfer function
relating inlet flow to outlet flow is (assuming further that A1, A2)

The unit-step response for this transfer function can be By application of the quadratic formula, the denominator of this
transfer function can be written as

The response of Q2 ( t ) to a unit-step change in Q ( t ) is

 Batch process and continuous process

Batch Process
• Batch process refers to a process that consists of a sequence of one or more steps that should be
performed in a defined order.

• A finite quantity of the product is produced at the end of the sequence, which is repeated in order to
produce another product batch.

• Generally, batch is a process that results in the production of limited quantities of material through
subjecting quantities of raw materials to a set of processing activities over a significant period of time
with the use of one of more piece of equipment.

• Processing of successive batches must wait until the completion of the current batch.
 Batch process and continuous process

Continuous Process
• A continuous process, on the other hand, refers to a processing that involves moving a single work
unit at a time between every step of the process without any breaks in time, substance, sequence or
extend.

• As the name suggests, the flow of product or material is continuous. Every machine operates in a
steady state and performs a certain processing function.

• For majority of applications, continuous flow saves costs, energy and time.

• When this process is properly implemented, it can reduce waste, improve quality by making it easier
to identify and correct errors, increase productivity and adapt to the needs of customers more
efficiently than batch processing.
Batch processes:

Some typical batch processes.

Continuous processes:

Some typical continuous processes.

 Continuous process Vs Batch process

Evaluating the advantage and disadvantages of every type of process is important to determine
which one would work best for the given problem.

When it comes to the cost of equipment, continuous process is more expensive than the low
process. However, when comparing the production rate, continuous have lower rate than the
continuous one. The shut-down times in continuous process is rare, whereas it happens quite
more often in a batch process.

If you don’t have enough manpower to perform the work, you can benefit more with a continuous
process, as it requires a fewer people than its counterpart. In terms of ease of automation, batch
process is relatively more difficult than the continuous process.

Both continuous and batch processes are vital in the production of materials or products. Having a
deeper understanding of each of them can help to make an informed decision in the end.
 Continuous process Vs Batch process
Batch Process Continuous Process

Continuous process refers to the flow of a single unit of

Batch process refers to a process that involves a
Definition product between every step of the process without any
sequence of steps followed in a specific order.
break in time, substance or extend.

Scheduling is done to maintain the timing between Each machine performs a certain processing function
Coordination
move to earth. and they operates in a steady state.

Quantities
A whole unit of products are produced. Large quantities of products are obtained.
produced
Product life span Short, 1-2 years Longer than batch process
Cost of factory
Low cost equipment High cost equipment
equipment

Control batch process requires sophisticated control

Controlling Batch process can be controlled very easily
systems
Shut Down times Often Rare

Continuous process is generally available in fully

Workforce Small workforce is needed automated plants. If not, large workforce will be
necessary.
Degrees of Freedom (DoF)

In control engineering, a degree of freedom analysis is necessary to determine the regulatable

variables within the chemical process. These variables include descriptions of state such as
pressure or temperature as well as compositions and flow rates of streams.

DoF:

The number of process variables over which the operator or designer may exert control.
Specifically, control degrees of freedom include:
1.The number of process variables that may be manipulated once design
specifications are set
2.The number of said manipulated variables used in control loops
3.The number of single-input, single-output control loops
4.The number of regulated variables contained in control loops
 Servo and regulatory operations

Regulatory control or disturbance rejection. This refers to the control of the system output at a constant set point
in the face of disturbance variations.

Servo control or set-point tracking. This refers to the control of the system output when the set point changes, in
the absence of disturbances.

Regulator problem: Manipulate the system input to counteract the effects of disturbances.

Servo Problem (i.e. tracking problem): Manipulate the system input to keep the output close to a given
reference trajectory, e.g. minimize the difference between the output and the reference trajectory.
 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAMS (P & ID) of Control Loop

• The piping and Instrumentation diagrams are the schematics used by technicians, operators and engineers to know the
details pertaining to the interconnection of equipment and the instrumentation used for controlling the process.

• They provide information about the type of instrument, variable being measured, location of the instrument, type of
connecting lines, etc., in the process.

• The International society of Automation (ISA) – S5.1 defines the procedure to represent: symbols, graphical
elements, abbreviations, functional blocks, connecting lines, alpha/numeric identification codes etc., for formulating
the P & I diagram.

• The ISA S5.1 defines four graphical elements namely: discrete instruments, shared control/display, computer function
and programmable logic controller (PLC).

• These four graphical elements are grouped into three categories depending on the location namely: primary location,
auxiliary location and field mounted.
 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAMS (P & ID) of Control Loop

The discrete elements are represented by the symbols shown in the form of circular elements, shared control/display
elements are indicated by circles surrounded by a square, and computer functions are represented by hexagon and PLC
that are shown by a diamond inside a square.

A horizontal line across the graphical element indicates that the element is placed in the primary location
 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAMS (P & ID) of Control Loop

A double horizontal line indicates the auxiliary location, dotted line indicates that the location is behind the panel and no line
indicates that the element is field mounted.
 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAMS (P & ID) of Control Loop

Instrument symbols Process signals and their symbols

PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAMS (P & ID) of Control Loop
PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAMS (P & ID) of Control Loop
PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAMS (P & ID) of Control Loop
PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAMS (P & ID) of Control Loop