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8.1 Active fault. A fault that is likely to have both sudden slip on a fault, and the resulting
another earthquake some time in the future. ground shaking and radiated seismic energy
Faults are commonly considered to be active if caused by the slip, or by volcanic or magmatic
they have moved one or more times in the pas.t activity, or other sudden stress changes in the
Aftershocks. Earthquakes that follow the largest earth. Earthquake hazard. Anything associated
shock of an earthquake sequence. They are with an earthquake that may affect the normal
smaller than the mainshock and continue over a activities of people. This includes surface
period of weeks, months, or years. In general, faulting, ground shaking, landslides,
the larger the mainshock, the larger and more liquefaction, tectonic deformation, tsunamis, and
numerous the Aftershocks, and the longer they seiches.Earthquake risk. The probable building
will continue. Alluvium. Loose gravel, sand, silt, damage, and number of people that are expected
or clay deposited by streams. Aseismic. This to be hurt or killed if a likely earthquake on a
term describes a fault on which no earthquakes particular fault occurs. Earthquake risk and
have been observed. earthquake hazard are occasionally used
interchangeably. • Epicentre. The point on the
8.2 Attenuation. When you throw a pebble in a earth's surface vertically above the point in the
pond, it makes waves on the surface that move crust where seismic rupture begins.
out from the place where the pebble entered the
water. The waves are largest where they are 8.2.2 Fault. A fracture along which the blocks of
formed and gradually get smaller as they move crust on either side have moved relative to one
away. This decrease in size, or amplitude, of the another parallel to the fracture. Strike-slip faults
waves is called attenuation. Basement. Harder are vertical (or nearly vertical) fractures where
and usually older igneous and metamorphic the blocks have mostly moved horizontally. If
rocks that underlie the main sedimentary rock the block opposite to an observer looking across
sequences (softer and usually younger) of a the fault moves to the right, the slip style is
region and extend downward to the base of the termed right lateral; if the block moves to the
crust. Bedrock. Relatively hard, solid rock that left, the motion is termed left lateral. Dip-slip
commonly underlies softer rock, sediment, or faults are inclined fractures where the blocks
soil; a subset of the basement. Benioff zone. A have mostly shifted vertically. If the rock mass
dipping planar (flat) zone of earthquakes that is above an inclined fault moves down, the fault is
produced by the interaction of a downgoing termed normal. Whereas if the rock above the
oceanic crustal plate with a continental plate. fault moves up, the fault is termed reverse (or
These earthquakes can be produced by slip thrust).Oblique-slip faults have significant
along the subduction thrust fault or by slip on components of both slip styles. Foreshocks.
faults within the downgoing plate as a result of Foreshocks are relatively smaller earthquakes
bending and extension as the plate is pulled into thatPrecede the largest earthquake in a series,
the mantle. Also known as the Wadati-Benioff which is termed the mainshock. Not all
zone.Body wave. A seismic wave that moves mainshocks have foreshocks.
through the interior of the earth, as opposed to
the surface waves that travel near the earth’s 8.2.3 Hypocentre. The point within the earth
surface. P- and S-waves are body waves. Crust. where an earthquake rupture starts. Also
The outermost major layer of the earth, ranging commonly termed the focus.Intensity. A number
from about 10 to 65 km in thickness worldwide. (written as a Roman numeral) describing the
The uppermost 15 to 35 km of crust is brittle severity of an earthquake in terms of its effects
enough to produce Earthquakes. on the earth’s surface and on humans and their
structures. There are many intensity values for
8.2.1 Core. The innermost part of the earth. The an earthquake, depending on where youAre,
outer core extends from 2500 to 350 miles below unlike the magnitude, which is one number for
the earth’s surface and is liquid metal. The inner each earthquake. Intraplate and interplate.
core is the central 500 miles and is solid Intraplate pertains to process within the earth’s
metal.Earthquake. This term is used to describe crustal process between the plates.Plates.
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Isoseismal. A contour or line on a map bounding evidence that considers the earth’s crust and
points of equal intensity for a particular upper mantle to be composed of several large,
earthquake.Left-lateral. If you were to stand on thin, relatively rigid plates that move relative to
the fault and look along its length, this is a type one another. Slip on faults that define the plate
of strike-slip fault where the left block moves boundaries commonly results in earthquakes.
toward you and the right block moves Several styles of faults bound the plates,
away.Lithosphere The outer solid part of the including thrust faults along which plate
earth, including the crust and uppermostMantle. material is subducted or consumed in the
The lithosphere is about 100 km thick, although mantle, oceanic spreading ridges along which
its thickness is age dependent (older lithosphere new crustal material is produced, and transform
is thicker). The lithosphere below the crust is faults that accommodate horizontal slip (strike
brittle enough at sorme locations to produce slip) between adjoining plates.Rayleigh wave. A
earthquakes by faulting, such as within a seismic surface wave causing the ground to
subducted oceanic plate Love wave. A type of shake in an elliptical Motion, with no transverse,
seismic surface wave having a horizontal motion or perpendicular, motion.Recurrence interval.
that is transverse for perpendicular) to the The average time span between large
direction the wave is travelling. earthquakes at a particular Site. Also termed
return period.
8.3 Magnitude. A mumber that characterizes the
relative size of an earthquake. MagnitudeIs 8.3.2 Reflection: The energy or wave from an
based on measurement of the maximum motion earthquake that has been returned (reflected)
recorded by a seismograph. Several Scales have from a boundary between two different
been defined, but the most commonly used are materials within the earth, just as a mirror
(1) local magnitude (M)Commonly referred to as Reflects light.Refraction. The deflection, or
“Richter magnitude,” (2) surface-wave bending, of the ray path of a seismic wave
magnitude (Ms). (3)Body-wave magnitude (mg), caused by its passage from one material to
and (4) moment magnitude (Mw). Mainshock. another having different elastic properties.
The largest earthquake in a sequence, sometimes Bending of a tsunami wave front owing to
preceded by one or more foreshocks, and almost variations in the water depth along a
always followed by many aftershocks.Mantle. coastline.Right-lateral. If you were to stand on
The part of the earth’s interior between the the fault and look along its length. This is a type
metallic outer core and the crust. of strike-slip fault where the right block moves
toward you and the left block moves away.Ring
of Fire. The zone of earthquakes surrounding
8.3.1 Moho. The boundary between the crust the Pacific Ocean which is called the Circum-
and the mantle in the earth. The boundary is Pacific belt about 90% of the world’s
between 25 and 60 km deep beneath the earthquakes occur there. The next most seismic
continents and between 5 and 10 km deep region (5-6% of earthquakes) is the Alpide belt
beneath the ocean floor.Oceanic spreading ridge. (extends from Mediterranean region, eastward
A fracture zone along the ocean bottom where through Turkey, Iran, and northern India).S-
molten mantle material comes to the surface, wave. A seismic body wave that shakes the
thus creating new crust. This fracture can be ground back and forth perpendicular to the
seen beneath the ocean as a line of ridges that direction the wave is moving, also called a shear
form as molten rock reaches the ocean bottom wave. Sand boil. Sand and water that come out
and solidifies.Oceanic trench. A linear onto the ground surface during an earthquake as
depression of the sea floor caused by the a result of liquefaction at shallow depth.Seismic
subduction of one Plate under another. P-wave. gap. A section of a fault that has produced
A seismic body wave that shakes the ground earthquakes in the past but is now Quiet. For
back and forth in the same direction and the some seismic gaps, no earthquakes have been
opposite direction as the wave is moving.Plate observed historically, but it is believed that the
tectonics. A theory supported by a wide range of fault segment is capable of producing
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earthquakes on some other basis, such as plate- associated with retail spaces and parking
motion information or strain measurements. garages, they are often on the lower stories of a
building, which means that when they collapse,
8.3.3 Seismicity: The geographic and historical they can take the whole building down with
distribution of earthquakes. Seismic moment. A them, causing serious structural.Rcc structures
measure of the size of an earthquake based on is code :Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has
the area of fault Rupture, the average amount of the following seismic codes: IS 1893 (Part I),
slip, and the force that was required to overcome 2002, Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake
the friction sticking the rocks together that were Resistant Design of Structures (5th Revision) IS
offset by faulting. Seismic moment can also be 4326, 1993, Indian Standard Code of Practice for
calculated from the amplitude spectra of seismic Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction
waves.Seismic zone. An area of seismicity of Buildings (2nd Revision) IS 13827.The load
probably sharing a common cause. Example: combinations. are mainly used in building
“The Himalayan Zone.” • Seismogenic. Capable design. The combination of two or more loads
of generating earthquakes.Seismogram. A with suitable factor of safety namely 1.5, 1.2 or
record written by a seismograph in response to 0.9 is called as load combination. As per the
ground motions produced by an earthquake, gravity loads and as per the lateral loads the
explosion, or other ground-motion load combinations are varies. These
sources.Seismology. The study of earthquakes combinations will helps to filter the maximum
and the structure of the earth, by both naturally reinforcement values and maximum bending
and artificially generated seismic waves. Interior moments for the particular structures.Since
of earth. The crust, the mantle, and the core are earthquakes are caused by the movement of
the three layers that make up the earth. The core plates, the boundaries of the plates are the weak
only forms 15 per cent of the Earth’s volume, zones where earthquakes are more likely to
whereas the mantle occupies 84 per cent. The occur. The weak zones are also known as seismic
remaining 1 per cent is made up of the crust. or fault zones.

8.3.4 D’Alembert’s Principle.For a system of 8.3.5 Measurements of earthquake ..structural

mass of particles, the sum of the difference of the engineers are concerned that with the effect of
force acting on the system and the time earthquake groundmotions on the structures .i.e
derivatives of the momenta is zero when the amount of danange potential depends to a
projected onto any virtual displacement.A large extend on the size of the earth quake . The
dynamic load. is any load that changes over severity of an earthquake can be assisted in the
time. These type of loads exert forces onto a following ways . It’s easier to measure the
structure that are often much greater than their magnitude because unlike the intessity which
static equivalents. For example, someone can varry with location and has no mathematical
jumping up and down will exert a greater force backing, the magnitudes of a particular
on the floor than someone standing still. earthquake remains constant ..The magnitude is
Deterministic’ and ‘non-deterministic’. If the a number that characterizes the relative size of
magnitude, point of application of the load and an earthquake. Magnitude is based on
the variation of the load with respect to time are measurement of the maximum motion recorded
known, the loading is said to be deterministic by a Seismograph4. Several scales have been
and the analysis of a system to such loads is defined, but the most commonly used are Local
defined as deterministic analysis..A scheme of magnitude (ML), commonly referred to as
energy dissipation devices and/or seismic base “Richter magnitude,” (2)Surface-wave
isolation systems applied to the structure to magnitude (Ms), (3) body-wave magnitude (Mb),
reduce its vibrations without using external and (4) moment Magnitude (Mw). Scales 1-3
power. Passive Control Techniques and their have limited range and applicability and do not
Applications in Historic Structures.This soft Satisfactorily measure the size of the largest
story collaps. creates a major weak point in an earthquakes. The moment magnitude (Mw)
earthquake, and since soft stories are classically scale, based on the concept of seismic moment, is
IS 800: 2007

uniformly applicable to all Sizes of earthquakes requirements for earthquake resistance, such as
but is more difficult to compute than the other the strength of materials, design of structural
types. All Magnitude scales should yield elements, and construction techniques.Seismic
approximately the same value for any given zoning: Areas prone to earthquakes are often
Earthquake..Earthquake Intensity measurement divided into seismic zones based on the
is an on-the-ground description. The likelihood and intensity of seismic activity.
measurement explains the severity of earthquake Building regulations may vary depending on the
shaking and its effects on people and their seismic zone.Foundation design: Buildings in
environment. Intensitymeasurements will differ earthquake-prone areas typically require deep
depending on each location’s nearness to the and strong foundations to withstand the shaking
epicenter. There can be multiple intensity and ground movement during an
measurements as opposed to one magnitude earthquake.Structural design: Buildings must be
measurement.It manifests the degree of damage, designed to resist lateral forces caused by
which gets diminished as we go away from the earthquakes, such as shear and overturning
Main shock source zone and the reverse is also forces. This may involve using reinforced
true5.there are several earthquake Intensity concrete, steel frames, or other materials to
scales, which can be referred from the relevant strengthen thestructure.Non-structural
pages. Modified marcalli scale (1931) & medved elements: Regulations may also cover non-
spoonhever – karnik (msk -64). structural elements, such as facades, windows,
and interior partitions, to ensure they do not
8.4 Seismograph/Seismometer: Earthquake pose a hazard during an earthquake.Retrofitting
recording instrument, seismograph has a base requirements: In some cases, existing buildings
that Sets firmly in the ground, and a heavy may need to be retrofitted to meet current
weight that hangs free2.When an earthquake earthquake resistance standards. This may
causes the ground to shake, the base of the involve strengthening structural elements or
seismograph shakes too, but the hanging weight adding bracing to improve the building's ability
does not. Instead the spring or string that it is to withstand seismic forces.Quality control:
hanging from absorbs all The movement. The Regulations may also include requirements for
difference in position between the Shaking part quality control during construction to ensure
of the seismograph and the motionless part is that materials are used properly and that the
What is recorded. Measuring Size of building is constructed according to the
Earthquake…Earthquake resistant building approved design..
regulations :Earthquake-resistant construction
requires that the building be properly grounded 8.4.2 Guidelines:IS 1893 (Part 1): 2016 – Criteria
and connected through its foundation to the for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures:
earth. Building on loose sands or clays is to be This code provides guidelines for the seismic
avoided, since those surfaces can cause excessive design of buildings and structures, including
movement and nonuniform stresses to develop factors such as seismic forces, ductility
during an earthquake. Furthermore, if the requirements, and detailing of reinforcement.IS
foundation is too shallow, it will deteriorate, and 4326: 2013 – Earthquake Resistant Design and
the structure will be less able to withstand Construction of Buildings: This code specifies
shaking. The foundation should therefore be requirements for the design and construction of
constructed on firm soil to maintain a structure earthquake-resistant buildings, including aspects
that settles uniformly under vertical related to foundation design, structural systems,
loading.Building codes: Most countries have and retrofitting of existing buildings.IS 13920:
building codes that specify minimum 1993 – Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete
requirements for earthquake resistance, such as Structures Subjected to Seismic Forces: This
the strength of materials. code covers the detailing requirements for
reinforced concrete structures to ensure ductility
8.4.1 Regulation:Building codes: Most countries and energy dissipation during earthquakes.IS
have building codes that specify minimum 875 (Part 1): 1987 – Code of Practice for Design
 IS 800: 2007

Loads (Other than Earthquake) for Buildings and braced frames, which are designed to
and Structures: This code provides guidelines dissipate seismic energy and reduce damage to
for the calculation of various design loads on the structure.
buildings, such as dead loads, live loads, wind
loads, and snow loads.IS 13935: 2013 – 8.4.4 Detailing of Reinforcement: Proper
Guidelines for Repair and Seismic Strengthening detailing of reinforcement is crucial in seismic
of Buildings: This code outlines the design to ensure that the structure can deform in
requirements for repairing and strengthening a ductile manner during an earthquake. This
existing buildings to improve their seismic involves specifying the size, spacing, and
performance.IS 456: 2000 – Code of Practice for placement of reinforcement bars in concrete
Plain and Reinforced Concrete: This code elements to enhance their strength and
specifies the requirements for the design and ductility.Foundation Design: The foundation of a
construction of plain and reinforced concrete structure plays a critical role in its seismic
structures, including quality control measures performance. Engineers design foundations that
for materials and construction practices.IS 3370 can effectively transfer seismic forces from the
(Part 1): 2009 – Code of Practice for Concrete superstructure to the ground while maintaining
Structures for Storage of Liquids: This code stability and preventing excessive settlement or
provides guidelines for the design and overturning.Construction Practices: During
construction of concrete structures, including construction, it is essential to follow best
requirements for materials selection, durability practices for seismic design, including quality
considerations, and construction practices.. control measures for materials, proper
installation of reinforcement, and adherence to
8.4.3 Seismic design methods:Seismic Hazard construction standards and specifications
Assessment: The first step in seismic design is to outlined in relevant building codes… band
assess the seismic hazard at the project site. This techniques:Band techniques in building
involves determining the level of ground shaking construction refer to the use of horizontal bands
that the structure is likely to experience during or belts of reinforcement within a structure to
an earthquake. Seismic hazard assessment enhance its seismic performance. These bands
considers factors such as the location of active are typically made of reinforced concrete or steel
faults, historical seismic activity, and local soil and are strategically placed at different levels of
conditions.Structural Analysis: Once the seismic the building to resist lateral forces generated by
hazard has been determined, structural earthquakes. Band techniques are commonly
engineers perform a structural analysis to used in seismic design to improve the overall
evaluate the response of the building or strength, stiffness, and ductility of a structure.
structure to seismic forces. This analysis 8.4.5 Some common types of band techniques
considers factors such as the mass, stiffness, and include:Shear Walls: Shear walls are vertical
damping characteristics of the structure, as well elements that provide lateral resistance to the
as the expected ground motion.Design Criteria: building. By incorporating shear walls at
Based on the seismic hazard assessment and strategic locations within the structure, such as
structural analysis, engineers establish design along the perimeter or core, designers can create
criteria to ensure that the structure can resist a continuous band of resistance that helps
seismic forces. These criteria may include distribute seismic forces and prevent excessive
requirements for strength, ductility, and deformation..Belt Trusses: Belt trusses are
detailing of reinforcement to enhance the horizontal trusses or beams located at
structure’s ability to deform without collapsing intermediate levels of a building to provide
during an earthquake.Selection of Structural additional lateral support. By connecting
Systems: Engineers select appropriate structural columns or walls with belt trusses, designers can
systems based on the seismic design criteria and create a rigid belt that resists lateral forces and
the specific requirements of the project. helps control the distribution of seismic loads
Common seismic-resistant structural systems throughout the structure.Tie Beams: Tie beams
include moment-resisting frames, shear walls, are horizontal elements that connect columns or
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walls to provide additional lateral stability. By space, vertical and horizontal components of
incorporating tie beams at different levels of the particle motion are 90” out of phase in such a
building, designers can create a continuous band way that as the wave propagates, the particle
of reinforcement that helps resist seismic forces motion describes a retrograde ellipse in the
and improve the overall structural direction of wave propagation.layer overlying
performance.Diaphragms: Diaphragms are the half-space. When the angle of reflection at
horizontal elements, such as floors or roofs, that the base of soil layer is more than the critical
transfer lateral forces between vertical elements, angle, SH-waves are trapped in the soil layer.
such as walls or columns. By designing The constructive interference of reflected SH-
diaphragms to act as rigid plates that distribute waves from the top and bottom of the soil layer
seismic loads, designers can create a unified generate horizontally travelling Love waves. The
system that enhances the overall stability and particle motion is in horizontal plane and
strength of the structure… transverse to the direction of wave propagation.
The velocity of Love wave lies between the
8.6 Waves:Seismic waves are classified into two velocity of S-wave in the soil layer and in the
groups: body waves, which travel through the half-space. The velocity of Love wave with short
earth in all directions and to all depths, and wavelength is close to the velocity S-wave in soil
surface waves, whose propagation is limited to a layer and velocity of longer wavelength Love
volume of rock within a few seismic wavelengths wave is close to the S-wave velocity in half-space.
of the earth’s surface. The uses and analysis
methods for the two types of waves are 8.6.1 Explain the interior of earth with diagram
substantially different. Body waves are used for in black and white: The interior of the earth is
resource exploration purposes and for the study divided into three layers- Crust, Mantle, and
of earthquakes. Surface waves are used to Core. Crust refers to the outermost layer of the
delineate the layered-earth structure.Two types earth, the mantle is the portion of the interior
of body waves exist: compressional waves (P) beyond the crust and Core refers to the
and shear waves (S). P-waves are similar to innermost layer of the earth.
sound waves. They obey all the physical laws of
the science of acoustics. The mass particle
motion of a P-wave is in the direction of the
propagation of the wave. In addition, P-waves
cause a momentary volume change in the
material through which they pass, but no
concomitant momentary shape change occurs in
the material.S-waves, or shear waves, as they are
commonly called, move in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of particle motion.
Vertically and horizontally polarised S-waves
are known as SV-wave and SH-wave,
respectively. They are sometimes called
secondary waves.A disturbance at the free
surface of a medium propagates away from its
source partly as seismic surface waves. Surface 8.6.2 Distinguish the term tectonic plates and
waves, sometimes known as L-waves, are plate tectonic: The difference between plate
subdivided into Rayleigh (L) and Love waves tectonics and tectonic plates comes down to
(LQ). These surface waves are distinguished objects and actions. Tectonic plates are the
from each other by the type of motion of different pieces of the Earth's crust that move
particles on on their wavefronts.Lord Rayleigh around as they float on top of the mantle. Plate
(1885) described the propagation of Rayleigh tectonics is how those pieces move and interact
wave along the free surface of semi-infinite with each other.
elastic half-space. In the homogeneous half-
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8.6.3 What is D'Alembert's Principle? For a

system of mass of particles, the sum of the
difference of the force acting on the system and
the time derivatives of the momenta is zero when
projected onto any virtual displacement.

Thus in general form that is in a system of

particles with variable mass, it is written as:
∑i(Fi−mivi−Mivi).σri=0