Writing Effective Paragraphs

A paragraph is a sentence or group of sentences set off as a unit. Usually all the
sentences in a paragraph can be related to a single main idea.

The main problems affecting paragraphs are focus and development. A poorly focused
paragraph is difficult to understand because there seems to be no relation between the
individual sentences. A paragraph may appear to be poorly focused because it is (the
writer tries to cover too many ideas instead of focusing on the single important idea),
or because the writer has not provided transitions to connect the ideas together.

A poorly developed paragraph can be well-written, but it is usually ineffective and

unpersuasive. Poor development usually results from an over-reliance on
generalization (and a parallel lack of specific detail), and a misunderstanding of
audience. Often, the writer leaves out important information, such as background and
context for someone else's idea, description of setting, definition of a key term, or
evidence to support an assertion. The writer omits such information because she or he
believes the reader already knows it and would be "bored" by seeing it again.

This section contains some basic advice for good paragraphs.

Focus on a Main Idea

Most paragraphs have recognizable main ideas. The main idea is simply what the
paragraph is about, and may be stated in a topic sentence which occurs at the
beginning of the paragraph, or may be so obvious that it is implied.

All other sentences in the paragraph should be related to and contribute to the main
idea.

Use Specific Details

An effective paragraph develops the main idea with enough detail to hold the reader's
attention and explain the writer's ideas. Too little detail produces boring and abstract
paragraphs. Too much detail produces unfocused paragraphs that overwhelm the
reader.

Develop using a Pattern

The structure of a paragraph can take almost an infinite variety of forms. However,
certain patterns occur frequently.

Narration A narrative paragraph uses a story or part of a story to develop the main
idea. Often the story serves as anecdotal evidence in support of the main
idea, producing a paragraph similar to the example and illustration
pattern.

Description A descriptive paragraph uses specific details to create a clear idea of a

place, time, person, or object. Descriptive paragraphs show rather than
tell, and use details such as sensory details to help the reader construct a
"picture" of the scene.

Definition A definition paragraph provides a detailed definition of a key term in the

essay.

Example and An example or illustration paragraph illustrates a point with one or more
Illustration examples.

Division and A classification paragraph groups items into categories according to

Classification some specific principle. A division paragraph breaks a single item into
its parts according to some specific principle.

Comparison and A comparison paragraph looks at the similarities between two or more
Contrast items. A contrast paragraph looks at the differences between two or
more items. Sometimes items are both compared and contrasted.

Analogy Occasionally, analogies can be used to develop an idea. An analogy

draws a comparison between two items, usually for the purpose of
showing some surprising similarity.

Cause and Effect A cause and effect paragraph develops an idea by explaining the causes
of something or by showing the effects of something. The paragraph
might move from cause to effects or from an effect to its causes.

Process A process paragraph depicts or explains a process, often using

chronology to order the individual stages in the process.

Make Paragraphs Coherent

A paragraph has coherence, or flows, when the details of the paragraph fit together in
a way that is clear to the reader. Coherence is partially the product of choosing an
appropriate paragraph pattern for your ideas, and partially the product of sentence-
level control.

Here are some ways to improve paragraph coherence:

  Repeat key words or phrases—or pronouns that point to them—to link
sentences (and alert them to the importance of the ideas represented by those
words and phrases).
 Use parallelism. Parallelism can be applied to parts of a sentence. It can also be
applied to sentences within a paragraph.
 Maintain consistency of tone, register, and point of view.
 Provide transitions. See "Transitional Words and Phrases" below.

Transitional Words and Phrases

Transitions are words or phrases that specify a relationship between sentences and
between paragraphs. They help direct the reader from one idea to another. Skilled
writers use transitions with care, making sure to use the correct one and also making
sure not to overuse them. Commonly used transitions are shown below:

To Specify Sequence again, also, and, and then, besides, finally, first . . . second . . . third,
furthermore, last, moreover, next, still, too

To Specify Time after a few days, after a while, afterward, as long as, as soon as, at last,
at that time, before, earlier, immediately, in the meantime, in the past,
lately, later, meanwhile, now, presently, simultaneously, since, so far,
soon, then, thereafter, until, when

To Specify again, also, in the same way, likewise, once more, similarly
Comparison

To Specify Contrast although, but, despite, even though, however, in contrast, in spite of,
instead, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the one hand . . .
on the other hand, regardless, still, though, yet

To Specify Examples after all, for example, for instance, indeed, in fact, of course,
specifically, such as, the following example, to illustrate

To Specify Cause and accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, hence,
Effect if . . . then, since, so, then, therefore, thereupon, thus, to this end

To Specify Place above, adjacent to, below, beyond, closer to elsewhere, far, farther on,
here, near, nearby, opposite to, there, to the left, to the right

To Specify although it is true that, granted that, I admit that, it may appear that,
Concession naturally, of course

To Specify Summary, as a result, as has been noted, as I have said, as mentioned earlier, as
Repetition, or we have seen, in any event, in conclusion, in other words, in short, on
Conclusion the whole, therefore, to summarize
Cohesion and Coherence

Cohesion: Readers must feel that they move easily from one sentence to the next, that
each "coheres" with the one before and after.

Coherence: Readers must also feel that sentences are not just individually clear but
constitute a unified passage focused on a coherent set of ideas.

Cohesion

Cohesion refers to how a group of sentences "hang together." Sometimes, to achieve

better cohesion we have to "violate" other writing "rules" we think are sacrosanct.
Take for example the following two sentences:

a. The collapse of a dead star into a point perhaps no larger than a marble creates
a black hole.
b. A black hole is created by the collapse of a dead star into a point perhaps no
larger than a marble.

Given a choice between these two sentences we would probably choose the first since
it uses an active verb while the second uses a passive verb. But the passive does have
its uses, such as helping readers create that sense of flow that characterizes a coherent
passage. Which of the following two passages "flows" better?

A. Some astonishing questions about the nature of the universe have been raised
by scientists studying black holes in space. The collapse of a dead star into a
point perhaps no larger than a marble creates a black hole. So much matter
compressed into so little volume changes the fabric of space around it in
puzzling ways.
B. Some astonishing questions about the nature of the universe have been raised
by scientists studying black holes in space. A black hole is created by the
collapse of a dead star into a point perhaps no larger than a marble. So much
matter compressed into so little volume changes the fabric of space around it in
puzzling ways.

The second passage reads more coherently because the concept introduced by each
new sentence seems to follow from the previous sentence. This technique is called
"old-to-new" and is one of the most important principles of a cohesive writing style.
The principles of old-to-new are:
 1. Begin your sentences with information familiar to your readers.
2. End your sentences with information your readers cannot anticipate.

Coherence

However, writing can have a cohesive "flow" and be almost indecipherable. Consider
the following passage:

Saner, Wisconsin, is the snowmobile capital of the world. The buzzing of snowmobile
engines fills the air, and their tanklike tracks crisscross the snow. The snow reminds
me of Mom’s mashed potatoes, covered with furows I would draw with my fork.
Mom’s mashed potatoes usually made me sick, that’s why I play with them. I like to
make a hole in the middle of the potatoes and fill it with melted butter. This behavior
has been the subject of long chats between me and my analyst.

This passage is cohesive, moving from Saner to snowmobiles to snow to Mom’s

mashed potatoes to behavior, but it certainly is not coherent.

To understand coherence we need to consider how readers make sense out of larger
groupings of sentences. Readers feel a passage is coherent when the writer helps them
accomplish two tasks:

1. Identify the topics (what the sentence is about) of individual sentences quickly.
2. Recognize how the topics form a connected set of ideas.

Readers want to know what a sentence is about, its topic. However, this is not always
easy to find. Consider the following sentences. What are the topics?

1. And therefore, politically speaking, in Eastern states since 1980, acid rain has
become a serious problem.
2. International cooperation is still the goal of most countries.
3. It is impossible for your claims to be proved conclusively.
4. In regard to these questions, I believe there is a need for more research.
5. It is likely that our proposals will be accepted.
6. Results like these no one could have predicted.

Topic refers not to the grammatical subject of a sentence, but to its "psychological"
subject, and we expect to find the topic in the first few words of the sentence. Readers
are more comfortable with these early topics because it helps them understand what
the sentence is about. More important, readers depend on seeing in a sequence of
topics (in a sequence of sentences) what the whole passage is about.
Combining Cohesion and Coherence

If you begin sentences and even clauses with information familiar to your readers,
with phrases that are short, simple, and familiar, your readers are more likely to think
you can write clearly and coherently. And no two units of information are shorter and
simpler than the subject of a sentence and that subject’s specific actions as a verb.

Try revising the following:

Some sort of palace revolt or popular revolution plagued seven out of eight reigns of
the Romanov line after Peter the Great. In 1722, achievement by merit was made the
basis of succession when the principle of heredity was terminated by Peter. This
resulted in many tsars’ not appointing a successor before dying, including Peter. Ivan
VI was less than two months old when appointed by Czarina Anna, but Elizabeth,
daughter of Peter the Great, defeated Anna and ascended to the throne in 1741.
Succession not dependent upon authority resulted in the boyars’ regularly disputing
who was to become sovereign. Male primogeniture became the law in 1797 when
Paul I codified the law of succession. But conspirators strangled him, one of whom
was probably his son, Alexander I.

Avoiding Illusory Cohesion

This handout lists ways of improving cohesion through providing consistency of

topics and by helping the reader see the movement between various ideas. Some
writers try to create cohesion by using logical conjunctions like thus, therefore,
however, and so on, regardless of whether those words signal any genuine logical
connections. Is the following passage cohesive?

Because the press is the major medium or interaction between the president and the
people, how it portrays him influences his popularity. Therefore, it should report on
the president objectively. Both reporters and the president are human, however,
subject to eor and favoritism. Also, people act differently in public than they do in
private. Hence, to understand a person, it is important to know the whole person, his
environment, upbringing, and education. Indeed, from the correspondence with his
family, we can learn much about Harry S. Truman, our thirty-third president.

The connectors are virtually meaningless. Experienced writers rely more on the
intrinsic flow of their prose than on connecting devices like these. While you might
need a but or however when you contradict or qualify what you have just said, and a
therefore, consequently, or as a result to wind up a line of reasoning, you probably
should not need more than a few such connecting devices per page. Any more than
that and it begins to look as though you were worried that the prose did not hang
together on its own.

In short:

1. Begin sentences with short simple words and phrases communicating

information that appeared in previous sentences, or with knowledge that you
can assume you and your reader share.
2. Through a series of sentences that you want your readers to understand as a
coherent, focused passage, keep your topics short and reasonably consistent.

This handout made extensive use of the following sources:

Hacker, Diane. A Writer's Reference. 4th ed. New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1999.

Lunsford, Andrea. The Everyday Writer. 2nd ed. New York: Bedford/St. Martin's,
2001.

Williams, Joseph. Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace. 6th ed. New York:
Longman, 2000.

5 steps to writing an
effective paragraph
We have already discussed why writing an effective title is the key to
getting your paper read. But the title of a paper is paint and trim on
your house. The paragraph is its bricks and mortar. Each paragraph is
a self-contained logical argument, crafted to stand on its own (like an
abstract, or a letter to the editor of Nature) or to be strung together
to form a larger thing of persuasive beauty: a well-written scientific
manuscript. All the best writers in science write gorgeous, tight
paragraphs. Most of the good science writers I know personally take
great pride in the fact that they write well. Furthermore, they are
constantly on the lookout for ways to hone their style. Here are some
key principles toward making your paragraphs sparkle.

1) Have a compelling and descriptive topic sentence. You saw

this one coming, didn’t you? Most of teaching can be summed up in
one directive: tell’em what you’re going to say, say it, and then
tell’em what you said. The topic sentence is the guidepost that tells
the reader what to expect. It sets up the coming argument. The topic sentence needn’t necessarily be
the first sentence, but it should obviously come early. Here’s two ways of recognizing a good topic
sentence:

1) Is the rest of the paragraph about the topic sentence?

2) If you go through your manuscript, highlighting just the topic sentences, is the manuscript still
coherent?

2) A paragraph has an inevitable logic. The topic sentence raises expectations. Now you follow
through with the meat of your argument: a set of logically connected sentences that clearly and
concisely builds your case. If you’ve slaved over a paragraph and are still not getting the response you
want from your readers, it’s often the case that your logic is flawed. Put another way, writing is one of
the best ways of discovering what you do not understand about your topic. But a logically well-
constructed paragraph is worth slaving over. Nothing else makes you feel so much like, well, an
academic.

3) The juicy example. Remember, you are teaching your reader about something. The logic may be
exact and true, but sans a compelling example that connects in multiple ways to your logic, your
argument risks being a perfect, abstract thing: lovely to look at but without substance. Adding a juicy
example to a paragraph is akin to scotch-taping a wolverine to the cover of this book.

(Note added in proof: Wolverines-Animal Scavengers reminds the uninitiated that the brown food web
can be a pretty dicey neighborhood.)

4) Mixing up your sentence structure–One knock on scientific writing, besides the jargon (more on
that later), is the interminably long, latinate sentences. Yet when constructing a logical argument full
of if/then/or statements it is inevitable that the sentences can go on, and on, and on… The solution is
not to go all Hemingway (unless you are really, really good). You know what I mean by that. Just
spitting out a staccato series of noun-verb-noun sentences hoping that your reviewer doesn’t secretly
enter you in some faux Hemingway contest. But you can mix it up a bit. Give your readers some
opportunities to catch their breath as your brilliant logic rolls over them like the waves in From Here to
Eternity.

5) Summary sentence. Sometimes your example is so stunning in its power that it will seal the deal.
More often than not a strong summary statement is required. It serves two purposes. First, the
summary sentence is your opportunity to introduce some repetition precisely where your reader is
expecting it (remember: tell’em, teach’em, tell’em again). Second, the summary sentence can point
the reader to where you want to go next. The best science writers do both in a single provocative
sentence. In short, the topic sentence telegraphs your manuscript’s logic, but the summary sentence
gives your manuscript its flow.

So when you’re working on your next essay, remember that the best manuscripts are built one
paragraph at a time. Writing an effective paragraph is perhaps the single most
important communication skill to acquire in your first years of grad school. It is a skill that the best
scientists hone and one that we all universally admire. And that’s a big step toward getting your ideas
out there.

We close with the a quote gleaned from Copyblogger’s Ernest’ Hemingway’s top 5 tips for writing well:
“I write one page of masterpiece to ninety one pages of shit,” Hemingway confided to F. Scott
Fitzgerald in 1934. “I try to put the shit in the wastebasket.”