1

L G MUDIMBA

2
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 About the publishing house

Dingani Publishers

Between 10th & 11th Avenue

Robert Mugabe, Bulawayo

1ST Edition: 2022

Cover Designed by: Dingani Publishers

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by an information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the Publisher. Inquiries should be addressed to Dingani
Publishers.

Printed by Dingani Publishers in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

3
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Foreword

The Understanding Mathematics Book 3 is designed for learners who intend to study Ordinary Level
Mathematics. It is a preliminary text which covers all the basic concepts on mathematics topics studied
at Ordinary level. It offers worked examples and provides additional activities which individuals can
work through on their own. It provides flexibility for the teachers to design individual learning activities
and more continuity across topics. It is also suitable for non-formal learners who would like to add a
grade to their Ordinary Level mathematics.

This book is unique in that each chapter begins with a short story of a notable person or event of a person
who contributed significantly in the development of the current Mathematics. This is meant to inspire
our new and upcoming mathematicians that there is nothing impossible where there is a will.

Texts are structured to meet the demands of the Updated Curriculum (New Curriculum) and many of
the activities availed are suitable for use as Continuous Assessment (CALA), which are very invaluable
for the facilitators and learners.

To all teachers and learners using this book, I wish you success with teaching and learning in the twenty-
first century.

Lizwe Goliath Mudimba

4
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
FOREWORD……………………………………………………………………………...……. iii

CHAPTER ONE: NUMBER CONCEPTS

Number systems ………………………………………………………………………………….2

Irrational numbers ……………………………………………………………..............................5
Order of operations….....................................................................................................................7
Number patterns………………………………………………………………………………….9

CHAPTER TWO: APPROXIMATION AND ESTIMATION

Approximation and estimation…………………………………………………………………...17

Ratios…………………………………….....................................................................................22
Ratios…………………………………………………………………………………………….24
Proportion……….…………………………………………………………………….….25

CHAPTER THREE:ORDINARY AND STANDARD FORM, NUMBER BASES

Operations in standard form …………………………………………………………………….37

Number bases…………………………………………………………………………………….39
Scales and simple map problems…………………………………………………………….......43
.

CHAPTER FOUR: SETS

Set notation……………………………………………………………………………………...54
Venn diagrams…………………………………………………………………………………...56

CHAPTER FIVE: FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS

A bank statement: ………………………………………………………………………….…...63

Compound interest………………………………………………………………….…………...66
Commission……………………………………………………………………………….…......68
Hire purchase………………………………………………………………………….…………70

CHAPTER SIX: MEASURES AND MENSURATION.

Perimeter of Combined Shapes…………………………………………………………….……76

Area of Combined Shapes……………………………………………………………….………80
Volume……………………………………………………………………………….……….…82

5
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
CHAPTER SEVEN: GRAPHS

Function Notation……………………………………………………………………………….87
Sketching Graphs……………………………………………………………………….……….91
Quadratic Graphs……………………………………………………………………………….92
Distance-Time Graphs………………………………………………………………………….97
Speed – Time Graph……………………………………………………………………….…….99

CHAPTER EIGHT: VARIATION

Direct variation…………………………………………………………………………………106
Inverse variation……………………………………………………………………………….108

CHAPTER NINE: ALGEBRA

Simplifying Algebraic Expressions…………………………………………………………….113

Simultaneous Equations……………………………………………………………………….118
Solving quadratic equations …………………………………………………………………...125
Mathematical Formulae……………………………………………………………………….134
Inequalities…………………………………………………………………………………….139

CHAPTER TEN: INDICES AND LOGARINTHMS

Indices………………………………………………………………………………….……….152
Logarithms……………………………………………………………………………………...153

CHAPTER ELEVEN: PLANE GEOMETRY.

Angles of Elevation and Depression…………………………………………………………....158

Bearings………………………………………………………………………………………...161
Properties of Polygons…………………………………………………………………….……167
Similar Shapes………………………………………………………………………….………174
Drawing triangles………………………………………………………………………….…....189
Construction of quadrilaterals..............................................................................................…....194
Symmetry……………………………………………………………………………….……....199

CHAPTER TWELVE: STATISTICS

Collecting Statistical Data …………………………………………………………………...…207

Measures of Central Tendency………………………………………………………………....209
Histogram……………………………………………………………………………………….213
Frequency Polygon………………………………………………………………………....….216
Mean of Grouped Data…………………………………………………………………….…....217

6
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
CHAPTER THIRTEEN: PYTHAGORAS THEOREM AND TRIGONOMETRY

Pythagorean Theorem………………………………………………….....................................226
Trigonometry………………………………………………………………………………......230

CHAPTER FOURTEEN: VECTORS

Definition………………………………………………………………………………...…….253
Types of vectors……………………………………………………………………………......254
Operations on Vectors………………………………………………………………………….255
Magnitude of a Vector……………………………………………………………...………….259

CHAPTER FIFTEEN: MATRICES

Types of Matrices……………………………………………………………………….……...263
Operations……………………………………………………………………………….…. ….264
Determinants…………………………………………………………………………….….….269
Inverses Matrices…………………………………………………………………….……….272

CHAPTER SIXTEEN: TRANSFORMATIONS

Translations……………………………………………………………………………….….277
Reflections…………………………………………………………………………………...281
Rotations……………………………………………………………………………….…….283
Enlargements………………………………………………………………………….…….290

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: PROBABILITY

Theoretical Probability……………………………………………………………………….306

7
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
CHAPTER ONE: NUMBER CONCEPTS

Elbert Frank Cox (1895-1969)

Best known for: First African-American ever to receive a
PhD in Mathematics .Elbert Frank Cox is a name that will
perhaps never be missed out when speaking about black
mathematicians. In 1925, Cox became the first African-
American to earn a PhD in mathematics. He inspired many
future black mathematicians and served a 40 year long
teaching career. He taught at Howard University and West
Virginia State College. The Cox Talbot Address is annually
delivered at National Association of Mathematicians’
national meetings in his honour and the Elbert F. Cox
Scholarship Fund which is used to help black students
achieve educational goals is also named in his honour.

1.1 NUMBER CONCEPTS AND OPERATIONS

In this chapter you will:

 explore the history of Mathematics

 perform arithmetic operations using order of operations
 identify rational and irrational numbers
 distinguish between rational and irrational numbers
 perform operations
 identify number patterns in a sequence
 solve problems involving irrational numbers
What do you know?

I can

 Define Real numbers and put them in their different

categories
 Identify Natural numbers, Whole numbers and Integers
 Distinguish features of different sets of numbers
 Perform different operations
 Estimate the answer to a calculation
 Solve word problems involving different sets of numbers

8
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Introduction
Where did Mathematics come from? Who discovered it?
The answer to these questions is, disappointingly, everyone and no one at the same time. Some experts
agree that it was around the time (2 500 years ago) in ancient Greece that mathematics first became an
organized science. But do we all agree with these so-called ‘experts’ was it not organized in Africa as
well? You can find out.

Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have been many and diverse, with the first known
written numerals created by Egyptians in Middle Kingdom texts such as the Rhind Mathematical
Papyrus. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a systematic study of Mathematics in its
own right.

Activity 1.1
1. Find out more about the creation of mathematics and write not less than 100 words about it.
2. Choose one Mathematician from the list below or elsewhere and write not less than 100 words about
them.
 Hypatia (375-415AD
 Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576),
 Leonhard Euler (1707-1783). ...
 Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855). ...
 Georg Ferdinand Cantor (1845-1918),
 Paul Erdos (1913-96).
3. Find one mathematician from the African continent or of African descent and write not less than
100 words about them.

Basic Arithmetic
You have been using some arithmetic for at least 10 years now. As far as mathematics is concerned,
competence in and understanding of simple arithmetic is a must for good progress. This is so because it
leads on to the rest of mathematics not only at school but in understanding many situations in adult life.
An ability to understand and accurately use arithmetical processes is a fundamental social need. You are
encouraged to keep this in mind all the time. Aids like electronic calculators can obtain answers to
arithmetical expressions quickly and accurately provided that the user is able to programme a correct
sequence of operations.

1.2 NUMBER SYSTEMS

A number system is a way to represent numbers. We are used to using the base-10 number system,
which is also called decimal. Decimal is number base 10, which means it uses ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Other common number systems include base-8 (octal), and base-2 (binary) and many
more. A number system provides a unique representation to every number and gives the structure of the
figures. It also allows us to operate arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, and division. If you
want to know more about number system in mathematics, search for information on the Internet or other
books.

Sets of Numbers
You may be familiar with the following sets of numbers: Shown in Figure 1.1
a) Natural numbers denoted by N, where N = {1; 2; 3 ;...}
b) Whole numbers W = {0; 1; 2; 3...}
c) Integers denoted by Z = {...-2; -1; 0; 1; 2; 3 ;...}
d) Rational numbers denoted by Q = {numbers of the form a/b where a and b are integers and b ≠
0}.
e) Irrational numbers I= {numbers that cannot be written as a ratio of two integers}
9
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 f) Real numbers denoted by R, where R ={ set formed by all the rational and irrational numbers
together}

Figure 1.1
Real Numbers are just numbers like:
1 12,38 −0,8625 3/4 π (pi) 198
In fact: nearly any number you have used in school mathematics so far is a Real Number. This means
that there are other numbers that exist but you have not used them in school, but you will eventually.
Real Numbers include: Whole Numbers, Rational and Irrational Numbers

Activity 1.2
1. a) Draw a diagram like the one above and insert the following numbers in it:
଴ ଼ ଶଶ ଵ଴ହ
-7;ଶ; -ଶ; √9; √15; -√5; 2π; ଻ 9,8; 3,333...; ଻
b) On another similar diagram insert five other numbers of your choice indicating clearly where they
belong.
2. Write a four line poem describing any set of numbers, that is, Natural numbers, Whole numbers,
Integers, Rational numbers and Irrational numbers.

Identifying rational and irrational numbers

Now we will take a closer look at Rational and Irrational numbers
Real numbers are like the family name and family members are rational and irrational numbers. (Where
do we place or put natural numbers, integers, etc. within the family? Grand children or cousins or what
to the Real numbers? Think about it and share with someone)

1.3 Rational Numbers

A Rational Number can be made by dividing two integers. Rational numbers include all natural
numbers, whole numbers and integers. In other words rational numbers include common fractions,
improper fractions, mixed numbers, whole numbers and decimal fractions. It is not possible to list all
the rational numbers.
10
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Most numbers we use in everyday life are Rational Numbers. The symbol used to represent the set of
rational numbers is Q.
Here are some more examples:
Number As a Fraction Rational?
5 5/1 Yes
1,75 7/4 Yes
0,001 1/1000 Yes
−0,1 −1/10 Yes
0,111... 1/9 Yes
√2 ? NO!
Some fractions result in terminating decimals and other fractions result in recurring decimals.

ଵ
= 0,062 5 which is a terminating decimal
ଵ଺
ଵ
= 0,333…which is a non-terminating decimal
ଷ

Recurrence is shown by a dot or dots over the recurring digit or digits.

0,333… becomes 0,͵ሶ
0,277… becomes 0,2͹ሶ
0,518 518 518 … becomes 0,ͷሶͳሶͺሶ

How to know if a number is a terminating decimal?

The way to determine if you have Terminating or Repeating Decimals, is to factorize the denominator.
If the factors of the denominator consist of only 2s or only 5s or any combination of 2s and 5s then you
have Terminating Decimal (s) else you have Repeating Decimal (s).

Say the number is 1/8. The factors of 8 are 2×2×2, so you would have Terminating Decimals.
1/8 = 0,125
Prime Factorization of the denominator should contain factor 2 or factor 5 or both factors 2 and 5 to tell
if it’s a terminating decimal. Any factor other than these gives a non-terminating decimal

Activity 1.3
ଷ ଻ ଵଽ
1. Express the following fractions as decimals: a) ଺ସ b) ସ଴ c) ଵ଴଴଴
2. Create three fractions of your own and show that they result in terminating decimals.
3. Write each of the following using recurrence notation:
ଶ ଵ ଻
a) 0,363 636... b) 0, 615 615 615 c) 0, 3666... d) ଷ e) ଺ fሻ ଽ
4. Write down three numbers which are:
a) Positive and rational
b) Negative and rational
c) Positive and rational, but not fractions
d) Positive and rational, but not integers
e) Negative and rational, but not integers.
5. a) Write down any rational number between ½ and ⅓.
b) Find any rational number between 0,123 and 0,124.
c) Write down a rational number close to, but bigger than, 1.

11
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 d) Can you find a rational number closer to 1 than the answer you gave in c)?
6. Decide which of the following are rational numbers and which are irrational:
ଵ
a) 3,5 b) 3,153 c) ଷ d)√7 e) 0,072
ଵ
f) √3 g) √4 h)√100 i)-2ଷ j)√5
k) √2,25 l)√17 m) 3,142 n)√16 o) 4, 92
7. Draw a number line and insert the different numbers given in question 3 and 6.
8. Randomly generate numbers using a scientific calculator and indicate whether they are rational or
irrational.
9. In your own words, explain the difference between a rational number and an irrational number.
10. Explain how the sets of numbers (counting, whole, integer, rational, irrationals, real are related
to each other.

1.3 Irrational Numbers

Irrational numbers are the numbers which cannot be expressed as a ratio or fraction involving two
integers. Irrational numbers have infinite numbers of decimals of non-recurring nature.

- The exact value of an irrational number cannot be stated in non-recurring decimal form. It must
be left in surd form except for special irrational numbers like π.
Definition of surd: A root of a positive real quantity is called a surd if its value cannot be exactly
determined.
- Irrational numbers do not repeat when written in decimal form but continue indefinitely, for
example, ‫ = ח‬3,1415926535897...
- When irrational numbers are rounded off, the answer is an approximation e.g. ‫ח‬ൎ 3,142
- Surds are numerical expressions that contain square roots, for exampleξʹǢξ͵Ǣξͷ are surds.
Answers given as surds are exact answers. Answers written as √5 = 2,236 are approximations.
Have a look at some more examples:
Surd or
Number Simplified As a Decimal
not?
√2 √2 1,4142135...(etc.) Surd
√3 √3 1,7320508...(etc.) Surd
√4 2 2 Not a surd
√¼ ½ 0.5 Not a surd
3 3
√11 √11 2,2239800...(etc.) Surd
3
√27 3 3 Not a surd
5 5
√3 √3 1,2457309...(etc.) Surd
The surds have a decimal which goes on forever without repeating, and are Irrational Numbers.

There are four rules that must be followed when working with surds.

12
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Examples 1
1. √a ± √b ≠ √(a ± b) for example √16 ± √4 ≠ √(16 ± 4)
2. √a x √b = √ab for example √2 x √6 = √12
௔
3. √a ÷ √b = √ ௕ for example√10 ÷ √2 = √5
4. m√a x n√b = mn√ab for example 3√7 x 2√3 = 6√21
௠ ௔
5. m√a ÷ n√b = ௡ √ ௕ for example 8√15 ÷ 2√3 = 4√5
n m
6. √a = (n√a)m

Expressions involving surds can usually be simplified. You should simplify irrational numbers as far as
possible, and then leave the answer in surd form: e.g. √12 = √4 x √3 = 2√3

Examples 2
1. √20 = √4×5 = 2√5
2. √20 + √45 = 2√5 + 3√5 = 5√5
3. √98 = √49 × √2 = 7√2
4. a) √3 × √6 = √3 × 6 = √18 = √9 × 2 = 3√2
b) Another approach: √3 × √6 = √3 × ξ͵ ൈ ʹ = √3 × ξ͵ x √2 = ξ͵ ൈ ͵ x √2 = ξͻ x √2 = 3√2
When simplifying a surd always try to split numbers into a product that involves a square number
because it is can be expressed a whole number such as √4 =2 and √25 =5.
Irrational numbers can be added and subtracted if they simplify to the same surd form; e.g.
3√2 + 2√2 = 5√2; 4√7 +3√7 - 2√7 = 5√7
If numbers are in different surds (e.g. √2; √3; √5; √7), they cannot be added or subtracted.

NB. When simplifying surds, use the same principles as if you are working with or unknowns such
as 2x + 3y

Activity 1.4
Simplify each of the following leaving your answer in surd form:
a) √12 ÷ √3 b) 2√18 ÷3√2 c) √75
d) √99 e) √24 f) √32
g) √50 h) √48 i) √48 + √75
j) √32 + √50 k) √200 l) √27 × √50
m) √5 × √2 n) √3(2 + √3) o) 5√7 -2√7
p) √12 - √3 q) 3√12 ÷ √3 r) √175 - 4√7

Activity 1.5
1. Simplify the following surds:
(a) √ 28 (b) √ 125 (c) √ 48 (d) √ 72 (e) √ 27
2. Simplify:
(a) √ 8 + √ 2) (b) √ 18 - √ 2 (c) √ 125 - 5√5 (d) √ 48- √ 12
(e) √ 32 + √ 18 (f) √ 75 - √12 (g) √45 - √20
(h) √63 - √28
3. Simplify:
(a) √2 × √2 (b) √6 × √6 (c) √2 × √50 (d) √3 × √12
(e) √3 × √27 (f) √10 × √2 (g) √3 × √15 (h) √5 × √10
i) √3÷ √27 j) √10 ÷ √2

13
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
4. Expand and simplify the following expressions:
(a) √ 2(3 + √ 5) (b) √ 6(√ 2 + √ 8) (c) 4(√ 5 + 3)
(d) (2 + √ 3)(1 + √ 3) (e) (3 − √ 5)(3 − 2 √ 5) (f) (5 − √ 2)(5 + √ 2)
(g) (2 + √ 5)(2 + √ 3) (h) (1 − √ 2)(1 + √ 3) (i) (8 − √ 2)(8 + √ 2)
(j) (√ 3 + √ 5)(√ 3 + √ 5)
5. Calculate (simplify your answer as far as possible)
a) 2√2 × 5√7 b) 5√3 × 5√6 c) 5√6 × 5√2 d) 4√3 × 3√6
e) 3√6 × 5√2 f) 2√3 × 2√3 g) 4√6 × 5√3 h) 5√2 × 3√3
i) 3√5 × 4√5 k) 5√5 × 4√7
6. Calculate:
a) 25√42 ÷ 5√7 b) 16√10 ÷ 4√2 c) √12 + √12 + √75
d) 12√4 ÷ 3√2 e) √32 + √8 f) √150 + √96
g) 5√5 × 4√7 h)√162 - √32 i) √500 - √45 - √125
j) 2√2 × 3√3

Rationalising the denominator

It is useful, and often required, to rationalize the denominator. Rationalising the denominator means
changing the denominator to a rational number. To rationalize the denominator always multiply by 1
(one) in the disguise that is needed.

Examples 4
Rationalise the following denominators and simplify where possible:
ହ ହ ξଶ ହξଶ ξଶ
ξଶ
= ξଶ
×
ξଶ ଶ
= (since ξଶ = 1)
ξୟ ξୟ ξଶୠ ξଶୟୠ ξଶୠ
ξଶୠ
= ξଶୠ × ξଶୠ
= ଶୠ
(since ξଶୠ = 1)
ଵ ଵ ξଷ ξଷ ξଷ
= × = (since = 1)
ξଷ ξଷ ξଷ ଷ ξଷ

Activity 1.7
Rationalise the denominator and simplify where possible;
ଵ ଵ ଶ ଷ ହ
(a) ξ଺ (b) ξ଻ (c) ξ଺ (d) ξଶ
(e) ξଵ଴
ଵ ସ ଶ଴ ଺ ξଵଵ
(f) ξଵଵ (g) ξଶ
(h) ξହ (i) ξଷ
 (j) ξଷ

1.4 ORDER OF OPERATIONS

Simplify 4 + 2 × 3. Here are two ways of tackling this a) 4 + 2 × 3

= (4 + 2) × 3
= 6×3
= 18

OR b) 4 + 2 × 3
= 4 + (2×3)
=4+6
= 10

Which answer is the right one?

14
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
To get rid of this confusion, we have some rules of precedence, called the "order of operations". This
tells us the order to solve in steps expressions with more than one operation. First, we perform all
operations within grouping symbols first, that is, brackets ( ) or [ ], braces { }, and fraction bars. Second,
we solve any powers or square roots. Third, we solve all multiplication and division from left to right.
Fourth, we solve all addition and subtraction from left to right.

The summary is given in the table below.

ORDER OF OPERATIONS
The order of operations is the rule that tells the sequence to follow when one is
performing operations in a mathematical expression

1 2 3 4

Brackets Orders Multiplication Division Addition Subtraction

B O MorD AorS

() yx ×÷ + -

Do B then O. Then do M or D, left to right. Lastly, do A or S, left to right

Figure 1.2

The rule of precedence follows that Brackets are done first followed by Division and Multiplication and
lastly Addition and Subtraction. Division and multiplication have the same priority, and so do addition
and subtraction.

NOTE: The rule is when you have multiplication and division in the same expression evaluate
whichever comes first left to right.
Examples 5: Evaluate a) Start inside the Brackets
Then Powers or exponents

Then Multiply and Divide

Then Subtract

Answer

b) (48 ÷ 2) - 42 + 2 × 2
Solution: (48 ÷ 2) - 42 + 2 × 2 = 24 - 42 + 2 × 2 Brackets first
= 24 – 16 + 2 × 2 then powers
= 24 – 16 + 4 Subtract (Working from left to right)
=8+4 Add
= 12 Answer.
ଵ ଵ ଵ
c) (ଶ + ଺) × ଷ
ଵ ଵ ଵ ଷ ଵ ଵ
Solution: (ଶ + ଺) × ଷ
= (଺ + ଺) × ଷ
Brackets first (Finding a common denominator)
ଷାଵ ଵ
=( ଺
) × ଷ
ସ ଵ
= ଺
× ଷ
then multiply

15
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
CHAPTER TWO: APPROXIMATION AND ESTIMATION

Marjorie Lee Browne was born in Tennessee in 1914. She

attended LeMoyne High School, a private Methodist school
started after the Civil War to offer education for African
Americans. She won the Memphis city women's tennis singles
championship while she was in high school.
She attended Howard University, majoring in mathematics and
graduating cum laude in 1935. She was one of the first African-
American women in the US to earn a doctorate in mathematics,
along with Evelyn Boyd Granville, who also earned a Ph.D. in
1949. Marjorie Lee Browne was a noted mathematics educator.
Wikipedia

2.1 APPROXIMATION AND ESTIMATION

In this chapter you will:

 approximate to the given degree of accuracy
 state the numbers of significant figures in given numbers
 round off numbers to given significant figures
 identify the limits of accuracy
 use the limits of accuracy to solve problems
 make estimates of quantities

What do you know?

I can
Order Real numbers
Round numbers to the nearest 10; 100 and 1 000.
Round of numbers to given significant figures
Solve problems involving approximation and estimation
Operate on Real numbers

Revision
1. Determine how many significant figures occur in each of the following numbers:
a) 926,9 b) 707
c) 123,06 d) 0,0402
e) 0,82610 f) 338,00
2. Round off to the nearest 10:
a) 738 b) 293 c) 197 d) 1 653 e) 53 745 f) 378
3. Round off to the nearest 100:
a) 7 084 b) 1 243 c) 1 839 d) 2 386 e) 53 745 f) 54 253
4. Round off to the nearest 1 000:
a) 46 225 b) 53 609 c) 36 529 d) 34 528 e) 1 674
You have met in your previous work two ways commonly used for expressing degrees of accuracy,
namely decimal places and significant figures.

24
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
When working with numbers, you may not always need to be completely accurate. In some cases it is
not possible to be absolutely precise. This does not mean that your answers are wrong. They may be
accurate enough for your needs. In these cases you may choose to approximate your answer or estimate
it.

In calculations, measure numbers are usually rounded off to the desired degree of accuracy.
An approximation is anything that is similar but not exactly equal to something else.
Approximation

Examples 1
a) The stick AB placed along the ruler measures 11,1cm, and you round it to 11cm, as that is good
enough.

A B

b) The stick CD measures 4,7cm and you round it to 5cm, as that is good enough.
C D C D

c) The bus ride takes 57 minutes, and you say it is "a one hour bus ride".
d) The drive takes 34 minutes, and you say it is ‘a 30 minutes’ drive”.

The stick AB measures 4,7cm and you round it to 5cm, as that is good enough.
The bus ride takes 57 minutes, and you say it is "a one hour bus ride".
The drive takes 34 minutes, and you say it is ‘a 30 minutes’ drive”.

Approximating is an attempt to come near a value which can be approached as close as desired, although
sometimes not reached. An approximation is an inexact representation of something that is still close
enough to be useful. Although approximation is most often applied to numbers, it is also frequently
applied to such things as mathematical functions, shapes, and physical laws.

Sometimes, we do not need to work with very accurate numbers. For example, suppose that the
attendance at a football match was 26,239. Most people may just want to know there were 26,000 at the
football match instead of the exact number.
We can round off large numbers to the nearest thousand, nearest hundred, nearest ten, or any other
specified place value

Rounding Whole Numbers

To round off whole numbers:
Determine what your rounding digit is and look at the digit to the right of it.

25
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 a) If the digit is 1, 2, 3, 4 simply drop all digits to the right of rounding digit and replace each of the
removed digits with 0.
b) If the digit is 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 add 1 to the rounding digit and drop all digits to the right of rounding
digit and replace each of the removed digits with 0.
Examples 2:
134 rounded to tens is 130 as the next digit (4) is less than 5
12 690 rounded to thousands is 13 000 as the next digit (6) is 5 or more
15239 rounded to hundreds is 15 200 as the next digit (2) is less than 5

Activity 2.1
1.
Round off each numbers to the:
nearest ten nearest hundred nearest thousand
39 225 999
183 3 081 4 128
102 5 232 2 854
609 4 884 5 431
1 268 6 012 14 585
5 186 8 911 27 102
9 549 1530 10 839
7 284 3 946 42 879
8 450 35 005 89 762
51 587 63 894 98 471

2. There are 26 184 books in a library, round the number to the nearest thousand.

Rounding to Significant Digits

Another consideration in rounding is when you are required to round to "an appropriate number of
significant figures". To round to "so many" significant figures, we count digits from left to right, and
then round off from there. Significant figures are the digits which give us useful information about the
accuracy of a measurement.

26
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Here are some examples of how to count the number of significant digits:
Number of Examples Explanation
significant figures
1 1 000; 0,003 Only one digit tells us anything
specific
2 560; 0,000 35 Only one digit tells us anything
specific, the zeroes are place holders
3 560; decimal point tells us that the
0,000 350 measurement was made to the
nearest unit, the last zero tells us that
the measurement was made accurate
to that last digit,
4 8 765; 1 006; In 1006: the 1 and 6 are interesting,
560,0; and we have to count the zeroes,
because they are between the two
interesting numbers.
5 78 963; All the digits give us useful
1 000,0 information; that the measurement
is accurate to the tenths place, "0"
tells us that the measurement is
accurate to the tenths place.
6 103 785, 3,141 All the digits give us useful
59 information

The basic rules for significant figures:

 The position of decimal is not considered.
 All the zeros before the first numeral are not counted.
 All the zeros in between the numerals are counted.
 All the zeros after the numeral are counted.
Example 3
NUMBER Number of Last figure First Last figure
significant to be kept figure kept and/or
figures desired to be number
dropped becomes
73 1 73 73 70
76 1 76 76 80
126 2 126 126 130
3, 077 3 3, 077 3, 077 3, 1

Activity 2.2
1. Round the following numbers to three significant figures.
a) 0,6824 b)12,84 c) 4,162 d)18, 3339
e) 5,558 f) 2,635 g) 7,825 h) 1, 6204

2. Round off:
a) 1 239 to 3 significant figures
b) 134, 9 to 1 significant figures
c) 0, 0165 to 2 significant figures

27
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Rounding Decimals
First work out which number will be left when we finish.
 Rounding to tenths means to leave one number after the decimal comma.
 Rounding to hundredths means to leave two numbers after the decimal comma.
3, 1416 rounded to hundredths is 3, 14 as the next digit (1) is less than 5
3, 1416 rounded to thousandths is 3,142 as the next digit (6) is more than 5
1, 2735 rounded to tenths is 1, 3 as the next digit (7) is 5 or more
To round to "so many decimal places" count that many digits from the decimal comma:
1, 2735 rounded to 3 decimal places is 1,274 as the next digit (5) is in the category of 5 or more.

EXAMPLES USING THE RULES

NUMBER Number of Last figure First figure Last figure

decimal to be kept to be dropped kept and/or
places desired number becomes
6,422 1 6,4 6,42 6,4
6,4872 2 6,48 6,487 6,49
6,997 2 6,99 6,997 7,00
6,6500 1 6,6 6,65 6,6
7,485 2 7,48 7,485 7,48
6,755000 2 6,75 6,755 6,76

Activity 2.3
1. Round off the following to three decimal places:
a) 7,253 896 b) 15,671 3 c) 19,999 9 d) 2,019 52.
e) 0,402 709 f) 6,899 952 e) 2,812 5 g) 6,254 873
2. Round off the following to two decimal places:
a) 7,253 896 b) 8,695 c) 6,666 d) 2,600 e) 825,312 f) 6,254 873
3. Round off the following to the nearest tenth:
a) 7,253896 b) 0,515 c) 3,263 d) 3,9898 e) 0,098 f) 6,254 873
4. Round off to 2 decimal places: a) $6,497 014 b) $6,738
5. If 8 meters of material cost $146, how much does 1 meters cost?
6. A plane traveled 3 263 kilometers in 5,5 hours. What was its speed in kilometers per hour?
(Approximate to one decimal digit.)
7. Delight was offered a yearly salary of $33 480. How much is that per week?
8. If nine people are to share $865 equally, how much will each one get?
9. If you spend $137,50 for 11 days of private lessons, what was the price per day?
10. Kudzai owes $1 267,45, and she wants to pay it off in a year. What will be her equal monthly
payments if the money does not accrue interest?

28
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
2.2 RATIOS, RATES AND PROPORTIONS

In this Section you will:

 simplify ratios
 perform calculations involving ratio, rates and proportion
 apply direct and inverse proportion to solve problems

What do you know?

I can
Simplify ratios
Solve problems using the concept of ratio
Distinguish between direct and inverse proportion
Solve problems that involve direct and inverse proportion

Revision
1. Express each of the following ratios as simple as possible
a) 5: 15 b) 18 : 12
c) 150m : 1km d) 70 g : 2kg
e) 27 s : 1,5 minutes f) 82,5 cents : $1
2. Two types of tea leaves which cost $2 per kg and $2, 50 per kg are mixed so that their masses are
respectively in the ratio 5: 3. Calculate the cost of 20kg of the mixture.

RATIO
A ratio is a way of comparing the sizes of two or more quantities with the same units by division. Every
measurement is a ratio because the measurement is set against a standard unit quantity like the meter or
kilogram or the second. A ratio is used to connect two quantities measured in the same units. It shows
how many times bigger or smaller one quantity is than another. Ratios should always be expressed as
simple as possible.

Example 4
In a form three year group at Mabasa School there are 20 boys and 50 girls. The ratio of boys to girls
is 20: 50 = 2: 5
- using a colon (2:5)
ଶ
- as one value over another(fraction ହ )
- as a percentage 40%
Mixing drinks: concentrate to water
1 : 4
ଵ
Or
ସ
Or 25%
ସ
If the ratio of girl’s height to her mother’s height is 4:5, then she is ହ as tall as her mother.
A ratio can be expressed in the form n: 1, where n is a whole number, a fraction or a decimal. This form
is useful when comparing ratios.

Examples 5
1. Change the ratio 2: 5 into the form: a) m: 1 b) 1: n
ଶ ହ
a) 2: 5 = ହ : 1 b) 2: 5 = 1 : ଶ
= 0, 4: 1 = 1: 2, 5
29
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
A quantity can be divided into portions that are in a given ratio, use the three steps given below:
Step 1. Add the separate parts of the ratio.
Step 2. Divide this number into the original quantity.
Step 6. Multiply this answer by the original parts of the ratio.

2. Divide $60 between John and Peter in the ratio in the ratio 5:7.
Solution: Add 5 and 7 to find the total number of parts: 12
Divide 60 by 12 to find the value of each part: 5
Multiply each term in the ratio by 5, that is, 5 × 5 = 25; 7 × 5 = 35.
So $60 divided between John and Peter in the ratio 5:7 gives John a share of $25 and Peter a share of
$35.

When one part of a ratio is known, it is possible to calculate other values. Use the given information to
find a unit value and use the unit value to find the required information.

Example 6
The cost of a meal was share between two families in the ratio 6:5, the smaller share was $22,50. How
much did the meal cost altogether?
ହ
Solution: ଵଵ of the cost was $22,50, so 1/11 was $4,50.
ହ
So ଵଵ of the cost is 5×$4,50 = $49,50

Activity 2.4
1. Express each ratio as a fraction in the simplest form.
a) 42 blue cars out of 66 cars _____
b) 14 kilometers out of 581 kilometers_____
c) 24 cups to 27 cups _____
d) 4 quarts to 6 quarts _____
e) 12cents to 60 cents _____
f) 60 beetles out of 42 insects _____
g) 4 gallons to 22 gallons _____
h) 20 coins to 65 coins _____
2. Express the following ratios in the form 1: n
a) 2 : 6 b) 5 : 60 c) 2 : 100 d) 5 : 8
e) 4 : 6 f) 16: 8 g) 22 : 550 h)50 : 600
3. Express the following ratios in the form n: 1
a) 12:5 b) 4: 5 c) 5: 2
d) 2 : 100
4. Divide the quantity into the ratio given.
a) $40; (3:5) b) $120; (5:7) c) 250m: (14:11)
d) $117: (2:6:5) e) 180kg: (1:5:6) f) 180minutes; (2:6:8)
5. Show each of the following relationships as a ratio:
a) The number of even numbers to the number of odd numbers in this set:
6; 4; 11; 14; 20
b) The number of girls to boys in your class
c) The number of left handed learners in your class to the number of right handed learners in
your class.
d) The number of teachers in your school to the number of learners in your school.
6. The ratio of Sithabile’s age to Jabulani’s age is 3 : 4. In 7 years’ time this ratio will be 4: 5.

i. What are their ages now?

ii. After how many years from now will the ratio be 5: 6?

30
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
7. The ratio of dogs to cats at the RSCA is 4: 9. 10 more dogs are brought in and the ratio is 2: 3. How
many of each was there initially?

RATE
A rate is a special ratio in which the two terms are in different units, for example kilometers and hours;
cents and grams. Another example, if a 500ml can of milk costs 50cents the rate is 50c for 500ml. The
first term of the ratio is measured in cents; the second term in milliliters.
A rate tells us how much of something is happening per unit time, e.g.
- How many kilometres are travelled in every hour?
- How manyDollars earned per hour?
- How many 200 calories per serving?
- How many 60 minutes in 1 hour?
- How many words if Farai types 40 words in 1 minute?

Here is a familiar speedometer showing the speed at which the car is travelling. At what speed is the car
travelling?

Unit rates
A unit rate is a comparison of two measurements where one of the terms (usually, the second term)
is 1.

Examples of a unit rates:

There are 24 hours in 1 day.
A machine makes 42 rubber bullets in 1 m

To find the unit rate, we divide the first quantity in a rate by the second, that is, divide the numerator
and denominator of the given rate by the denominator of the given rate.
Example 7
A plane flew 765 kilometers in 5 hours.
765÷5=156, 765 divided by, 5, equals, 156
The plane flew at a rate of 156 kilometers per hour. We can also write the unit rate as 156km/hr.

Activity 2.5
1. Express each phrase as a rate and unit rate. (Round your answer to the nearest hundredth.)
a) 150 kilometres on 15 litres of fuel.
b) 8 cabbages for 10 dollars.
c) 18 dollars for 9 books.
d) 4mm of rain in 9 hours.
e) 7 batteries cost 21 dollars.
f) 7 calculators cost $140.00.
31
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
2. Work out each of the following rates:
a) Chipo makes 91 bracelets in 7 hours. How many bracelets does she make in 1 hour?
b) Mark can make 42 birthday cakes in 7 days. How many birthday cakes can Mark make
in 5 days?
c) Delilah does 184 jumping jacks in 4 minutes. She does her jumping jacks at a constant rate.
How many jumping jacks can Delilah do per minute?
d) Peter buys a box of 60 nutty chocolates bars which cost$66. He also buys a box of milk
chocolate bars which contains 40 bars at a cost of $50. Calculate the price per bar of chocolate
in each case, and determine which one was more expensive.
e) Sandra drives 465 km from Bulawayo to Harare in 5 hr. Clara drives 906, 6 km from Beitbridge
to Kariba in 12hr. Which driver maintained a higher average speed?
f) James does 12 car washes for $100 dollars or 5 car washes for $45. Which one is the better buy?
3. There are three car sales people at the local car dealership. The table below shows how many
cars each salesperson has sold.

Complete the table to see how many cars each salesperson sold per year.
Car Years of Cars Cars sold per year
salesperson employment sold
Shiny 2 104
Showy 7 622
Tinny 12 516

What do you think are the reasons for the variations?

Proportions
Proportions or ratios are fundamental concepts of mathematics. A proportion is an equation that states
ࢇ ࢉ
that two ratios are equal. Hence proportion can be written in two ways as a: b = c: d or ࢈ = ࢊ
ଵଶ ଶ
e.g. ଵ଼
 ൌ  ଷ

A proportion is a way of dividing something (a quantity or a whole) into a given ratio. We could say a
proportion is a type of ratio that relates a part to a whole. Ann and Ben want to share a bar of chocolate
in the ratio 6:2. This means that if the chocolate is cut into 8 pieces, Ann would get 6 pieces and Ben
would get 2 pieces. So Ann will eat 6/8 of the chocolate and Ben will eat 2/8 of the chocolate.

Example 8
ଵ଴
In a class with 10 boys and 40 girls, the total class size is 50, and the proportion of boys is ହ଴
or 20%.
ସ଴
The proportion of girls is or 80%. In both of these proportions the size of part of the class is being
ହ଴
related to the size of the entire class.

Direct Proportions
In our world and everyday life, many of the human activities and their outcomes are related. In
mathematics, two or more variables can have many different kinds of relationships. These relationships
are called variations.
When two variable quantities increase or decrease simultaneously such that their ratio remains
unchanged, they are said to be in direct proportion. It is said that one variable "varies directly" from the
other.

32
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
CHAPTER FOUR: SETS

John Venn, (born August 4, 1834, Kingston upon Hull,

England—died April 4, 1923, Cambridge), English logician and
philosopher best known as the inventor of diagrams—known
as Venn diagrams—for representing categorical propositions and
testing the validity of categorical syllogisms

SETS
In this Chapter you will
 describe sets using a set builder notation
 draw Venn diagrams to show relationships in different subsets
 solve problems using Venn diagrams

What do you know?

I can
 List elements in sets and subsets
 Draw Venn diagrams with two subsets
 Demonstrating relationships of different subsets
 Solve problems involving sets

Revision
1. Which of the following are sets? Justify your answer.
a) The collection of all the days in a week beginning with the letter ‘T’.
b) The collection of all difficult questions in the chapter on sets.
c) The collection of girls in your class.
d) The collection of all rivers in Africa.
e) The collection of all active teachers in the school.
f) The collection of all integers more than -3.
g) The collection of all beautiful flowers in the park.

2. State whether the following are true or false.

a) The set of letters in the word ACADEMIC is finite.
b) The set of vowels in the word PEACE is an empty set.
c) {0} represents a null set.
d) Equivalent sets are always equal.
e) An empty set is a finite set.
f) 10 ‫ ב‬set of multiples of 5.
g) If two sets are equal, they are also equivalent.
h) If P = {x : x = 2n, n ‫ א‬N} ;Q = {x : x 2n + 1, n ‫ א‬N} then P and Q are disjoint sets

60
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
3. Write the following sets in the roster form.
a)A = The set of all even numbers less than 12
b)B = The set of all prime numbers greater than 1 but less than 29
c)C = The set of integers lying between -2 and 2
d)D = The set of letters in the word CULTURE
e)E = The set of vowels in the word AGRICULTURE
f)F = The set of all factors of 36

4. Classify the following as finite and infinite sets.

a) E = {The set of numbers which are multiples of 3}
b) G = {The set of letters in the English alphabet}
c) H = {The set of persons living in a house}
d) K = The set of fractions with numerator 3.

4.1 SET NOTATION

Set-Builder Notation
Sometimes it is convenient to represent sets using set builder notation. Set builder notation is shorthand
used to write sets, often sets with an infinite number of elements. Here is a simple example of set-builder
notation:
It says "the set of all x's, such that x is greater than 0".
In other words any value greater than 0
It is written: {x : x > 0} and is read aloud, "the set of all x such that x is greater than 0." It is read aloud
exactly the same way when the colon: is replaced by the vertical line, {x | x > 0}
So the Set builder notation has the general form: {variable | descriptive statement}.
The vertical bar or colon, (in set builder notation) is always read as “such that”.
Set builder notation is frequently used when the roster method is either inappropriate or inadequate.
{x | x < 6 and x is a counting number} is the set of all counting numbers less than 6. Note this is the
same set as {1;2;3;4;5}. Set builder notation will become much more concise and precise as more
information is introduced.

Considering the general form given above: {variable | descriptive statement }.

We start with two curly brackets, like this:
{ }
Then we introduce the variable.
{x }
We write a short vertical line to separate the variable from the rest of the statement:
{x| }
Then we write the formula for elements and the restrictions:
{Variable | descriptive statement} for example:
{x | x < 5} the set of all real numbers less than 5

Examples 1
Exa Set-Builder Notation Read as Meaning
mple
With : With |
1 { x: {x|x>0} the set of all x such that x is any value
x>0} greater than 0 greater than 0
2 { x: {x|x≠11} the set of all x such that x is any any value
x≠11} number except 11 except 11
3 { x: {x|x<5} the set of all x such that x is any any value less
x<5} number less than 5 than 5
61
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Consider: A = {x: x is a natural number less than 9}. This is to be read as “x such that x is a natural
number less than 9. Thus, the set A will include the numbers 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8 as these satisfy the
above given property. It can be written like this A ={x | x< 9} or A ={x: x< 9}

Examples 2: Write set builder notation for the given sets. Also, write them in roster form.
a) A set of all the elements which are positive integers and a multiple of 3.
b) A set of all natural prime numbers.
c) Set of all integers except 11.
d) Set of elements which are greater than -8 and less than 50.

Solution:
a) The set of all integers which are positive integers and a multiple of 3 can be represented in set builder
form as
A = {x : x is a positive integers and a multiple of 3 }
And in roster form as
A = {3; 6; 9; 12; 15; 18; 21; …}

b) A set of all natural prime numbers can be represented in set builder form as
B = {y : y is prime}
And in roster form as
B = {2; 3; 5; 7; 11; 13; 17; 19 …}

c) Set of all integers except 11 is represented in set builder form as

C = {z : z ≠ 11}
And in roster form as
C = {…; -3; -2; -1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 12; 13; 14; …}

d) Set of all integers which are greater than -8 and less than 50 is represented in set builder form as
D = {a : -8 < a < 50}
And in roster form as
D = {-7; -6; -5; -4; …; 0; 1; 2; 3; …; 45; 46; 47; 48; 49}

Activity 4.1
Make up a table like the one in examples 1above, with 5 or more entries.

Activity 4.2
1. Write each given set in the Set-Builder notation:
a) {2; 4; 6; 8; 10} b) {2; 3; 5; 7; 11}
c) {1; 3 5; 7; 9} d) {January; June; July}
e) {a; e; i; o; u} f) {Tuesday; Thursday}
g) {1; 4; 9; 16; 25} h) {5; 10; 15; 20; 25; 30}
i) {16; 25; 36; 49; 64}
j) {violet; indigo; blue; green; yellow; orange; red}
k) {January; March; May; July; August; October; December}

2. Write the following sets in the roster form.

a) {x : x is an even natural numbers less than 12}
b) {x : x is a prime numbers less than 12}
c) {x : x is a month whose name starts with letter J}
d) { x : x is a vowel in English alphabet}
62
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 e) {x : x is a day of the week whose name starts with letter T}
f) {x : x is a perfect square natural number up to 25}
g) {x : x is a natural number up to 30 and divisible by 5}
h) {x | x is an odd number less than 10}
i) {x | x is a perfect square natural number between 15 and 65}
j) {x | x is a color in rainbow}
k) {x | x is a month having 31 days}

3. Find which of the following sets are disjoint or overlapping.

a) A = {The set of boys in the school}
B = {The set of girls in the school}
b) P = {The set of letters in the English alphabet}
Q = {The set of vowels in the English alphabet}
c) X = {x : x is an odd number, x < 9}
Y = {x : x is an even number, x < 10}
d) M = {x : x is a factor of 24}
N = {x : x is a multiple of 3, less than 30}
e) E = {9; 99; 999}
F = {1; 10; 100}
f) G = {The set of letters in the word TAME}
H = {The set of letters in the word MATE}

4.2 VENN DIAGRAMS

Venn diagrams enable you to organise information visually so you are able to see the relationships
between two or three sets of items. A Venn diagram can be a useful way of illustrating relationships
between sets. They can identify similarities and differences.

Set
AB THINGS THINGS

IN IN

SET A SET B

So far we have come across Venn diagrams involving two circles where the overlapping areas between
the two boundaries describe the elements which are common between the two, while the areas that are
not overlapping house the elements that are different. We now move on to Venn diagrams involving
three circles.

63
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Activity 4.3
Use the Venn diagram below to answer the following questions.
Features of the Zimbabwean curriculum

Agriculture

a) Draw a
Venn diagram
Academic Culture like the one
above.
b) Write
the following
words in the appropriate circles:
Animals; Art; Crops; Dance; Examination; Games; History; Mathematics; Music; languages.
c) Add two more words of your choice to each circle.
d) Write a paragraph describing what the diagram shows.

2. Draw Venn diagrams to illustrate what you understand by:

a) Union of sets
b) Intersection of sets.

The most complicated processes can be simplified by using these simple Venn diagrams.
Activity 4.4
From the adjoining Venn diagram, find the following sets.

a) A b) B c) ξ
d) A‫׫‬B e) B‫׫‬C f) A∩C
g) (A ‫ ׫‬B) ∩ C h) A ∩ (B ∩ C)

Word problems
Venn diagram word problems generally give you two or three classifications and a bunch of numbers.
You then have to use the given information to fill the diagram and figure out the remaining information.
For instance:

64
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Example: A Music Survey was carried out to find out what types of music a group of people liked. The
results were placed into the following three circles: Venn diagram.

MUSIC SURVEY

DANCE 20

5
16
13
8 ROCK
2
RAP
6

To find out the total number of people surveyed, we add up all the numbers in the diagram.
When we do this the answer is 70.If we want to find the total number of people who like “Rock”
music, then we add up all of the numbers in the “Rock” circle, including the areas where “Rock”
overlaps with the other circles. The Total Rock People is: 16 + 2 + 8 + 5 = 31 people.
We can find the number of people who like all three types of music, by going to the centre of our
diagram, where all three circles overlap.
There are 8 people who like all three types of music.
Activity 4.5
1. Out of forty students, 14 are taking English Composition and 29 are taking Chemistry.
a. If five students are in both classes, how many students are in neither class?
b. How many are in either class?
2. A Class of 60 students completed a survey on what pets they like. The choices were: Cats, Dogs,
and Birds. Everyone liked at least one pet.
15 students liked Cats and Birds but not dogs
8 students liked Cats and Dogs but not birds
3 students liked Dogs and Birds but not Cats
3 students liked all three pets
15 students liked Cats only
14 students liked Dogs only
2 student liked Birds only
Represent these results using a three circle Venn Diagram
3. A group of 28 business people were surveyed and asked if they used Econet or Netone lines for
their businesses.
18 of them said they used Econet.
16 of them said they used Netone.
4 of them said they had did not use an Econet or Netone line.

65
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
SUBSETS: GROUPS INSIDE SETS
Subsets that are inside other sets:
- Have everything in common
- All the items in one group, also belong to the other group
- Have an intersection that is the entire subset
- Are drawn a circle inside a circle.

Healthy
food

vegetable
s

Vegetables are a subgroup of all healthy foods. They have everything in common with healthy foods.
All vegetables are healthy foods, but not all healthy foods are vegetables.
Another example is: ‘Mangoes are fruits, but not all fruits are mangoes:
Show this ‘Mangoes are fruits, but not all fruits are mangoes’ on a diagram similar to the one above.

Venn Diagrams with Counts

Often Venn Diagrams do not list all the individual item names in the diagram.
Instead they list a count of how many items there are in each particular group.
This is shown in the diagram below, where we have converted our Animals Diagram into a Counts.
Diagram.

Activity 4.6
1. The following sets are defined:
ξ = {1, 2, 3, …, 10} A = {2, 3, 7, 8, 9}
B = {2, 8} C = {4, 6, 7, 10}
a) Draw a 'general' 3-set Venn diagram
b) Go through the elements of the universal set one at a time, once only, entering each one into the
appropriate region of the diagram

66
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
TEST YOURSELF

SECTION A
1. What does the | mean in set notation?
A. Such that
B. It is just a separator and does not mean anything.
C. It means you have to keep the two sides separate
D. There is not a | in set builder notation.

2. The set of all cars owned by students

A. {x | x is a student with a car}
B. {x | x is a car owned by a student}
C. {x is a car}
D. {x is a student with a car}

3. The set {1; 2; 3; 4} is equivalent to:

A. {x| 1 < x < 4, where x is a whole number}
B. {x| 0 < x < 4, where x is a whole number}
C. {x| 0 < x < 4, where x is a whole number}
D. {x| 1 < x <4, where x is a whole number}

4. Which set builder notation represents the set of all numbers from 2 to 7, inclusive?
A. {x| 2 < x ≤ 7, where x is a real number}
B. {x| 2 < x < 7, where x is a real number}
C. {x| 2 ≤ x < 7, where x is a real number}
D. {x| 2 ≤ x ≤ 7, where x is a real number}

5. Which notation describes {1; 2;3}?

A. {x | 1 ≤ x < 3 where x is an integer}
B. {x | 0  x  3 where x is an integer}
C. {x | 1  x  3, where x is an integer}
D. {x | 0 x  3, where x is an integer}

6. According to the Venn diagram below, how many students have enrolled in art class?

A.14 B.11 C.18 D.15

7. Which of the following is not a finite set?

A. {1, 2, 3}
B. {-2, -3, -1}
C. { }
D. {Real Numbers}
67
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
8. In a class of 120 students numbered 1 to 120, all even numbered students opt for Physics, those whose
numbers are divisible by 5 opt for Chemistry and those whose numbers are divisible by 7 opt for Math.
How many opt for none of the three subjects?
A. 19 B. 41 C. 21 D. 57
9. In a class 40% of the students enrolled for Math and 70% enrolled for Economics. If 15% of the
students enrolled for both Math and Economics, what % of the students of the class did not enroll for
either of the two subjects?
A. 5% B. 15% C. 0 % D. 25%
10. In a class of 120 students, 70 students passed in English, 80 students passed in History and 40
students passed in both English and History. How many students failed in both the students?
A. 5 B.10 C.15 D.20

SECTION B
Show all your working.
11. A driving test has two sections, practical(p) and theory(t). One day everyone who took the test
passed at least one section. 77% passed the practical section and 81% passed the theory section.
Represent this information on a Venn diagram showing the percentage of candidates in each section of
the diagram. [3]

12. If the universal set is the set of even numbers less than 30 and:
A={4,8,12,16,20,24,28}
B={6,12,18,24,28}

(a) Complete the Venn diagram with this information.

c) Find: i. A ‫ ׫‬B ii. A ∩ B [7]

13. In a group of 60 people, 27 like cold drinks and 42 like hot drinks and each person likes at least one
of the two drinks. How many like both coffee and tea? [3]

14. Write the following: a) {0, 1, 2… 10} in set-builder notation.

b) {x: x is an integer less than 4} in roster notation.
c) {January, February, March, April, May} in set-builder notation.
d) {a|a is an integer greater than 7} by listing. [7]
68
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
CHAPTER FIVE: FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS

Fischer Sheffey Black (January 11 1938 – August 30 1995) was

an American economist best known as one of the authors of the
famous Black–Scholes equation.
Black graduated from Harvard College in 1959 and received
a Ph.D. in applied mathematics from Harvard University in 1964. He was
initially expelled from the PhD program due to his inability to settle on a
thesis topic having switched from physics to mathematics then to computers
and artificial intelligence. Black joined the consultancy Bolt Beranek and
Newman working on a system for artificial intelligence. He spent a summer
developing his ideas at the RAND corporation. He became a student of MIT
professor Marvin Minsky and was later able to submit his research for
completion of the Harvard PhD.
Black joined Arthur D. Little where he was first exposed to economic and
financial consulting and where he met his future collaborator Jack Treynor.
In 1971 he began to work at the University of Chicago. He later left the University of Chicago in 1975
to work at the MIT Sloan School of Management. In 1984 he joined Goldman Sachs where he worked
until his death. Wikipedia.

FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS
In this chapter you will:
 interpret bank statements
 calculate compound interest
 calculate commission
 solve problems on hire purchase

What do you know?

I can

Interpret bills
Make calculations based on data from corporate bills
Calculate profit and loss
Calculate discount
Find simple interest
Prepare an enterprise budget for a small business

69
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
5.1 A BANK

What is a bank?
A financial institution that handles money including keeping it for
saving or commercial purposes and exchanging investing and
supplying it for loans.
Here are some of the Banks in Zimbabwe. Which is the most
important bank? Why is it so?

A Bank account

A bank account is a financial account maintained by a financial institution for a customer. A bank
account can be a deposit account a credit card account a current account a savings account or any other
type of account offered by a financial institution and represents the funds that a customer has entrusted
to the financial institution and from which the customer can make withdrawals. Common bank accounts
are savings and cheque accounts.

A Bank Statement:
A bank statement is a document that is issued by a bank to its customers giving a summary of financial
transactions which have occurred over a given period on a bank account held by a person or business
with a financial institution.

Features on a bank statement

The statement must be:
- Type written on official bank letterhead (name and address of the financial institution).
- Include the date the letter was issued.
- State the period of time covered by this statement.
- Have name of account holder
- Include balance of the account and currency type
- Include account number
- Have a Deposits section: this section lists the deposits made during the statement period.

70
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 - Have a Withdrawals section :This section lists other withdrawals such as debit card purchases
and other electronic payments
- Signed by a bank official.

The statement provides the following information:

The beginning cash balance in the account
+ The total amount of each deposited batch of cheques and cash
- Funds withdrawn from the account
- Individual cheques paid
+ Interest earned on the account
- Service fees and penalties charged against the account
= Ending cash balance in the account

Example1
Here is an example of what a bank statement might look like.

People’s Bank

First Street Account Statement

Chegutu March 1 – 31 2017

Account Number: 976654321

Savings Statement March 31__

Account
Transaction Debits Credits Balance
Date Balance Brought forward 110 200
March 1 Deposit 10 000 1 20200

March 13 Deposit 5 000 125 200

March 13 Groceries 4 820 120 380

March 15 Cash Withdrawal 400,00 80 380

March 20 Fuel 6 500 73 880

March 20 Donation 5 050

68830
March 25 Salary 50000
1 18 830
March 25 Rent 25 000
93 830
71
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 March 26 Deposit 30 000
123 830
March 26 School fees 81 700
42 130
March 30 Bank Charges 3 000 39 130

March 31 Interest Earned (15%)

March 31

Activity 5.1
1. Using the bank statement above answer the following questions:
a) What period does this statement cover?
b) What is the account number of this statement?
c) How many deposits were made and what were the amounts?
d) Were there any service charges? If so what was the total amount?
e) What is the total of all withdrawals?
2. What is the new balance of the account?
3. Answer the following using True or false:
a) Money changes hands frequently.
b) Your bank statement shows you have a balance only at the end of the month.
c) Bank statements must be hand written to avoid stealing.
d) Banks are trusted businesses where people can safely keep their money.
e) If you put your money in a savings account the bank will pay you a small amount of money called
interest.
f) Obtaining cash from an ATM occurs when borrowing from the bank.

5.2 Interest
While both types of interest will grow your money over time, there is a big difference between the two.
Specifically, simple interest is only paid on principal, while compound interest is paid on the principal
plus all of the interest that has previously been earned.

You have dealt with simple interest in your previous work. Any money which is loaned or borrowed
under conditions which require regular payments of interest, leaving the principal unchanged, is defined
to be lent or borrowed at simple interest.
Remember the formula:

72
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Future of Maturity Value
The total amount we would need to pay back when we take a loan is called the future value (FV) of the
loan. The FV A of a loan is given by the equation A = P + I. When we invest a principal amount (P) the
FV (A) will represent the total amount we will have at the end of the loan period after simple interest is
applied. Using the formula I = Prt we can derive a formula for the FV since A = P + Prt or A = P (1 +
rt) after factoring out P on the right hand side.

Example 2
Joyce borrowed $3 000 for 4 Years at 5% interest rate. Find the future value.

Solution
Using A = P + Prt
A = $3 000 + ($3 000 x 0, 05 x 4)
A = $3 000 + $600
A = $3 600

Activity 5.2
Answer all questions which follow.
1. Bono borrows $300 from her local bank at an annual interest rate of 5% to be paid back in six
months. How much interest will she pay at the end of the loan?
2. You borrow $1 000 to start a chicken business the bank charges 10% interest. How much will
you pay at the end of one year?
3. The simple interest on $480 for 5 years is $156. Calculate the rate percent per annum.
4. Find the time in which $360 will amount to $420 at 4% per annum simple interest.
5. Find the Principal which will yield $352 interest in 4 years at 8% per annum simple interest.
6. Sarah needs to borrow $2 000 in order to buy furniture. She's approved for two different loans.
Loan One allows her to borrow $2 000 now provided that she pay off the loan by returning $2
200 exactly one year from the day that she borrows the money. Loan Two offers her $2 000
upfront as well with a similar loan period of one year at an annual interest rate of 7%. Which is
the better deal for Sarah?

COMPOUND INTEREST
Compound interest is the addition of interest to the principal sum of a loan or deposit or in other words
interest on interest. Remember that with simple interest, the interest is only worked out at the end. With
compound interest, the interest is calculated at the end of each time period, that is, work out the interest
for the first period add it on and then calculate the interest for the next period.

Example 3
Suppose a bank pays a fixed interest of 10% on money in deposit accounts. Ken puts $500 in the bank:
After 1 year he has $500 plus 10% of $500 = $550

The next period's interest is then computed from the increased principal amount, $550.
After 2 years he has $550 plus 10% of $550 = $605 (Check this with 500 x 1,102)
The next period's interest is then computed from the increased principal amount, $605.
After 3 years he has $605 plus 10% of $605 = $665, 50. (Check this with 500 x 1,103)
The next period's interest is then computed from the increased principal amount, $665, 50, and
so on.

73
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 In general after n years the money in the bank will be: (500 x 1,10n)

Activity 5.3
If Aleta takes a loan of $1 000, 00 for 5 years with a firm which charges simple interest at the rate of
10% each year, the table below shows the transactions during the 5 years.

Year Loan at Start Interest Loan at End

1 $1 000,00 ($1 000,00 × 10% = ) $100,00 $1 100,00
2 $1 000,00 ($1 000,00 × 10% = ) $100,00 $1 200,00
3 $1 000,00 ($1 000,00 × 10% = ) $100,00 $1 300,00
4 $1 000,00 ($1 000,00 × 10% = ) $100,00 $1 400,00
5 $1 000,00 ($1 000,00 × 10% = ) $100,00 $1 500,00

If Alex person takes a loan of $1 000 at the rate of 10% compounded annually, the table below shows
the transaction in the 5 years. It is like paying interest on interest: after a year Alex owed $100 interest
the Bank thinks of that as another loan and charges interest on it too.
After a few years it can get really large. This is what happens on a 5 Year Loan:
Year Loan at Interest Loan at
Start End
0 (Now) $1 000,00 ($1 000,00 × 10% = ) $100,00 $1 100,00
1 $1100,00 ($1 100,00 × 10% = ) $110,00 $1 210,00
2 $1 210,00 ($1 210,00 × 10% = ) $121,00 $1 331,00
3 $1 331,00 ($1 331,00 × 10% = ) $133,10 $1 464,10
4 $1 464,10 ($1 464,10 × 10% = ) $146,41 $1 610,51
5 $1 610,51
What are your observations concerning the two people. Which one would you choose? Why?
Find out which is the most popular in the real world and why?

With compounding we work out the interest for the first period, add it the total, and then calculate the
interest for the next period, and so on ..., like this:

Month Previous Balance Interest New Balance

February $1 000 $1 000 x 0,05 = $50 $1 050
March $1 050 $1 050 x0,05 = $52,50 $1 102,50
April $1 102,50 $1 102,50 x 0,05 = $55,13 $1 157,63
May $1 157,63 $1 157,63 x0,05 = $57,88 $1 215,51
June $1 215,51 $1 215,51 x 0,05 = $60,78 $1 276,29

74
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
The best way to calculate compound interest is use a multiplier: A percentage multiplier is the percentage
expressed as a decimal for example 20% gives a multiplier of 0,2.
A multiplier of a percentage increase or decrease is the percentage multiplier added or subtracted from
1.

An 8% increase is a multiplier of 1, 08 (1 +0, 08)

An 8% decrease is a multiplier of 0, 92 (1- 0, 08).

Total amount = P x (1 + ‫)ݔ‬n , where P is the original amount, ‫ݔ‬the interest rate expressed as a decimal
and n is the number of years for which the money is invested. This type of problem can also be about
increasing or decreasing populations, salaries mass, etc.

Examples 4
Answer the following questions.
1. A bank pays 4% compound interest per annum. Jack invests $3 000. How much will he have after 5
years?
For Jack the multiplier for an increase of 4% is 1, 04
The calculation is 3 000 x 1, 04 = $3 649, 96
2. A young tree grows 20% in height each year. If the tree was 1 meter tall when it was planted, how
tall will it be after 10 years?
The multiplier for an increase of 20% is 1, 2
So after 10 years the height will be 1 x 1,210 = 6, 19 (3sf).
3. A Petri dish containing 20 000 bacteria is treated with a detergent which kills 12% of the bacteria
each minute. How many bacteria will remain after 10 minutes?
The multiplier for a decrease of 12% is 0, 88.
The calculation is: 20 000 x 0, 8810 = 5 570.

Activity 5.4
Answer the following questions.
1. Find the amount and the compound interest on $ 7 500 in 2 years and at 6% compounded yearly.
2. Tinashe invested $4 500 for 2 years in a savings account. He was paid 4% per annum compound
interest. How much did Tinashe have in his savings account after 2 years?
3. Tariro invested $5 000 at 4% compound interest for five years. How much was the investment
worth after five years?
4. Peter invests $360 in an account that pays 7.25% compounded annually. What is the total amount
in the account after 12 years?
5. Suppose $4 000 is invested at a 6% interest rate compounded annually. How much money will
there be in the bank at the end of five years? At the end of 20 years?
6. $600 was deposited into an account earning 8% interest compounded annually. How much money
will be in the account after six years?
7. A certain sum amounts to $ 72 900 in 2 years at 8% per annum compound interest, compounded
annually. Find the sum.

5.3 Commission
Definition: A commission is a fee that a business pays to a salesperson in exchange for his or her
services in either facilitating or completing a sale. It is usually a percentage of the total cost.Many people
work “on commission.” Sales persons and real estate agents often work on commission.

75
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
CHAPTER SIX: MEASURES AND MENSURATION

Great Zimbabwe is a medieval

city near Lake Mutirikwe and Masvingo
town. It was the capital of the Kingdom of
Zimbabwe during the country's Late Iron
Age. Construction on the monument began
in the 11th century and continued until the
15th century. The structures at Great
Zimbabwe are the largest and second-oldest
in sub-Saharan Africa. This is the largest
single ancient structure south of the Sahara.
The perimeter wall is about 250 meters in
circumference and 11meters high, and it is
estimated that nearly a million granite blocks
were used in its construction. The roughly
oval-shaped structure encloses an area
80meters by 55meters and contains a
number of stone features, including the Conical Tower. The largest hill enclosure is the Western
Enclosure, with a main perimeter wall 8meters high and 5meters thick.

MEASURES AND MENSURATION

In this Chapter you will:

 calculate perimeter of combined shapes
 calculate area of combined shapes
 calculate volume of cuboids and cylinders

What do you know?

I can:
-calculate the perimeter and area of plane shapes
-calculate the volume of rectangular prisms

Revision
Answer the following questions.

1. Calculate the perimeter and area of each of the following shapes:

a) b) c)

82
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 d) e) f)

g) h) i)

2. Calculate the volume of the following:

a) b) c)

e) f)
d)

6.1 Perimeter of Combined Shapes

To find the perimeter of a combined shape is straight forward if all the sides are given. You simply add
the lengths.

Example 1: Find the perimeter of the shape below.

83
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Solution:
To find the perimeter you add up the given lengths.
Perimeter = 2 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 5 + 5 = 20 cm

Sometimes the shape is more complicated. In this case you need to calculate 'missing' lengths and be
particularly careful to include all the sides.
To find the perimeter of a combined shape, follow these simple steps:

Example 2: Find the perimeter of the shape given below.

4cm

3cm

5cm

10cm
The first thing that you need to do is to split the compound shape into rectangles. This will help you
visualise the parallel lines required to help identify the missing lengths.

Step 1: Work out the missing lengths around the edge of the combined shape.
The first length we need to find is top to bottom.
84
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
We need to look for clues to what that length could be. We know that it is parallel to the 3cm line and
the 5cm line. If you put them together they would be exactly the same length as the missing length. So,
we need to make an addition. 3cm + 5cm = 8cm
The missing length is therefore 8cm.
Step 2: Divide your L shape into two rectangles. This can be done in 2 different ways (both methods
will give the same answer).

Now to find the other missing length you need to look at what you already know. The lines parallel to
it measure 10cm and 4cm. Because we have some of the length then we need to do a subtraction.
10cm – 4cm = 6cm
Step 3: To find the total perimeter we need to make some additions.
4cm + 3cm + 6cm + 5cm + 10cm + 8cm
Answer: 36cm

Activity 6.1
Calculate the perimeter of the following shapes:
1)a) b)

c) d)

e) f)

85
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
2)
a) b)

d)
c)

e)
f)

86
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
3. A plan of a play area is shown below:
a) Calculate the length of x and y
b) Calculate the perimeter of the play area.

6.2 Area of Combined Shapes

To find the area of a compound shape, follow these simple steps:

Step 1: Work out the missing lengths around the edge of the compound shape.
Step 2: Divide your L shape into two rectangles. This can be done in 2 different ways (both methods
will give the same answer).
Step 3: Work out the area of each rectangle. Do this by multiplying the base of the rectangle by the
height of the rectangle.
Step 4: Add the areas of the rectangles together to give the total area of the L shape.

Example 3
Find the area of this compound shape (L shape).

Step 1
Work out the missing lengths around the edge of the compound shape.
10 – 6 = 4 cm
9 – 2 = 7 cm
Step 2
Divide your L shape into two rectangles.

87
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Step 3
Now you need to find the area of the 2 rectangles:
The area of rectangle A is 10 × 2 = 20 cm²
The area of rectangle B is 4 × 7 = 28 cm²
Make sure you select the correct base and height lengths for each rectangle.

Step 4
All you need to do now is to add up the 2 answers from step 3.
20 + 28 = 48 cm².
So the total area of the compound shape is 48 cm².

Activity 6.2
Find the area enclosed by each of the following shapes:

88
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 WORD PROBLEMS
Answer the following questions.
1) The length of a rectangle is 12 cm more than the width. The perimeter is 44 cm. Find the length and
the width.
2) The perimeter of a rectangle is 104m. The length is 7m more than twice the width. What are the
dimensions of the rectangle?
3) Side a of a triangle is 4 cm longer than side b. Side c is twice as long as side b. What is the length of
each side of the triangle if its perimeter is 28 cm?
4) The length of a rectangle is 5 cm less than three times its width. The perimeter is 86cm. Find the length
and width.
5) The two longest sides of a pentagon are each 3 times as long as the shortest side. The other sides are
each 8 m longer than the shortest side. Find the length of each side if the perimeter is 79 m.
6) Mary wants new carpeting for her dining room. Her dining room is a 5 m by 10 m rectangle. How
much carpeting does she need to buy to cover her entire dining room?
7) Isabella is making a display board for the school elections. The display board is a 3m by 2m rectangle.
She needs to add a ribbon border around the entire display board. What is the length of ribbon that she
needs?
8) Jasmine is making a display board for the school talent show. The display board is a 3m by 2m
rectangle. If ribbon costs $2 per meter, how much will it cost to add a ribbon border around the entire
display board?

9) Danny has a rectangular rose garden that measures 8 m by 10 m. One bag of fertilizer can cover 16m2.
How many bags will he need to cover the entire garden?
10) If one side of a square is doubled in length and the adjacent side is decreased by two centimeters, the
area of the resulting rectangle is 96 square centimeters larger than that of the original square. Find the
dimensions of the rectangle.

6.3 Volume
In our day to day life, we came across a number of three-dimensional (3-D) objects, which has a certain
volume. The volume of a substance is the total amount of space that it covers, i.e. when we measure the
space region taken up by a solid object it is called as volume.
Conversely, Capacity alludes to the quantity of something that a container holds. In short, capacity is
the container’s volume.
Due to many similarities, the volume is often confused with capacity, but there are less but significant
differences between volume and capacity, which one can understand by learning their meaning, unit of
measurement, etc.

89
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR
VOLUME CAPACITY
COMPARISON

Meaning Volume implies the total Capacity refers to the objects

amount of space covered ability to contain a substance,
by an object. i.e. solid, liquid or gas.

What is it? It is the actual amount of It is the potential amount of

something, which covers substance, which an object is
a definite space. able to hold.

Measurement Measured in cubic units, Measured in metric units such

such as cubic centimeter, as liters, gallons, etc.
cubic meter.

Object Both solid and hollow Only hollow objects have

objects have volume. capacity.

Volume of a Cylinder

A cylinder with radius r units and height h units has a volume of V cubic units given by

Examples 3
Take pi = 3,142
1. Find the volume of a cylindrical canister with radius 7 cm and height 12 cm.
Solution:

90
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
2. Find the volume of the cylinder shown. Round off to the nearest cubic centimetre.

Solution
The formula for the volume of a cylinder is V=Bh or V=πr2h
The radius of the cylinder is 8 cm and the height is 15 cm.
Substitute 8 for r and 15 for h in the formula V = πr2h.
V= π (8)2(15)
Simplify V= π (64) (15) ≈3016
Therefore, the volume of the cylinder is about 3016 cubic centimeters.

Activity 6.3
i.What is the volume of the cylinder with a radius of 2 and a height of 6?
ii.What is the volume of the cylinder with a radius of 3 and a height of 5?

TEST YOURSELF
Section A
1. What is the area of this shape?

A. 30 B. 42 C. 54 D. 72
2. Find the perimeter of the figure shown in the previous question
A. 30 B. 36 C. 40 D. 46
3. What is the area of this shape?

A. 52 B.64 C. 72 D.80

91
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
CHAPTER TEN: INDICES AND LOGARINTHMS

John Napier
Scottish mathematician
John Napier of Merchiston; also signed as Neper, Nepair;
nicknamed Marvelous Merchiston was a Scottish
landowner known as a mathematician, physicist, and
astronomer. He was the 8th Laird of Merchiston.
Napier's study of mathematics was only a hobby and in
his mathematical works he writes that he often found it
hard to find the time for the necessary calculations
between working on theology. He is best known,
however, for his invention of logarithms but his other
mathematical contributions include a mnemonic for
formulae used in solving spherical triangles, two formulae
known as "Napier's analogies" used in solving spherical
triangles and an invention called "Napier's bones" used for
mechanically multiplying dividing and taking square
roots and cube roots. Napier also found exponential
expressions for trigonometric functions, and introduced the decimal notation for fractions.
Known for: Logarithms; Napier's bones; Decimal notation

INDICES AND LOGARITHMS

In this chapter you will

 simplify algebraic expressions involving indices

 define logarithms
 evaluate logarithms
 apply the laws of logarithms to evaluate logarithms
 simplify expressions using laws of logarithms
 solve equations involving indices and logarithms

What do you know?

I can

Do operations with numbers expressed in index form

Multiply and divide algebraic terms expressed in index form
Multiply together numbers and algebraic terms that are expressed in integer powers

158
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
10.1 Indices
We know that 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 can be written in the shorthand form as 25.
25 is pronounced 2 to the power of 5.
2 is referred to as the Base and 5 is referred to as the Power or the Index.

There are a number of rules which we adhere to when working with indices or powers.
Indices satisfy the following rules:

Activity 10.1
Take each of the rules above and show that it is true. The first one has been done for you.
1. am x an = a(m + n)
Proof: 23 x 24= (2x2x2) x (2x2x2x2)
= (2x2x2 x 2x2x2x2)
= 27
= 2(3 + 4)
Therefore: a x a = a(m + n)
m n

Activity 10.2
Answer the following questions.
1. Using: am x an = a(m + n) simplify the following:
a) 43 x 42 b) 73 x 75 c) 102 x 108 d) y7 x y13

2. Using: am ÷ an = a(m - n) simplify the following:

a) 53 ÷ 5 b) 25 ÷ 23 c) m6 ÷m3 d) y7 /y3 e) w4÷ w0

3. Using: ( am) n = am x n simplify the following:

159
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 a) (y2)6 b) (51)5 c) (z 5)5 d) (3y2)3 e) (2a2)4

௔
4. Using:ቀ௕ቁm = am / bm simplify the following:
ଶ ସ ଷ ଽ ଷ
a) ቀ ቁ2 b) ቀହቁ5 c) ቀଶቁ4 d) ቀସቁ1/2 e) ቀଵ଴ቁ3
ଷ
5. Simplify the following:
a) y3 x y7 b) z7 ÷‫ݖ‬3 c) m3÷m2 d)w4 ÷ w-2
-3 -2 7 4 6 5
e) e x e f) (4 ) g)n x n h) c-6 x c2
i) g0 x g3 j) h-4÷ h6 k) 3v2 x 4v7 l) y7/y3
-10 -2 0 o -6 6 -5 3
m) (19 x 19 )/19 n) (b x b )/b o) 8 /8 p) y6÷ y-5
6. Write the following expressions more concisely by using an index
a) ‫ ݔ‬ൈ ‫ ݔ‬ൈ ‫ ݔ‬ൈ ‫ݔ‬ b) (yz) × (yz) × (yz) x (yz)
௔ ௔ ௔ ௔
c) ቀ௕ቁx ቀ௕ቁx ቀ௕ቁ x ቀ௕ቁ d) an x an x an x an
7. Simplify:
a) 1252/3: b)271/3 x 31/2 c)323/5 x 161/4 d)2-3 x 163/4
f) 4 = 8 g) 4(x +1) = 0.25
x
h) 2(2x + 3)
+2(x + 3)
=1+2 x

10.2 Logarithms

A Logarithm is a mirror image of an index or power.

For example, the base 10 logarithm of 100 is 2, because ten raised to the power of 2 is 100: log
2
10100 = 2. Because 10 = 100. This is an example of a base-ten logarithm. It is customary to leave out
the base when dealing with base 10. We call it a base ten logarithm because ten is the number that is
raised to a power.
We write log100 = 2 instead of log 10100 = 2 (it is understood that we are dealing with base 10)
Other bases have to be written down every time we use them e.g. log2 8 = 3, because 23 = 8.
There are logarithms using different base units. If you wanted, you could use two as a base unit. For
instance, the base 2 logarithm of 8 is 3, because2 raised to the power of 3 equals 8:
log2 8 = 3
This means: How many 2s do we multiply to get 8?
Answer: 2 × 2 × 2 = 8, so we had to multiply 3 of the 2s to get 8
So the logarithm is 3

How to write it
We write "the number of 2s we need to multiply to get 8 is 3" as:
Log2 (8) = 3
So these two things are the same:
The number we multiply is called the "base", so we can say:
 "the logarithm of 8 with base 2 is 3"
 or "log base 2 of 8 is 3"
 or "the base-2 log of 8 is 3"

Example1: What is log5 (625)?

We are asking "how many 5s need to be multiplied together to get 625?"
5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 625, so we need 4 of the 5s
Answer: log5 (625) = 4

160
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 Example 2: What is log2 (64)?
We are asking "how many 2s need to be multiplied together to get 64?"
2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 64, so we need 6 of the 2s
Answer: log2 (64) = 6
So a logarithm answers a question like this:

In this way:

The general case is

If m = bn then logb m = n; i.e. the log of m to base b is n.

If y = xn then n = logx y read the log of y to the base x is n
e.g. 1000 = 103 then 3 = log10 1000
0,01 = 10-2 then –2 = log10 0,01

Activity 10.3
Using Rules of Indices, the following rules of logarithms apply
1) logb (x × y) = logb x + logb y
e.g. log10 (2×3) = log10 2+log10 3
Evaluate:
a) Log42 + log4 8
b) Log68 + log6 27
c) Log816 + log8 4
2. Logb (x/y) = logb x - logb y
Let x = bm, then, m = logb x; and,
y = bn ֞ n = logb y
Therefore: logb (x/y) = logb (bm ÷ bn) = logb b(m - n) = m – n
= logb x - logb y
Evaluate:
a) Log318 - log3 6
b) Log26 - log2 3
c) Log43 - log4 48
3. Logb xn = nlogb x
Let x = bm, then, m = logb x;
Therefore: logb xn= logb (bm)n = logb bmn = mn = n(m) = n(logb x)
. Evaluate:
a) Log5 25
b) Log3 81
c) Log4 (1/64)
d) Logb (1/x)

Worked examples 3: Evaluate the following:

1) x = log39
The log of m to base b = n then m = bn
161
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 Let the log of 9 to base 3 = x then
9 = 3x
9 = 3 × 3 = 32
So x = 2
2) What is log3 (81)?
Let the log of 81 to base 3 = x then
81 = 3x
81= 3 × 3 x 3 x 3 = 34
34 = 81
So x = 4
So an exponent of 4 is needed to make 3 into 81, and:
log3 (81) = 4

TEST YOURSELF
Section A
1. The product of a²b4 and a³b5 is
A. a10 b20 B. a5 b9 C. a4 b6 D. a6 b7
2. The product of a5 b² and a² is
A. a³b² B. a4 b² C. a7 b² D. a10 b²
3. By simplifying the a3⁄4 ⁄a1⁄2 x a1⁄3 , the answer will be
A. a7⁄13 B. a5⁄11 C. a7⁄12 D. a9⁄11
4. By solving the following (2³)4, the answer will be
A. 27 B. 212 C. 2 D. 28
E.
5. By simplifying [(16x6 y5)²) ⁄(2x²y²)4 ] x [x5 y³ ⁄x³y²], the answer will be
A. 16x4 y² B. 16x5 y³ C. 16x6 y³ D. 16x7 y5
6. If 36 ⁄27 = 3x then the value of 'x' is
A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 2
7. Which of the following statements is not correct?
A. log10 10 = 1
B. log (2 x 3) = log 2 + log 3
C. log (1 + 2 + 3) = log 1 + log 2 + log 3
D. log10 1 = 0

8. Logarithm to base 10 of 1000 is:

A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
9. The value of log2 16 is
ଵ
A.଼ B. 4 C. 8 D. 16

10. If log32 x= 0,8, then x is equal to

A.10 B. 16 C. 12,8 D. 25,6

162
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
SECTION B
Show all your work

11. Write down the value of log6 (36). [1]

12. Write the following expression as a single logarithm. Simplify as much as possible.
a) 3logx + 5logy [1]
b) 5logx + ¾ logy [2]

13. Solve for x:

[4]
14. Find the positive value of ‫ ݔ‬such that: log‫ݔ‬64 = 2 [2]

15. Solve the equations:

c) log3 2 + log3(x + 4) = 2 log3 x. [3]
d) Log5x + log5 4 = 2 [4]
e) 2 log3 x -log3(x -2) = 2 [5]
Simplify (combine) the logarithmic expression: 4log x - 5log y

163
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 CHAPTER ELEVEN: PLANE GEOMETRY

GEOMETRY
Points, lines and angles

In this chapter you will

 construct angles of elevation and depression
 solve problems on angles of elevation and depression
 illustrate bearing on diagrams
 solve problems involving three figure bearing and compass bearing
 describe properties of polygons
 solve problems involving n-sided polygon
 Apply the properties of n-sided polygons
 find the scale factor from two given similar shapes
 calculate the length of sides of similar figures
 calculate the area of similar figures
 calculate the volume and mass of similar solids
 construct triangles
 construct quadrilaterals
 solve life problems using construction of triangles and quadrilaterals

What do I know?
I can
Construct a scale drawing of a triangle to measure a length or angle.
Draw and measure line segments and angles in geometric figures, including interpreting scale drawings
Illustrate bearing on diagrams
Solve problems using scale drawing
Revision
1. Measure, to the nearest tenth of a centimeter, the lengths of the sides of this triangle.

164
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 2. Use your protractor to measure the size of all three angles of the triangle in problem 1.
3. Using your ruler and protractor, construct a 40 angle.

11.1 Angles of Elevation and Depression

The angle of elevation is the angle between a horizontal line from the observer and the line of sight to
an object that is above the horizontal line.

Angle of Depression
The angle of depression is the angle between a horizontal line from the observer and the line of sight
to an object that is below the horizontal line.

In the diagram below, PQ is the horizontal line. θ is the angle of depression from the observer at P to
the object at R.

How to solve word problems that involve angle of elevation or depression?

Step 1: Draw a sketch of the situation.
Step 2: Mark in the given angle of elevation or depression.
Step 3: Use scale drawing and later trigonometry to find the required missing length

Construction of Diagrams
Many measurement situations are related to geometrical arrangements, and diagrams can be used to
analyze these situations, to answer questions about them, and to explain those answers to others.
In this chapter, you will always make a careful diagram for any problem involving a verbal description
of a geometric situation. This diagram will show that you understand the written problem and will give
you guidance in developing your answer. Making a careful diagram will allow you to check your
answer, so it will usually reduce the length of time it takes to get a correct solution to a problem.
Activity 11.1
Two poles on horizontal ground are 60 m apart. The shorter pole is 3 m high. The angle of depression
of the top of the shorter pole from the top of the longer pole is 20˚. Sketch a diagram to represent the
situation.
The following discussion addresses making careful diagrams:

165
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Scale
Generally, diagrams are not drawn at the size of the things they represent. The ratio of the size of the
drawing to the size of the real object is called the scale factor of the diagram. For example, a street map
might have a scale factor of 1 centimeter (of the map) to 2.5 km (of the actual city). A statement of the
scale factor is an essential part of a diagram.

Tools: You will use the following:

 ruler
 protractor
 set square with a right angle
 drawing compass (A drawing compass made from metal is more satisfactory than one made
from plastic. Those made from plastic do not hold the measured setting very well. )

These can be used to make accurate diagrams of a large variety of situations, including the kinds of
problems in which trigonometry (in later chapters) is used to calculate solutions.
Example 1: A flagpole that is 15m high casts a shadow over level ground that is 12 m long. Find the
angle of elevation of the sun at that time.

Steps to construct an appropriate careful diagram:

a) Pick a convenient scale factor. A scale of 1 cm to 3m, making the 15 m flagpole 5cm long, is big
enough that the angle can be easily measured with the protractor
b) Draw a horizontal baseline with 6cm of space above it to represent level ground.
c) Mark two points 4cm apart on the baseline to represent the shadow. Label these points A and B.
d) Use the set square to draw a vertical line through point B, representing the flagpole.
e) On this vertical line, label as C the point 5cm above the baseline.
f) Draw a line from point A on the baseline to point C at the top of the flagpole.
g) Use the protractor to measure the angle CAB between the AC line and the AB baseline.
h) Label the shadow, flagpole, and angle of elevation with names and values. Also write the scale factor
in a convenient place on the diagram.
Scale 1cm = 3m

Flagpole

Angle of elevation

55o

A B

166
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Activity 11.2
Answer the following questions.
1. A man who is 2 m tall stands on horizontal ground 30 m from a tree. The angle of elevation of the
top of the tree from his eyes is 28˚. Estimate the height of the tree by scale drawing.

2. Buildings A and B are across the street from each other, 35m apart. From a point on the roof of
Building A the angle of elevation at the top of Building B is 24°, and the angle of depression of the
base of Building B is 34°. How tall is each building?

2. If a 3m ladder is leaned against a wall in a room with a 2,5m ceiling so that it touches the ceiling,
what angle does it form with the floor?
3. A hunter is lost in a forest, but can communicate by portable radio to two ranger stations. The
rangers at each station figure out how far away he is from them by how long it takes the sound of a
shot to reach them through the air after hearing it through the radio. Station A is 5.1 km due west
of Station B, and the hunter is 4.6 miles from Station A and 3.7 km from Station B. Construct a
diagram indicating the location of the hunter.

4. What is the altitude to the longest side of a triangle with sides of 21, 18, and 15 cm?

5. An observer standing on top of a vertical spots a house in the adjacent valley at an angle of
depression of 12°. The cliff is 60m tall. How far is the house from the base of the cliff?

6. A 3m ladder just reaches the top of a wall when the base of the ladder is 1m from the wall along the
ground. Determine the height of the wall.

7. A plane is flying level at an altitude of 1 400m. An observer inside the plane looks straight ahead
and downward to see a small building on the ground at an angle of depression of 16. What is the
distance the plane must fly to be directly above the small building?

8. Janet is standing 20m from the base of a tower that is 26m tall. Janet’s eyes are exactly 1,5m from
the ground. What is the angle of elevation of the top of the tower from Janet’s eyes?

9. A mountain in New Mexico is surrounded by a level plain. When close to the mountain (but still
on the plain), the angle of elevation to the summit of the mountain is 45. When you back away
from the mountain by 2 km (in a straight line from the summit), its angle of elevation is 21. How
high is the summit above the plain?

10. Copy the picture below and choosing you own scale state the distance from Mr Man to the foot of
the tree and the angle if elevation to the top of the tree.

167
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 a. Find the height of the tree below.

11.2 Bearings

A bearing is an angle, measured clockwise from the north direction. In the diagram below,
the bearing of B from A is 025 degrees (note 3 figures are always given). The bearing of A from B is
205 degrees.

A bearing is a direction. Bearings are measured clockwise from north, so north is zero degrees, east is
90 degrees, south is 180 degrees, and west is 270 degrees.

168
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
A compass is an instrument used for navigation and orientation that shows direction relative to the
geographic cardinal directions (or points). Usually, a diagram called a compass rose shows the
directions north, south, east, and west on the compass face as abbreviated initials.
Compasses often display markings for angles in degrees in addition to (or sometimes instead of) the
rose. North corresponds to 0°, and the angles increase clockwise, so east is 90° degrees, south is 180°,
and west is 270°. These numbers allow the compass to show bearings, which are commonly stated in
this notation.

Due north represents a bearing of 0o, due east 90o, due south 180o and due west 270o. There are other
ways of measuring a direction of travel, e.g. a bearing of 120o can be stated as E 30oS.

Examples 2: A bearing is described as to a point from a point. For example: the bearing to a ship from
a lighthouse. The angle is measured at the lighthouse (the from), and is the angle between North and
the ship: A reciprocal bearing is a bearing taken from the other point.

1. The diagram below show the bearing of the lighthouse from the ship.

The bearing of the ship from the ship from the lighthouse to the ship is 070o.
The bearing of the lighthouse from the ship from the ship to the ship is 250o.

2. In the diagram below what is the bearing of a) A from B, b) B from A?

169
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 a) The bearing of A from B is 065º
b) The bearing of B from A is 245o

In compass terms, a bearing is the angle, measured in a clockwise direction, between the direction
running due north and the direction of travel.

Three-Figure Bearings
Three-figure bearings are an alternative to compass bearings that are much more precise. They are
measured in a special way:
 Start measuring from the direction North
 Measure clockwise
 Give the bearing using three figures (or more than three if there's a decimal)
Airline pilots and ships' helmsmen use three-figure bearings so that they can point their craft in exactly
the right direction to safely reach their destination.
Examples 3
1. Write down the bearing below using the compass notation.

170
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Activity 11.3
1. Work out the bearing of B from A.
N

40o
B

2. a) Write down the bearing of A from P. b) Work out the bearing of B from P.
N

140o 60o
P

171
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
CHAPTER TWELVE: STATISTICS

Leonhard Euler (pronounced “oiler“) was a German

mathematician born in Basel, Switzerland. Euler is well
known for his copious contributions to every area of
mathematics that existed at the time; he produced so much
work that the St. Petersburg Academy continued to publish
his work for more than 60 years after his death.

Although Leonhard Euler made dozens of profound

contributions to every area of mathematics, he made few
notable contributions that specifically fall into the area of
statistics. Statistics wasn’t even recognized as a discipline
until Euler was well into middle-age, around 1749. However,
much of the work he did do has served as a basis for studies in
probability and statistics.

______________________________________________________________________

STATISTICS

In this chapter you will:

 collect statistical data

 group raw data into classes
 state the class widths for the grouped data
 construct frequency tables
 draw bar chart, pie chart, histogram and frequency polygon
 analyse information on the graphs
 compute the mean of grouped data
 find the mode and median
 calculate the mean using the assumed mean
What do you know?

I can

Collect data and group statistical data

Represent data using frequency table, bar chart and pie chart
Define measures of central tendency
State the mode in a given distribution
Calculate the mean and median
Calculate mean using assumed means

213
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
12.1 Collecting Statistical Data

Data is a collection of numbers gathered to give some information. It could be the marks in a
mathematics exercise, shopping done in a year, attendance of students, mass of some cabbages and so
on. The collection, recording and presentation of data help us organize our experiences and draw
conclusions
Statistics is one of the most important mathematical topics. An understanding of statistics is essential to
becoming an informed citizen. This chapter is concerned with the collection, classification and
interpretation of data which has been obtained about a particular feature of either a sample from a
population or from a complete population.

Our usual sources of data are friends, family, newspapers, books, magazines and the Internet.

Activity 12.1
Answer A or B

A) Suppose during the first term of next year your agriculture teacher intends to make use of an area
measuring 100 square meters. Help the teacher to distribute the land between three different
types of vegetables.
1) Visit the site
2) Draw an accurate scale drawing of the area. Use a scale that is large enough.
3) Ask your classmates to suggest the vegetables they would like to see grown on the piece of land.
4) Using their responses, make your choice and justify your final choice.
5) On your scale demarcate the spaces for the vegetables.
Explain how during the year you are going to work on the piece of land and what you hope to achieve.

B) Suppose you have inherited a plot of land between 100 and 10,000 hectares. Your job is to go
through the following tasks to determine how you can maximize your profit.
1) Half of your land has already been planted with well-established citrus trees. Half the land is
open for use.
2) Are you going to plant more trees or not? Justify your answer.
3) Draw an accurate scale map of how you intend to utilize the land that has you’re your way?
4) Construct a questionnaire to give to other farmers nearby to help decide on what to do on the
farm?
5) Find out if there are any restrictions on how much of each crop a farmer can plant on one piece
of land?

Activity12. 2

1. a) Construct a questionnaire to collect information from your classmates and one form two class of
your choice as well as one form four class about the vegetables that they would prefer to see grown
in the school garden.
b) Display the results on a suitable graph of your choice. Why did you choose that particular type of
graph?

214
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Activity 12.3
You are a Member of the Young Farmers Club at your school. You want to improve vegetable and fruit
production at your school. You need to collect data that will help you to make decisions.

Please spend a few minutes completing this questionnaire. It will help us to

improve our vegetable and fruit production.
Indicate your
Age Gender Form Class

Tick besides the type of vegetable the school should grow. You can choose
more than one.

Cabbage
Rape
Lettuce
Other_______________________________________________

Tick two fruit trees that should be planted in the orchard.

Banana
Guava
Orange
Pawpaw
Other-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Are you willing to:

1. Plant and take care of a fruit tree

2. Prepare a vegetable bed

3. Water the vegetables during your free time

4. Help local people plant their own gardens

Thank you for your cooperation

Activity 12.4
Using the information you collected in activity 2:
a) Present the data on suitable graphs
b) Justify your choice of graphs
c) Compare with your neighbour, discuss and conclude the best way to present the data.

215
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
12.2 Measures of Central Tendency

A measure of central tendency is an average or typical value.

Examples of measures of central tendency are the mean, median and mode.

Activity 12.5
Answer the following questions.
1. Calculate the mean, median and mode of the given data values.
(a) 4 ; 6 ; 4 (b) 8 ; 8 ; 8 (c) 2 ; 1 ; 7 ; 4 ; 4 ; 8 ; 4 ; 4 ; 7 ; 7
(d) 4 ; 5 ; 5 ; 7 ; 7 ; 1 ; 5 ; 5 ; (e) 6 ; 4 ; 9 ; 9 ; 9 ; 9 1.2 (f) 6; 6; 5; 8; 7; 10
(g) 200; 210; 220; 260

2. Betsy the pig had seven piglets weighing (kilograms):

At birth At 6th wk
1,41 10,7
1,29 9,7
1,61 9,2
1,62 8,7
1,64 8,8
1,61 8,2
1,25 8,5

(a) Find the mean weight: i) at birth ii) at the 6th week

GROUPED DATA

What Is Data?

The word data is used to refer to any kind of information that you collect and record; it can include
words, numbers, measurements, and more.

Data can be quantitative or qualitative, Quantitative data is numerical, so your record of temperatures
would be quantitative data, Qualitative data records a description of something in words, like your
friends' favorite fruit.
Once you've collected data, what can you do with it? The first step is to organize it, to do this; you need
to know how to create grouped data from ungrouped data.
Data is often described as ungrouped or grouped
Ungrouped Data is the data obtained in original form are called raw data.

When conducting any kind of experiment, you first need to collect the data from an experiment or study,
This is called raw data, because it has not been sorted into any groups or categories, classified or
otherwise grouped, An ungrouped set of data is initially a list of numbers or other characteristics that
will not be organized in any way.

216
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Example 1
The marks obtained by 25 students in a class in an agriculture examination are given below;
25; 8; 67; 16; 45; 40; 29; 12; 42; 25; 14; 16; 16; 20; 10; 66; 66; 24; 25; 65; 11; 60; 45; 48,
This ungrouped data.

Grouped data is data that has been organized into several groups or categories known as classes. To
create grouped data; the raw data is sorted into groups; and a table showing how many data points occur
in each group is created.

A data class is group of data which is related by some defined property, For example; in the data set
above; you could group them into classes as shown in the table below.

Marks Frequency
8 -17 5
18 - 27 8
28- 67 6
68 - 47 5
48 - 50 1

Sometimes, the collected data can be too numerous to be meaningful. We need to organise data in some
logical manner in order to make sense out of them, we could group data into classes. We then record
the frequency of observations falling in each group/class.
Each class is known as a class interval.

Presentation of data in groups along with the frequency of each group is known as the frequency
distribution of the grouped data.
Defining class intervals for a frequency table or histogram
Step 1: Find the difference between the highest and the lowest scores, which is called the range.

Step2: Find the intervals. The intervals separate the scale into equal parts. For most data, 6 to 15classes
are enough. The starting point for each class should be divisible by the interval, for example, in the class
15 - 20, the starting point, 15, is divisible by the interval, 5.

Step 3: Draw the frequency table using the selected scale and intervals.

Example2
The marks obtained by 40 students of form 3 in statistics test are given below:

16, 17, 18, 3, 7, 23, 18, 13, 10, 21, 7, 1, 13, 21, 13, 15, 19, 24, 16, 2, 23, 5, 12, 18, 8, 12, 6, 8, 16, 5, 3,
5, 0, 7, 9, 12, 20, 10, 2, 23

Divide the data into five groups, namely, 0-5, 5-10, 10-15, 15-20 and 20-25, where 0-5 means marks
greater than or equal to 0 but less than 5 and so on. Prepare a frequency table for the grouped data.
Solution:
Arranging the given observations in ascending order, we get them as
217
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 0, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 9, 10, 10, 12, 12, 12, 13, 13, 13, 15, 16, 16,
16, 17, 18, 18, 18, 19, 20, 21, 21, 23, 23, 23, 24

Thus, the frequency distribution may be given asunder:

Marks Frequency
0-5 6
5 - 10 10
10 - 15 8
15- 20 9
20 - 25 7

Here, each of the groups 0-5, 5-10, 10-15, 15-20 and 20-25 is called a class interval.

In class interval 10-15, the number 10 is called the lower limit and 15 is called the upper limit of the
class interval.

The difference between the upper limit and the lower limit of any class interval is called the class size.

Thus, the class size in the above frequency distribution is 5.

The mid value of a class is called its class mark and is obtained by adding its upper and lower class
limits and dividing the sum by 2.

Thus, the class mark of 0-5 is (0 + 5)/2 = 2,5

The class mark of 5-10 is (5 + 10)/2 = 7,5, etc.

Example 3
The data below shows the mass of 40 students in a class. The measurement is to the nearest cm.
55 70 57 76 55 59 64 72
60 48 58 54 69 51 66 78
75 64 65 57 71 78 76 62
49 66 62 76 61 66 66 76
52 76 71 61 56 56 67 71

Construct a frequency table for the data using an appropriate scale.

Solution:
Step 1: Find the range.
In this example, the greatest mass is 78 and the smallest mass is 48.The range of the masses is then 78
– 48 = 60. The scale of the frequency table must contain the range of masses.
Step2: Find the intervals, we choose intervals of 5, we begin the scale with 45 and end with 79.

218
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Step 6: Draw the frequency table using the selected scale and intervals.

Mass (kg) Frequency

45 – 49 2
50 – 54 4
55 – 59 7
60 – 64 10
65 – 69 4
70 – 74 6
75 – 79 7

Activity 12.6
1. Between the students in a class, the mass of the lightest student is 40kg and the heaviest student
weighs 80kg. What is the range? If you need 8 class intervals, what should the length of each interval
be? With which value should the first interval start? What is the first class interval? Give the third class
interval. Calculate the mean, median and mode of the data.

2. Study the information below and write a paragraph describing what you understand about grouped
data (not less than 50 words).

Goals for Nursing Piglets

Weaning Mass (kg) Average Poor Goal
3 weeks 4 to 5 < 9> 12
4 weeks 5 to 7 < 11> 16
5 weeks 6 to 9 < 14> 20
6 weeks 9 to 11 < 20> 25

Activity 12.7
Answer the following questions.
1. Time taken (in seconds) by a group of students to answer a simple math question.
20 25 24 66 16
26 8 19 61 11
16 21 17 11 64
14 15 21 18 17

Tabulate the results as a frequency table.

2. The mass of Mr Moyo’s cattle were recorded as follows:

600; 400; 500; 600; 700; 900; 900; 1 000; 1 200; 1 600; 1 000; 1500; 1 200; 1800; 1600; 200; 1
400; 200; 1 600; 500.
Represent the mass of the cattle in a grouped frequency table.

219
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
3. The time taken by 25 patients in a hospital, to eat lunch in minutes is recorded:
9,4 6,7 21,7 10,8 15,7 16,6 6,1 6 22,2 6,4 16 4,2 2,8
16,5 17 6,4 16 12,9 11,5 10 18,1
16,6 8,6
12,8 7,6 16,5 17 6,4 16 12,9 11,5 10 18,1 16,6 8,6
Construct a frequency table using intervals of 5 minutes.
4. The mass (in kg) of 35 persons are given below:
43; 51; 47; 62; 48; 40; 50; 62; 53; 56; 40; 48; 56; 53; 50; 42; 55; 52; 48; 46; 45; 54; 52; 50; 47;
44; 54; 55; 60; 63; 58; 55; 60; 58; 53
Prepare a frequency distribution table taking equal class size.

5. The electricity bills (US dollars) of 25 farm houses for a month are given below:
324; 700; 617; 400; 356; 365; 435; 506; 548; 736; 780; 378; 570; 685; 312; 630; 584; 674; 754; 776;
596; 745; 565; 763; 472
Form a frequency table using equal class intervals, starting from 300-400.
6. The monthly wages (in dollars) of 28 workers of a factory are given below:
668; 610; 642; 658; 668; 620; 719; 720; 700; 690; 710; 642; 672; 654; 692; 706; 718; 702; 704; 678;
615; 640; 680; 716; 705; 615; 636; 656
Construct a frequency table with equal class intervals, taking the first of the class intervals as 610-
630, where 630 is not included.

7. The termly pocket money (in dollars) of 30 students of a class are given below:

62; 80; 110; 75; 84; 73; 60; 62; 100; 87; 78; 94; 117; 86; 65; 68; 90; 80; 118; 72; 95; 72; 103;
96; 64; 94; 87; 85; 105; 115
Construct a frequency table with class intervals 60-70 (where 70 is not included) 70-80, 80-90 etc.

8. The daily earnings (in dollars) of 24 stores in a market were recorded as under:

715, 650, 685, 550, 573, 530, 610, 525, 742, 680, 736, 524, 500, 585, 723, 545, 532, 560, 580, 545,
625, 630, 645, 700
Prepare a frequency table taking equal class sizes, One such class is 500-550, where 550 is not
included.

12.3 Histograms

Definition A histogram is a graphical display of statistical information that uses bars to show the
frequency of data items in successive numerical intervals of equal size. It is similar to a Bar Chart; a
histogram can be used to show grouped data.

220
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
CHAPTER FOURTEEN: VECTORS

Euclid (325 -265 BC), sometimes given the name Euclid of

Alexandria, was a Greek mathematician, often referred to as the
"founder of geometry or the "father of geometry", He was active
in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I (323–285BC),
His Elements is one of the most influential works in the history of
mathematics, serving as the main textbook for
teaching mathematics (especially geometry) from the time of its
publication until the late 19th or early 20th century, In
the Elements, Euclid deduced the principles of what is now
called Euclidean geometry from a small set of axioms, Euclid also
wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical
geometry, and number theory. Wikipedia

VECTORS

In this chapter you will:

 describe types of vectors
 represent types of vectors on Cartesian plane
 identify various types of vectors on the Cartesian plane
 Add vectors
 subtract vectors
 multiply a vector by a scalar
 calculate the magnitude of a vector
 solve problems involving vector operations

What do you know?

I can

Define vector
Interpret vector notation
Identify various types of vectors
Represent translation vector in column form
Draw translation vector on a Cartesian plane
Solve problems using the concept of vectors
Add vectors and subtract vectors
Solve problems involving addition and subtraction of vectors

Consider the expression 6a +4b used to represent fruits in a basket, that is, 6 apples and 4 bananas. Here
a and b are units of identification, while the numbers 6 and 4 specify how many of each unit is present.
This type of expression is called a vector.

259
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
14.1 Definition

A vector is a quantity that has both size (and a magnitude) and a direction. Both of these properties must
be given in order to specify a vector completely. An example of a vector quantity is moving something
from its place or position to another (displacement). Imagine if you are told to go 2 meters from where
you are, where would you go? To know where to go, you need both distance the direction.

We can picture a vector as a directed line segment, whose length is the magnitude of the vector and with
an arrow indicating the direction. The direction of the vector is from its tail to its head.

Examples of everyday activities that involve vectors include:

 I travel 60k m in a Northerly direction (magnitude is 60 km, direction is North )
 The bus is going 80 km/h towards Tore (magnitude is 80 km; direction is 'towards Tore)
 Going to school (the bus has a length of about 20 m and is headed towards your school)

Activity 14.1

1. Write down 5 everyday activities that involve vectors.

2. Give 6 examples of everyday activities that do not involve vectors.
3. Distinguish between scalar or vector quantities:

Mass
Weight
length
displacement
Breathing
speed
energy
velocity
force
area
distance
acceleration
Friction
power

Vector Notation
A vector can be represented by a straight line with an arrowhead pointing in the direction of the vector.
The length of the arrow indicates the magnitude of the vector.
Vectors are written as single letters in bold type, for example a , A or as a pair of letters with a line or
arrow above them, for example .In writing, we normally put a bar underneath, or sometimes on top
of, the letter: or aԦ. In speech, we call this the vector “a-bar”.

260
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
14.2 Types of vectors
Some of the types of vector are as follows:
1. Column vector: The vectors whose x and y components are arranged vertically as in (x, y) is
š
called column vector. ቀ›ቁ
2. Row vector: The vector whose x and y - components are arranged horizontally as in (x, y) is
called row vector. A vector can be expressed either in a row vector or in a column.
3. Equal vector: If two vectors have the same magnitude and direction, then they are equal

4. Position Vector: The vector whose initial point is taken as the origin is called position vector.

5. Unit Vector: The vector whose magnitude of length is unity i.e. 1 is called the unit vector.
6. Null or Zero vector: The vector whose length or magnitude is zero is called zero or null vector.
7. Negative vector: The two vectors whose magnitude is same but are in opposite direction are
called negative vectors.

8. Parallel vectors: Two vectors are said to be parallel of both of them have either same or the
opposite directions whatever may be their magnitudes.

9. LikeVectors:
The vectors headed into same direction, irrespective of their
261
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 magnitude, are known as like vectors
as shown in the following diagram

10. Unlike Vectors:

The vectors pointing in different directions, (shown in figure below), are called unlike vectors.

Scalar
A scalar has magnitude (size) only.
A vector has magnitude and direction, and is often written in bold, so we know it is not a scalar:
 so c is a vector, it has magnitude and direction
 but c is just a value, like 3 or 12.4
Example: kb is actually the scalar k times the vector b.
A measured quantity that has no direction, for example, distance, time, mass and volume.
For example, a pen may have length "10 cm". The length 10 cm is a scalar quantity - it has magnitude,
but no direction is involved.

REPRESENT TYPES OF VECTORS ON CARTESIAN PLANE

The position vectors clearly depend on the choice of coordinate origin. However, the difference vector
or displacement vector between two position vectors does not depend on the coordinate origin. To see
this, let us consider the addition of two vectors:
14.3 Operations on Vectors

Addition of Vectors
Vector addition is the operation of adding two or more vectors together into a vector sum.

262
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
In Cartesian coordinates, vector addition can be performed simply by adding the corresponding
components of the vectors that is adding the x parts and adding the y parts: so if:

͵ Ͷ ͵൅Ͷ
A = ቀ ቁ and B = ቀ ቁ then A + B = ቀ ቁ
Ͷ ͳ Ͷ൅ͳ
͹
=ቀ ቁ
ͷ

For two vectors and , the vector sum is obtained by placing them head to tail and drawing the
vector from the free tail to the free head as shown below.

We can add two vectors by joining them head-to-tail:

And it does not matter which order we add them, we get the same result:

or

The diagram below demonstrates how you can add vectors using endpoint of the line segments. Explain,
using colours how the vectors are being added in each case.

263
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Using the explanation you made above explain how the vectors below are added.

In your own words explain how to add vectors.

Vector properties:
The vector addition obeys the following properties such as Commutative and Associative Law
Vector Commutative Law A + B = B + A
Vector Associative Law A + (B + A) = (A + B) + C

Example: As an illustration of the associative laws, we translate the three vectors u, v and w so that
they are drawn head to tail, and then draw (u + v) + w in the first figure below and u +
(v + w) underneath it, demonstrating that both equal to .

264
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Activity 14.2
Find the sum of the two given vectors a and b.

1. Given that:

Find the sum of the vectors in column vector form. Show the vectors on a Cartesian plane.

Subtracting vectors
Subtracting a vector is the same as adding a negative version of the vector (remember that making a
vector negative means reversing its direction).

We can also subtract one vector from another:

 first we reverse the direction of the vector we want to subtract,
 then add them as usual:

a–b

265
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 Look at the diagram and imagine going from X to Z. How would you
write the path in vectors using only the vectors and ?
You could say it is vector followed by a backwards movement
along .
So we can write the path from X to Z as

Written out in numbers it looks like this:

Activity 14.3
If x = ,y= and z = , find:
1. -y
2. x - y
3. 2x + 3z

14.4 Magnitude of a Vector

The magnitude of a vector is the length of the vector. The magnitude of a vector a shown by two
vertical bars on either side of the vector:
|a|
OR it can be written with double vertical bars (so as not to confuse it with absolute value):
||a||
To find the magnitude of a vector from its components, we take the square root of the sum of the
components' squares (this is a direct result of the Pythagorean theorem):
|a| = √(x2 + y2)
͸
Example: what is the magnitude of the vector b = ቀ ቁ
ͺ
|b| = √( 62 + 82 ) = √( 36+64 ) = √100 = 10

Distance Formula: Given the two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), the distance d between these points is
given by the formula: d = x2+y2

Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar

Example

The displacement vector A has direction 'up' and a magnitude of 4 cm.

Vector B has the same direction as A, and has half the magnitude (2 cm).
Vector C has the same magnitude as A (4 units), but it has different direction.
Now vector B (2 units) is half the size of vector A (which is 4 units). We write: B =½A
This is an example of a scalar multiple. We have multiplied the vector A by the scalar ½.

266
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 ͹
Multiply the vector m =ቀ ቁ by the scalar 3.
͵

͵š͹ ʹͳ
a= 3m = ቀ ቁ = ቀ ቁǤ It still points in the same direction, but is 3 times longer.
͵š͵ ͻ

TEST YOURSELF
SECTION A
Answer the following questions.
1. Which of the following is an example of a vector?
A. 25kg
B. 14 km per hour.
C. 15 meters per second.
D. 82 km per hour west.
2. State whether this statement: ‘Vector addition is associative’, is true or false.
A. True B. False
3. The quantity which has only magnitude is called
A. A scalar quantity
B. A vector quantity
C. A chemical quantity
D. A magnitude quantity

4. Which have the following has zero magnitude?

A. Fixed vector
B. Zero vector
C. Modulus of a vector
D. Unit vector
5. Addition of vector with its reversed direction is called
A. vector addition
B. vector subtraction
C. vector division
D. vector multiplication
6. Which of the following statements is false?
A. Scalar quantities have size or magnitude only
B. Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction
C. Mass, length and time are all scalar quantities
D. Distance, velocity and acceleration are all vector quantities

267
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
7. These vectors are

A. Parallel vectors B. Unlike vectors

C. Null vectors D. Equal vectors

8. Consider the graphical representation shown below. Inspection of the graphical representation shows
that we place the initial point of the vector -B on the final point the vector A, and then draw a line from
the initial point of A to the final point of -B to give:

A. The difference C.
B. The sum of A and B
C. The product of A, B and C
D. The scalar product of A and B

SECTION B
Show all your working
݉
9. Shape A is translated to shape B using the vectorቀ ቁ. What are the values of m and n?
݊

a) Vectors a, b, c, d and e are drawn on the grid below. Write each of the vectors c, d and e in terms
of a and or b.
11. A fly heads west 5 m, then north 3 m, then straight up 6 m. A bird starts from the same place as
the fly, flies straight up 6 m, then west 5 m and north 3 m. Compare their final positions.

268
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
12. ABCDOE is a regular hexagon with O as origin. The position vector of A is a and the position
vector of B is b
Find the following in terms of a and b
a) BA
b) OE
c) the position vector of C.

13. Draw a diagram to show that vector addition is commutative.

269
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
CHPATER SIXTEEN: TRANSFORMATIONS

Emmy Noether

Amalie Emmy Noether (26 March 1882 – 14 April 1965) was

a German mathematician known for her landmark contributions
to abstract algebra and theoretical physics.
She was described by Pavel Alexandrov, Albert Einstein, Jean
Dieudonné, Hermann Weyl, and Norbert Wiener as the most
important woman in the history of mathematics. As one of the
leading mathematicians of her time, she developed the theories
of rings, fields, and algebras. In physics, Noether's theorem
explains the connection between symmetry and conservation
laws.
It might be that Emmy Noether was designed for mathematical
greatness. Her father Max was a math professor at the University
of Erlangen. Scholarship was in her family; two of her three
brothers became scientists as well.Emmy would surpass them
all.

TRANSFORMATIONS
In this chapter you will:
 translate plane figures on Cartesian Plane using translation vectors
 describe fully the translations between given objects and images
 reflect plane figures in a line of reflection
 find the axis of reflection of given objects and images
 rotate points and plane figures on a Cartesian plane using geometric methods
 find the centre of rotation
 determine the angle of rotation
 enlarge plane figures about the origin using a rational scale geometrical methods
 find the scale factor
 determine the centre of enlargement

What do you know?

I can
Define transformation
Describe translation
Translate plane figures and points
Define reflection
Reflect a plane figure in a given mirror line
If a shape is transformed, its appearance is changed. This can be done in a number of ways, including
translation, rotation, reflection and enlargement. A transformation is a general rule that describes four
specific ways to manipulate the shape of a point, a line, or shape. A transformation describes how to
move each of the points of a shape in the plane to new locations.
 The original shape of the object is called the pre-image and the final shape and position of the
object is the image under the transformation
 There are four main types of transformations: translation, rotation, reflection and dilation.
 There are two different categories of transformations:
1. The rigid transformation, which does not change the shape or size of the pre-image.

283
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 2. The non-rigid transformation, which will change the size but not the shape of the pre-
image.

RIGID TRANSFORMATIONS
16.1Translations
A translation is a term used in geometry to describe a function that moves an object a certain distance.
In a translation every point of the object must be moved in the same direction and for the same distance.
It is equivalent of picking up the shape and putting it down somewhere else.

A translation is usually referred to

as ‘sliding’ moves a shape without
rotating or flipping it

The image looks exactly the same (congruent to the original figure) but has been moved to a different
location

Activity 16.1
1. Copy the diagram above using a suitable scale:
a) Translate the figure three units to the right. How did the coordinates change?
b) Now translate the image 2 units down. How did the coordinates change?
2. Using the image below, move the figure: a) to the right five spaces and up three spaces
b) a new location of your choice. Describe how you got the figure to the new location.
3. Draw a coordinate plane from -10 to 10 on both axes.
a) Draw three non-overlapping plane shapes; one of the a triangle, and the other two any shape
of your choice
b) Move the first shape 6 spaces to the left and down 2 spaces. Draw the image.
c) Make a decorative design by moving you second shape at least three times. (You may have
to adjust the size of you shape to have a nice design.
d) Move your third shape to a new location. Describe the movements. Why did you choose to
move it the way you did?

Vectors are used to describe translations

Translations can be described using vectors. A translation moves every point of a figure or a space by
the same amount (length) in a given direction.

284
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Translation vectors can be defined in internal coordinates or Cartesian coordinates. The translation
graphed below shows a vector translating the top triangle 4 units to the right and 9 units down. The
notation for this movement can be written:

ሺͶǢ െͻሻ or ቀ Ͷ ቁ
െͻ

Vectors used in translations are what are known as "free vectors", which are a set of parallel directed
line segments. The vectors in this translation, connecting the pre-image to the image, are all parallel and
are all the same length. Identify the parallel vectors in the above diagram.
The mathematical way to write a translation is the following: (x, y) → (x + 4; y - 9), because you have
moved four positive spaces in the x direction and nine negative spaces in the y direction.
The line AB has been translated 4 units to the right and 2 units upwards. We say that the displacement
Ͷ
vector is: ቀ ቁ.
ʹ

We always write the horizontal displacement at the top of the vector and the vertical displacement at
the bottom.

285
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Activity16. 2
1. Write down the translation vector for each of the following:
a) b)

c) d)

e)

f)

െͶ
2) Use this vector ቀ ቁ to translate the triangle below. Label the coordinates of the accordingly.
െ͸
3. The image of P (2;11) after a translation is P’(7; 2). What vector describes this translation?

286
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
5. a) If you started off with the pink square what is your translation vector?
b) What if you started with the blue one, what is your translation vector?
c) What do you notice about the vectors?

6) Translate points A, B, C, D and E into: i) the first quadrant, ii)second quadrant

iii) third quadrant , using any appropriate translation vectors of your choice.

287
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
16.2 Reflections
What is Reflection?
In a reflection transformation, all the points of an object are reflected or flipped on a line called
the axis of reflection or line of reflection.

Example 4

A reflection can be thought of as folding or flipping an object over the line of reflection.
An object and its reflection have the same shape and size, but the figures face in opposite directions.
The objects appear as if they are mirror reflections, with right and left reversed.

The line of reflection

A reflection is a transformation that acts like a mirror: It swaps all pairs of points that are on exactly
opposite sides of the line of reflection.
The line of reflection can be defined by an equation or by two points it passes through.

288
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
A reflection is defined by the axis of symmetry or mirror line. In the above diagram, the mirror line
is x = -2. All the points on the mirror line are not changed.

Activity 16.3
Answer the following questions.

1. Reflect triangle ABC a) in the y-axis b) in the x-axis

2. Draw a diagram like the one below and use it to answer the questions below.

a) Join A to A’; B to B’ and C to C’

b) Measure and record the distance of each figure to the line of reflection.
c) What do you notice?
d) Draw another reflection line through B and B’ and reflect the 2 triangles in that line.
e) Comment on your observations.
f) What remains unchanged under a reflection?

289
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 3. On another Cartesian plane plot and join the following points: P(-7; -1), Q(-7; -6), R(-4; -6) and
S(-4; -1).
a) Draw the line y = -x
b) Put a tracing paper or any transparent paper over your diagram and trace over the shape and
the line y = -x.
c) Fold the paper along the line y = -x and trace over the shape on the other side.
d) What do you notice?
4. What are rules to describe the changes in coordinates when the image is reflected over the x-axis?
The y-axis? The line y = x?
i) When reflecting over the x-axis, the x-coordinate stays the same but the y-coordinate is the opposite
of the original y-coordinate.
ii) For a point (x, y), after a reflection over the x-axis the new coordinates would be (x, -y).
iii) When reflecting over the y-axis, the x-coordinate is the opposite of the original x-coordinate
but the y-coordinate stays the same.
iv) For the point (x, y), after a reflection over the y-axis, the new coordinates would be (-x, y).

What is the rule for a line of x = a, where a is any number on the plane? A line of y = b where b is
any number on the plane?
When reflecting over the y = x line:
For the point (x, y), after a reflection over the y = x line, the new coordinates would be (y, x).

16.3 Rotations
Rotation: rotating an object about a fixed point without c
hanging its size or shape. We can rotate an object 1/4 turn, 1/2 turn or 6/4 turn around a given centre.

A rotation is described by the angle the shape turns about a center of rotation.

290
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Each point in the rotated shape (image) is the same distance from the center as the original shape
(object).
Activity 16.4
Cut out a rectangular sheet of paper to fit in with coordinates A(-6 ; 2), B(6; 2), C(-6; -2) D(6; -2)
Stick a pin through the origin into the graph paper below. Spin the cut out sheet through 90o clockwise.

Write down the coordinates of the image. Turn it 90o clockwise at a time until it is back to its original
position, recording the coordinates each time.

What do you notice about the coordinates?

Repeat the above work with shape of your choice. Are the coordinates behaving the same way?
To rotate a pre-image, you can use the following rules. To rotate an object 90° the rule is (x, y) → (-
y, x). You can use this rule to rotate a pre-image by taking the points of each vertex, translating them
according to the rule and drawing the image.
Use the figure below to show at least two points that obey the rule. Is the rule always true?

The rules for the other common degree rotations are:

 For 180°, the rule is (x, y) → (-x, -y)
 For 270°, the rule is (x, y) → (y, -x)
Returning to our example, if the pre-image were rotated 180°, the end points would be (-1, -1) and (-6,
-6). If it were rotated 270°, the end points would be (1, -1) and (6, -6) .

291
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Here is what all those rotations would look like on a graph:

Activity 16.5
1. a) On a Cartesian plane rotate the point (2 ; 6) clockwise through 90o, 180o, 270o and 660o, centre
the origin.
b) On the same plane rotate the same point (2; 6) anti-clockwise 90o, 180o, 270o and 660o, centre
the origin.
c) What have you observed?
d) Copy and complete the table below, using your images.

Rotation , Center (0; 0) clockwise Anti-clockwise

0o (2; 6)
90o (2; 6)
o
180 , (2 ; 6)
270o (2 ; 6)
o
660 , (2 ; 6)
Do you notice any patterns?
2. Copy and complete the table below.
Rotation, centre (0 ; 0) clockwise Anti-clockwise
0o (x ; y)
90o (x ; y)
o
180 , (x ; y)

292
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 270o (x ; y)
660o, (x ; y)
Do you notice any patterns?
3. Fill in the blanks in the statements below:
a) If you rotate a figure 90°, clockwise/counter-clockwise, on the coordinate graph, what would
happen to the coordinates?
Clockwise: If the original point is (x; y), then the point after rotation will be ( ; ).
Anti-clockwise: If the original point is ( ; ), then the point after rotation will be (-y; x)
b) If you rotate a figure 180°, clockwise, on the coordinate graph, what would happen to the
coordinates?
Clockwise: If the original point is (x; y), then the point after rotation will be ( ; )
Anti-clockwise: If the original point is (-x; y), then the point after rotation will be (-x; -y)
c) If you rotate a figure 270°, clockwise/anticlockwise, on the coordinate graph, what would
happen to the coordinates?
Clockwise: If the original point is (x; y), then the point after rotation will be (-y; x).
Anti-clockwise: If the original point is (x;- y), then the point after rotation will be (-y; x).
4. Describe fully the transformation that has occurred to move triangle ABC to triangle A’B’C’

The Center of Rotation

The center of rotation can be described by Cartesian coordinates, (x, y). This point can be inside the
figure, in which case the figure stays where it is and just spins.

293
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 Or the point can be outside the figure or on the vertices, in which case the figure moves along a circular
arc (like an orbit) around the center of rotation.

On one of the vertices: Outside the shape.

The center of rotation may be found by observation or by construction. Rotations of 90°, 180°, and 270°,
often about the origin, are the most commonly asked for in examinations

To find the center of rotation use trial and improvement by holding the pencil firmly on a point that you
think may be the center of rotation then turn the tracing paper until the object and image coincide

294
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Using tracing paper: Put a piece of tracing paper over the drawing. Copy the object onto the tracing
paper. Put a pencil on the tracing paper – prick and hold down at the centre of rotation. Rotate the tracing
paper by the required amount in the specified direction. Note the end point of the object. Remove the
tracing paper and draw the image and label it.

Activity 16.6

1. Describe the rotation which moves ABCD to A'B'C'D' in this diagram.

.
2. Copy and rotate triangle ABC through an angle of i) 90o ii) 180o , iii) 270o , centre (1; 1)
295
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 Choose the direction in each case and label accordingly.
3. Describe the rotations below.
a) b)

c) d)

296
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 d) f)

g)
h)

297
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
16.4 Enlargements

An enlargement is a kind of transformation that changes the size of an object without changing the
shape (it is sometimes called scaling or dilation). The image created is similar to the object. When you
enlarge a photograph or use a copy machine to reduce a map, you are making enlargements.
The size of an enlargement is described by its scale factor. The scale factor tells you how much
something is enlarged or reduced, e.g. a scale factor of 2 means that the image is twice the size of the
original. A scale factor of 6 means that the image is three times the size of the original.

Example 3

OD' = 6 × OD OA' = 6 × OD B'C' = 6 × BC

Therefore, we say that the transformation is an enlargement with scale factor 6.

Example 4

298
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
To find a scale factor between two similar figures, find two corresponding sides and write the ratio of
the two sides. If you begin with the smaller figure, your scale factor will be less than one. If you begin
with the larger figure, your scale factor will be greater than one.

Centre of Enlargement
To find the centres of enlargement, draw lines through the corresponding corners of each shape. These
lines will cross at the centre of enlargement, as shown below.

Activity 16.7

1. Using the figure and its image given below, to find the centre of enlargement:
a. Join up each point and its image, that is; A to A`, B to B` and C to C`
b. Extend the lines until they meet at a point.
c. The centre of enlargement is the intersection of these lines
d. Write down the coordinates of the centre of enlargement.

1. For each of the following enlargements, determine the centre of enlargement.

299
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
6. Establish the scale factor of enlargements in the diagram below, respectively.
a)

300
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 b) c)

To determine the scale factor of enlargement given the centre of enlargement:

a) Draw a line from the centre of enlargement to each vertex ('corner') of the shape you
wish to enlarge. Measure the lengths of each of these lines.

ୈ୧ୱ୲ୟ୬ୡୣ୤୰୭୫ୡୣ୬୲୰ୣ୲୭୧୫ୟ୥ୣ୮୭୧୬୲
b) Scale factor = ୈ୧ୱ୲ୟ୬ୡୣ୤୰୭୫୲୦ୣୡୣ୬୲୰ୣ୲୭ୡ୭୰୰ୣୱ୮୭୬ୢ୧୬୥୭୰୧୥୧୬ୟ୪୮୭୧୬୲

To draw an enlargement given the centre and scale factor:

1) Draw a line from the centre of enlargement to each vertex ('corner') of the shape you wish to
enlarge. Measure the lengths of each of these lines.
2) If the scale factor is ‘a’, draw a line from the centre of enlargement, through each vertex, which
is ‘a times’ as long as the length you measured. For example, if the scale factor is 2, draw a line
from the centre of enlargement, through each vertex, which is twice as long as the length you
measured.

301
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
Investigations
1. A teacher asks ‘What is half way between 40 and 60 on the number line?
Ruth answers: “50”
ଵ ଵ
Yes says the teacher “so what number is half way between ସ଴and଺଴?”
ଵ
“ହ଴” answers Susan.
“Think again” says the teacher.
Why was Ruth correct and Susan wrong? Explain your answer fully, using your understanding of
fractions. What should Susan’s answer have been? Show this on the number line.

2. Happy Numbers

What is a Happy Number?

While numbers do not feel emotion, people do respond emotionally when numbers behave consistently
in surprising and amusing ways. Happy Numbers can be reduced to 1 with a simple formula. Finding
Happy Numbers can be a satisfying chore for a few minutes or a few hours.
To determine if a number is happy, or not, follow these simple rules with any number:
Step 1: Take any positive integer and square it.
Step 2: If the result or the original number has multiple digits, take each digit by itself
and square the digit (multiply it by itself). Square the digits and add
Step 3: Repeat until you get to the number 1.
Let's try a few numbers: Examples: Take the number 1
12 = 1
Therefore 1 is a happy number.
a) Let us take the number 2
22 = 4
42 = 1 6
12 + 62 = 37
32 + 72 = 58
52 + 82 = 37
37 has appeared again, so the process has started repeating.
Therefore 2 is not a happy number.
b) Take the number 23
2 3
335
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 22 + 32 = 1 3
12 + 32 = 1 0
12 + 02 = 1
Therefore 23 is a happy number because the sequence ends at 1..
Investigate for numbers of your own choice. Do any lead to 1.

3. Feed the Family on a Special Day

The whole family is coming to your house for a Special day and you have to cook pancakes for everyone.
This is the recipe to make enough pancakes for 4 people.
- Ingredients:
- Plain Flour – 200g
- Self-Raising Flour – 300g
- Milk - 200ml
- Egg – 1
i) Write the simplified ratio of:
a) Plain Flour: Self-Raising Flour b) Milk: Dry ingredients
ii) If this feeds a family of 4, show how you would calculate what quantities you would need for 2o
people. Show your answers in a table.

4. a) How many prime numbers are less than 100? Check other intervals of 100 (100 to 200, 200 to 300,
etc.) to determine the numbers of primes. Form a conjecture about the numbers of primes in these intervals.

b) Pairs of numbers such as 3 and 5, 5 and 7, 11 and 13, whose difference is 2 are called twin primes. It
is not known whether or not there are an infinite number of such primes. Find the numbers of twin primes
in intervals of 100 (1 to 100, 100 to 200, etc.). Form a conjecture about the occurrence of twin primes for
such intervals.

c) In #2 you found consecutive primes whose difference is 2. There are also consecutive primes whose
difference is 4, such as 7 and 3, 17 and 13, 23 and 19. Check intervals of 100 to see if such primes exist
in each interval. Do the numbers of such primes appear to be increasing or decreasing from interval to
interval?

5. Investigate the relationship between a circle’s circumference and diameter.

Circles of different sizes are given below. The circumferences are shown in the table below, rounded
off to two decimal places.
a) Measure the diameter of each circle and write it in the table

336
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
 b) Copy and complete the table below. (Round off the answers in the last column to two decimal
places.)

Circle Diameter Circumference Circumference ÷ diameter

(cm)
(cm)
A 15,71
B 9,42
C 7,85
D 12,57
E 21,99

c) What conclusion can you make if you look at the answers in the last column?
d) What do we call the constant value in question 2
e) Calculate the circumference of a circle if the diameter is 25mm.

337
DINGANI PUBLISHERS 00263 77 789 6159
ORDER YOUR STUDY PACKS TODAY 0292 - 27 02 89
338