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Notes Y10 CIE

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
20 views197 pages

Notes Y10 CIE

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backtoowall
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
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TABLE OF

CONTENTS
Topic Topic Name Page

1 States of Matter 1
2 Separation Techniques 12
3 Atomic Structure & Bonding 28
4 Stoichiometry 52
5 Periodic Table & Redox 73
6 Electrolysis 86
7 Acids, Bases, Oxides & Salts 95
8 Metals Extraction 106
9 Heat Change 118
10 Rate of Chemical Reactions & Equilibrium 123
11 Non-Metals 152
12 Air & Water Pollution 160
13 Organic Chemistry 168
Topic 1
States of Matter
Matter: Anything that has a mass & takes up a space (volume).
Matter consists of tiny particles (molecules, atoms, or ions), according
to the arrangement of these tiny particles matter exist in three states
(Solid, Liquid and Gas).
SOLID LIQUID GAS
Regularly Irregularly Irregularly
Arrangement
Arranged Arranged Arranged
Closely
Packing Closely Packed Loosely Packed
Packed
Spaces between
Touching Touching Far apart
Particles
Particles Vibrate in Its Random Slow
Random Fast
Movement Place Slide Past Each Other
Attraction
Very Strong Medium Very Weak
Force
Energy Low Medium High
Volume Fixed Fixed Not Fixed
Shape Definite Indefinite Indefinite
Fluidity Does Not Flow Flows Flows Easily
Does Not Slightly
Compressibility Compressed
Compress Compressed

-1-
 Strong attraction forces between molecules in solid state result in
very small intermolecular spaces, very limited motion (vibrate in their
places), fixed volume, fixed shape, incompressible and higher melting
and boiling points.
 Weak attraction forces between molecules in gas state result in very
big intermolecular spaces, unlimited motion (random and fast motion),
no fixed volume, indefinite shape and lower melting and boiling points.
 All changes in state are physical (not chemical), this means that the
identity (composition) of a substance will not change.

-2-
Melting: physical process of changing solid into liquid.
Melting point: temperature at which the solid changes into liquid.
Boiling: physical process of changing liquid into gas.
Boiling point: temperature at which the liquid changes into gas.
Condensation: physical process of changing gas into liquid.
Condensation point: temperature at which the gas changes into liquid.
Freezing: physical process of changing liquid into solid.
Freezing point: temperature at which the liquid changes into solid.
Sublimation: physical process of changing solid state into gaseous state
without passing through the liquid state.
 Some substances like (dry ice and iodine) do not melt when they
are heated, instead they change directly into gas.
REMEMBER:
 Melting and freezing points for any given substance is the same
e.g. pure water (ice) melts at 0 ᵒC and freezes at 0 ᵒC.
 Boiling and condensation points for any given substance is the
same e.g. pure water boils at 100 ᵒC and condenses at 100 ᵒC.
 Gas can be changed to liquid by cooling and compression (e.g.
liquefaction of air).

-3-
EVAPORATION BOILING
At any temperature At B.P. only
Surface particles only All particles

Key to know if the substance is solid, liquid or gas!


Room Temperature is about 25 ᵒC
 If the melting and boiling points are more than room temperature,
the substance will be in solid state. “M.p & B.p > 25 ᵒC”
 If the melting and boiling points are less than room temperature,
the substance will be in gaseous state. “M.p & B.p < 25 ᵒC”

-4-
 If the melting point is less than room temperature and the boiling
point is more than room temperature, the substance will be in
liquid state. “M.p. <25 ᵒC < B.p.”

“M.p & B.p > 25 ᵒC” SOLID


“M.p. <25 ᵒC < B.p.” LIQUID
“M.p & B.p < 25 ᵒC” GAS

-5-
-6-
Impurities Effect

No Fixed
C B.P. M.P. M.P. & B.P.

-7-
Kinetic Theory
Any matter is made up of very small invisible particles.
These particles move all the time.
Lighter particles move faster than heavier particles.
Gas particles can spread or expand to fill any volume.
Temperature increase makes the particles move faster.
Heat Temperature Kinetic energy Speed
Gas pressure is the result of collision of the gas particles with
the wall of its container.
Upon cooling the molecules come closer to each other decreasing
the intermolecular spaces, and vice versa.
“increasing the temperature, increases the kinetic energy of the
particles, so particles move faster and collide more frequently”

Temperature Gas Volume Pressure Collisions


-8-
Diffusion
The process by which different fluids mix as a result of the
random motion of their particles.
Diffusion involves the movement of particles from region of
high concentration towards a region of lower concentration, until
they are evenly spread.
Diffusion does not take place in solid.
Diffusion in liquids is much slower than in gases.
The rate of diffusion depends on the molecular mass
((the smaller the molecular mass the faster the rate of diffusion))
Increasing the temperature, increases the speed of molecules,
thus increasing the rate of diffusion.

Bromine Water Diffusion


Bromine is reddish brown liquid
which vaporizes at room temperature
to gas and diffuses filling the whole jar.

-9-
Potassium Manganate Diffusion
Potassium Manganate is purple crystals which
dissolves without stirring and diffuses filling the
whole jar with its color.
Diffusion of ammonia and hydrogen
chloride gases

Ammonia gas diffuses faster than hydrogen chloride gas


Mr = 14 + (1x3) = 17 Mr = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5

- 10 -
Describe what happened?

……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………

- 11 -
Topic 2
Separation
Techniques
ELEMENT COMPOUND MIXTURE
Pure Substance; Pure Substance; Impure Substance;
Consists of one Consists of more than Consists of more than
type of atoms only. one type of atoms one type of atoms
e.g. Oxygen, chemically combined. NOT chemically
Carbon & Gold. e.g. Water & Carbon combined.
dioxide. e.g. Air & Sea water.

 Dissolution and state changing


are physical processes as the Increasing temperature,
*
substance keep its own increases intermolecular spaces
properties. between the solvent molecules
which allow the dissolution of
 Mixtures are not chemically more solute.
combined, so they are separated
by physical methods.

- 12 -
Mixture

Homogenous Heterogeneous
One phase Two or more phases

Unsaturated Saturated Supersaturated


Solvent can accept Solvent CANNOT Solvent can accept more
more solute at accept more solute at solute by heating
certain temperature certain temperature

- 13 -
Mixtures
Solid/Liquid Liquid/Liquid
Gas/Gas
Insoluble Immiscible

Diffusion Fractional Distillation Separating Funnel


Filtration Depends on differences in densities
Decanting Depends on Depends on
differences in Mr differences in B.P.
miscible
Soluble
Simple Distillation
To Obtain both solute & solvent Solid/Solid Mixtures Fractional Distillation
Depends on
Crystallization Magnetism
differences in B.P.
Evaporation Crystals
Density
Powder
Solubility

Sublimation

Sieving

- 14 -
A- Solid/Liquid Mixtures: 1-Insoluble Solid

Decanting Filtration
Pouring liquid and leaving solid
behind.

- 15 -
2-Soluble Solid
Evaporation Crystallization
The water (solvent) evaporates
leaving the salt (solute) in the
basin.
In case of flammable solvent
(alcohol), use water bath instead of
direct flame.

Crystallization Steps:
1-Half evaporation till crystallization (saturation) point.
2-Cool (to form crystals). “cooling decreases solubility
as Intermolecular spaces decrease”
3-Filter (to obtain crystals).
4-Dry (between to filter papers). “Not in an oven to
avoid loss of water of crystallization”
- 16 -
Simple Distillation
-Solution is boiled
Solute &
-Solvent evaporate Solvent Are
-Passes in the condenser Obtained
-Vapor condenses back to liquid
-Liquid is collected in the flask as distillate

Evaporation then condensation take place.


The thermometer is placed at the top and adjusted at temperature
above the B.P. of the liquid, to prevent its condensation in the
distillation flask.
The condenser is inclined, long and the water in from the bottom
opening.
- 17 -
inclined to allow the condensed liquid to fall in the collecting
beaker or flask
long to increase the time of condensing thus allow maximum
condensation
water in from the bottom to completely fill the condenser, thus
allow proper cooling and condensing.
The collecting flask should have long neck to decrease the
evaporation of the hot distillate from the flask.
B- Liquid/Liquid Mixtures: 1-Immicible Liquids
Separation (Tap) funnel

- 18 -
2-micible Liquids
Fractional Distillation

Used to separate any solution containing liquids with different boiling


points.

Liquid with the lowest boiling point will distil first.


Ethanol (B.P.=780C) & Water (B.P.=1000C); Ethanol will be distilled
first as it has lower B.P.
The fractionation column is
filled with glass beads to increase
the surface are upon which the vapor
of the liquid with higher B.P.
condenses.

- 19 -
It's preferable to use electric heater instead of Bunsen burner.
Better temperature control & prevents catching fire for flammable
liquids.

How would you know if the distillate is totally collected at the conical
flask?
When the condenser stops dripping liquid and the temperature
start to increase.

Some Important Applications of Fractional Distillation:

Fractional distillation of crude oil.

Fractional distillation of liquid air.

Concentration of aqueous ethanol.

- 20 -
CHROMATOGRAPHY
A separation technique used to separate two or more different
substances having different solubilities in a certain solvent.

Steps:
Draw a baseline with a pencil (graphite) on a chromatography paper.

Add drops of the mixture on the baseline with a dropper.

Place the chromatography paper in a suitable solvent for a suitable time,


so that; the baseline is above the solvent level.

Calculate Rf Value or compare to a standard.

The substance with higher solubility will travel longer distance.

- 21 -
Rf is specific for

each compound.

Rf must be

less than one.

- 22 -
Precautions:
The base line is drawn in pencil not ink.

The graphite in pencil is insoluble in solvents, while the ink is soluble in solvents.

The base line must be kept above the solvent level.

So the sample would not diffuse in the solvent rather than separated by the
chromatogram.

For insoluble mixture.

Change the solvent: if it was water use organic solvent (propanone).

For invisible substances.

Use locating agent (Resorcinol).

A B C D E A B C D E

What happened?
- 23 -
A: Consists of 3 substances “Impure Mixture”
B: Consists of 2 substances “Impure Mixture”
C: Consists of 1 substance “pure Compound”
D: Consists of 2 substances “Impure Mixture” (one soluble
and the other insoluble)
E: Insoluble substance.

Chromatography is used to
separate a mixture of:
Simple sugars
Amino acids
Dyes
Colors.

- 24 -
- 25 -
Tripod

Conical Flask
Round-Bottom
Flask

Balance

U-Tube Gas Jar

- 26 -
Measurements
Gas Volume:
Gas Syringe Inverted Measuring Cylinder

Mass: Temperature:
Balance Thermometer

Liquid Volume:
Measuring Cylinder Pipette Burette
Inaccurate/Fast/Approx. Accurate/ Measures only Accurate/ Measures only

5 cm3 from 0 cm3 to 50 cm3 with

10 cm3 Fractions
15 cm3
20 cm3
25 cm3
No Fractions

- 27 -
Topic 3
Atomic Structure
& Bonding
ATOM
“Is the smallest unit of any substance that
retains its chemical properties &
consists of: Protons, Neutrons &
Electrons”

Any Atom Consists of

-Positively Charged.
Nucleus -Where the mass is Electrons
concentrated.
-Negatively Charged.
-Negligible mass (1/1840)

Protons NeutronsN

-Positively Charged. -Not Charged. (Neutral)


-Big mass (1). -Big mass (1).

Particle Symbol Charge Mass


Proton p +1 1
Neutron n Zero (±) 1
Electron e -1 (1/1840)
- 28 -
 The nucleus is positively charged as it contains

positive protons and neutral neutrons.


 The mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus

because the electrons mass is negligible.


 The atom total charge is neutral because the number

of positive protons = the number of negative


electrons.

- 29 -
Elements Symbols

One Letter “Capital” Two Letters


C Carbon “First Capital & Second Small”
N Nitrogen Ca Calcium Cu Copper Co Cobalt
I Iodine Na Sodium Ne Neon No Niobium
O Oxygen Mg Magnesium Ag Silver
K Potassium
 Symbols Containing Only
One Capital Letter stands for
Elements like Cl2 Chlorine, Br2
Bromine, Zn Zinc, Fe Iron.
 Symbols Containing More
Than One Capital Letter stands for
Compounds like H2SO4 Sulphuric
Acid, H2O Water, NaCl Sodium
Chloride, MgO Magnesium
Oxide, NH3 Ammonia.

- 30 -
Some elements exist in the nature in the form of diatomic
molecules.
These elements are H2 Hydrogen, N2 Nitrogen, O2 Oxygen, F2
Fluorine, Cl2 Chlorine, Br2 Bromine, I2 Iodine, At2 Astatine.
The rest of the elements are monoatomic.
Atomic Number & Mass Number
Chemical Symbol
Mass (Nucleon) Number of the element
Protons + Neutrons

Atomic
A (proton) Number
Number of Protons

Atomic Mass Number Number


Chemical
(Proton) (Nucleon) of of
Symbol
Number Number Neutrons Electrons
23
11Na 11 23 12 11
35
17Cl 17 35 18 17
12
6C 6 12 6 6

- 31 -
 Atomic number is specific
for each element.
 No two elements can have
the same atomic (proton) number
“impossible”.
 Meanwhile, more than one
element can have the same
mass (nucleon) number.

DON’T FORGET

Isotopes
“Different atoms of the same element having the same (atomic/proton)
number but different (mass/nucleon/neutron) number.”
12 13 14 14
6W 6X 6Y 7Z
Mass No. 12 13 14 14
Atomic No. 6 6 6 7
Protons 6 6 6 7
Neutrons 6 7 8 7
Electrons 6 6 6 7
- 32 -
W, X & Y are the same element “Carbon” as they have the same
atomic number (number of protons).
W, X & Y are isotopes as they have the same atomic number
(number of protons) but diferent mass “nucleon” number
(number of neutrons).
Z is different element “Nitrogen” as it has different atomic
number (number of protons).
Isotopes have the same chemical properties as they
have the same (number of electrons/number of valency
electrons/electronic configuration).
Isotopes can be radioactive or non-radioactive.
Radioactive Isotopes
“have unstable nuclei, so they emit radiation to be more stable”

Uranium-235 (U235)
Fuel for Nuclear reactors

Medical Uses Industrial Uses


Cancer Treatment (Cobalt-60). Detecting leakage in water pipes.
Sterilization of surgical instruments. Checking paper and steel thickness.

- 33 -
Relative Atomic/Molecular Mass
“Average masses of the isotopes of the elements according to their
abundance in nature as compared to carbon-12 atom.”
The existence of isotopes explains why most relative atomic masses
are not whole numbers.

Relative Atomic Mass of Chlorine= (35 X 75%) + (37 X 25%) = 35.5


(Ar): Relative Atomic Mass. (Mr): Relative Molecular Mass.

Isotopes haves the same number of protons and electrons


but different number of neutrons

- 34 -
Valency Shell: is the outer most shell (energy level) of an atom.
Valency electrons: is the number of electrons in the outer most
shell (Valency shell)
Valency: is the number of electrons lost, gained or shared by an
atom.
The number of valency electrons is the group number where the
element exits in the periodic table.
The number of electrons shells is the period number where the
element exits in the periodic table.
Element
Name
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Symbol Li Be B C N O F Ne
Electronic
Configuration
2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7 2,8
Valency
Electrons
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Group
Number
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
Other Name Monovalent Divalent Trivalent Tetravalent Trivalent Divalent Monovalent -----

All these elements are in period 2 as they all have only 2 shells.
All Noble Gases “Group VIII” like Neon have complete outer
shell (Octet State) So they are unreactive “inert” (They don’t gain or
lose or share electrons). In other words; their valencies equals zero.
- 35 -
Metals Non-Metals
Solid Solid/Liquid/Gas
Properties except Mercury
Physical
Shiny Dull
“Metallic Luster” except Diamond
Malleable Brittle
“Can be spread into sheets” except Graphite
Ductile Non-Ductile
“Can be drawn into wires”
Good Conductor of heat & Bad Conductor of heat &
electricity electricity
They have 1 or 2 or 3 They have 5 or 6 or 7
Properti
Chemic

valency electrons valency electrons


es
al

React by gaining or
React by losing electron(s)
sharing electron(s)

“Atoms tend to lose, gain or share


electrons in order to reach the
electronic configuration of the nearest
noble gas (octet state)”

- 36 -
Ionic Bond Simple Covalent Bond Metallic Bond Giant Covalent Bond
Simple Molecular Macromolecular Structure
Metal + Non-Metal Non-Metals Only Metals Only Non-Metals Only
Metals lose electrons forming
Positive ions embedded in a sea
+ve ions while Non-metals gain Sharing electrons Sharing electrons
of delocalized electrons
electrons forming –ve ions.
Strong Bond Weak Bond Strong Bond Strong Bond
High M.P. & B.P. Low M.P. & B.P. High M.P. & B.P. High M.P. & B.P.
Due to strong electrostatic Due to weak attraction forces Due to strong attraction forces Due to strong covalent bonds
attraction forces between between molecules that can be between +ve ions & free moving that need high energy to
oppositely charged ions that broken easily. –ve electrons that need high overcome.
need high energy to overcome. “Don’t say weak covalent bond” energy to overcome.
Malleable
Brittle
Brittle Brittle Layers of +ve ions that can
Except graphite
slide over each other
Giant Structure Giant Structure Giant Structure
Giant Ionic Lattice Giant Metallic lattice Macromolecules
Bad Conductor when solid
Bad Conductor of Good Conductor of
No free moving ions Bad Conductor of
Good Conductor when Electricity No free moving Electricity Free moving
Electricity Except graphite
ions or electrons electrons
liquid Free moving ions
- 37 -
Simple Atomic bond: “Van der Waals”
Found between noble gases atoms.
No losing, gaining or sharing of electrons.
Very weak bond.
Low B.P. “Due to weak attraction forces between molecules that can be broken easily”
Bad conductor of electricity. “No free moving ions or electrons”

How to draw ionic compounds?


I-Drawing Sodium Chloride
Each sodium metal atom loses its only valency electron (one electron)
changing into positive ion.

- 38 -
Meanwhile, each chlorine non-metal atom gains one electron in its
valency shell changing into negative ion.

Then, each sodium positive ion is attracted to each chlorine negative


ion by strong electrostatic attraction forces called ionic bond because
they are oppositely charged.

- 39 -
At that moment, the ions are arranged in a giant geometrical pattern
called “Giant Ionic Lattice”.

Giant Ionic Lattice: Regular arrangement of oppositely charged ions


in a crystalline solid.
II-Drawing Magnesium Oxide

- 40 -
III-Drawing Calcium Chloride

IV-Drawing Potassium Sulphide

- 41 -
Positive ions are positively charged
because the atom lost one or more
electrons and the number of positive
protons is greater than the number of
negative electrons.
Negative ions are negatively charged
because the atom gained one or more
electrons and the number of negative
electrons is greater than the number of
positive protons.

- 42 -
How to draw covalent compounds?

Rules for drawing covalent compounds:


1-The number of needed electrons for the atom to reach the octet state
(to complete its outer most shell) must be shared
2-The number of electrons shared by each atom in the bond must be
equal.

- 43 -
I-Drawing Hydrogen Molecule

II-Drawing Chlorine Molecule

- 44 -
III-Drawing Hydrogen Chloride Molecule

IV-Drawing Ammonia Molecule

- 45 -
V-Drawing Methane Molecule

VI-Drawing Oxygen Molecule

- 46 -
VII-Drawing Carbon Dioxide Molecule

VIII-Drawing Nitrogen Molecule

- 47 -
How to draw a Metallic Bond Figure?

Giant metallic Lattice: Regular arrangement of positively charged ions


in a sea of delocalized electrons crystalline solid.

- 48 -
Examples for Giant Covalent Compounds “Macromolecular Structures”
Diamond: “Element”
Each carbon atom is bonded to four
other carbon atoms by strong covalent
bonds in a tetrahedral structure.
Properties:
High melting point.
High boiling point.
High density.
Very hard.
Bad conductor of electricity.
Uses:
Cutting/Drilling/Jewelry.

Silicon dioxide: “Compound”


Each silicon atom bonded to four
oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom bonded
to two silicon atoms by strong covalent bonds
in a tetrahedral structure.
That's why the formula is written SiO2 Not SiO4
Properties:
High melting point.
High boiling point.
High density.
Very hard.
Bad conductor of electricity.
- 49 -
Silicon Dioxide is
called Silicon (IV)
Oxide or Sand or
SiO2 but never SiO4

Graphite “Element”
Each carbon atom bonded to three other carbon atoms by strong covalent
bonds in a hexagonal structure.
Arranged in layers bonded together by weak forces called (Van der
Waals forces) & these layers can slide over each other easily.

Properties:
High melting point.
High boiling point.
Solid.
Soft.
Used as lubricant & pencils
Good conductor of electricity.
Used as electrode in batteries

- 50 -
- 51 -
Topic 4
Stoichiometry
Chemical Formula:
“It is a formula that represent the type & number of atoms in each
single molecule of any compound.”
Formula of covalent compounds:

They are written as they are pronounced.


Add suffix “ide” at the end of the name.

- 52 -
Formula of ionic compounds:
Write the symbol for the
metal (+ve ion) first, then the
non-metal (-ve ion). Mg Cl
Write the valency down to
each symbol.
Exchange their valencies &
2 1
MgCl2
simplify them if possible.
Nonmetal ions take the
suffix (ide): chloride, nitride,
oxide.
Magnesium Chloride
- 53 -
Al O Ca O
3 2 2 2
Al2O3 CaO
Aluminum Oxide Calcium Oxide

Atomic Groups:
It is a set of atoms (different elements) joined together behave like
one atom during a chemical reaction, having its own valency & can't
exist solely.

- 54 -
Hydroxide (OH)-
Hydrogen carbonate (HCO3) –
Nitrate (NO3)-
Nitrite (NO2)-
Carbonate (CO3) –2
Sulphate (SO4)-2 Phosphate (PO4)-3
Sulphite (SO3)-2 Phosphite (PO3)-3
Ammonium (NH4)+

- 55 -
Calcium nitrite Barium oxide Aluminum hydroxide
Ca NO2 Al OH
2 1 3 1

Ca(NO2)2 Al(OH)3
Sodium carbonate Cobalt (II) iodide Zinc sulfite

Magnesium phosphate Silver (I) nitrate Aluminum carbonate

Robidium Sulfate Ammonium chloride Potassium carbonate

Chromium (III) iodide Ammonium Carbonate Lithium phosphide

Iron (II) nitride Strontium nitrate Methane

- 56 -
Nitrogen Nitride Nitrate Nitrite
N2 N-3 (NO3)- (NO2)-
Na3N NaNO3 NaNO2
Sodium Nitride Sodium Nitrate Sodium Nitrite
Sulphur Sulphide Sulphate Sulphite
S8 S-2 (SO4)-2 (SO3)-2
Na2S Na2SO4 Na2SO3
Sodium Sulphide Sodium Sulphate Sodium Sulphite
Phosphorus Phosphide Phosphate Phosphite
P4 P-3 (PO4)-3 (PO3)-3
Na3P Na3PO4 Na3PO3
Sodium Phosphide Sodium Phosphate Sodium Phosphite

- 57 -
Balancing Chemical Equations
Number of Number of
Reactants Products
Atoms Atoms

Reactants Products
Weight Weight

“While balancing the chemical equations don't ever change


the subscript, just the coefficient”

- 58 -
Balance the following equations:
Ba + H2O Ba(OH)2+ H2
C + CO2 CO
Zn + HCl ZnCl2 + H2
NO2 + H2O HNO2 + HNO3
NaNO3 NaNO2 + O2
Fe2O3 + CO Fe + CO2
Sn + AgNO3 Sn(NO3)2 + Ag
Cl2 + KBr KCl+ Br2
Sr(NO3)2 + Li3(PO4) Li(NO3) + Sr3(PO4)2
CH4 + O2 H2O + CO2
NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O
Pb(NO3)2 PbO + NO2 + O2

Al(NO3)3 Al2O3 + NO2 + O2

CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + O2

- 59 -
MOLES
“It is a unit of measurement used in chemistry
to express amounts of a chemical substance.”

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): the average mass of


naturally occurring atoms of an element on a scale
where the 12C atom has a mass of exactly 12 units

Relative Molecular Mass (Mr): The sum of the


relative atomic masses of the atoms in a molecule.

One mole of any substance contains


Avogadro’s number of particles.

Avogadro’s Constant= 6.02 X 1023

Isotope Carbon-12 was selected as the standard


to which the atomic weights of all the other elements
are measured.

- 60 -
1 mole sodium (Na) contains 6.02 X 1023 atoms, found in 23g
pure sodium.
1 mole chlorine (Cl2) contains 6.02 X 1023 molecules, found in
71g pure chlorine.
1 mole water (H2O) contains 6.02 X 1023 molecules, found in
18g pure water.
1 mole sodium chloride (NaCl) contains 6.02 X 1023 formula
units, found in 58.5g pure sodium chloride.

One mole Glucose


C6H12O6
6 moles C atoms
6 moles O atoms or
3 moles O2 molecules

12 moles H atoms or
6 moles H2 molecules

- 61 -
Moles Rules
Mass Vol.
moles= =Vol. X Conc.=
Mr 24
Practical
Percentage Yield = X 100
Pure Theoretical
%Purity= X 100
Impure
Balance=Molar Ratio.
Mass in grams, Volume in dm3, Concentration in mol/dm3.
Maximum Yield= Mass.
Mass of one mole = Formula mass = Molar mass = Mr
Impure or excess neglect the number.
Limiting agent moles is the number that we build on.
One mole of any gas at r.t.p. occupies 24 dm3 volume.
For gases only; Balance=Molar Ratio=Volume Ratio.

- 62 -
At room temperature and pressure, 4 grams calcium reacted with 100
cm3 hydrochloric acid forming calcium chloride and hydrogen gas.
Calculate hydrochloric acid concentration, maximum yield of calcium
chloride formed and hydrogen gas volume.
To start any molar question, a balanced equation is
needed if it is not given, you must deduce it correctly.
Ca + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2

Correct the units if needed


100 cm3 HCl divided by 1000 = 0.1 dm3 HCl

Write the molar ratio according to the balance of the


equation.
Ca + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2
1 : 2 : 1 : 1

Ca Number of moles = Mass /Mr


=4/40 = 0.1 moles

Deduce all the moles values of the rest reaction components.


Ca + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2
1 : 2 : 1 : 1
0.1 moles : 0.2 moles : 0.1 moles : 0.1 moles

- 63 -
Now we can find any required data and answer the question.

HCl Concentration = HCl Moles/HCl Volume

= 0.2/0.1= 2 mol/dm3

Maximum yield of calcium chloride = CaCl2Mass

CaCl2 Mass = CaCl2 Moles X CaCl2 Mr

= 0.1 X (40 + 35.5 X 2)= 11.1 gm

Hydrogen Volume = Hydrogen moles X 24

= 0.1 X 24 = 24 dm3

- 64 -
8.4 grams magnesium carbonate was added to 100 cm3
hydrochloric acid forming 8 grams magnesium chloride.
Calculate hydrochloric acid concentration, maximum yield
of magnesium chloride formed, carbon dioxide volume and
percentage yield of magnesium chloride.
MgCO3 + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2O + CO2

- 65 -
Calculate HCl concentration, NiCl2 mass & CO2
volume when 10 gm NiCO3 reacted with 20 cm3 HCl
at r.t.p.
NiCO3 + 2 HCl NiCl2 + H2O + CO2

- 66 -
15 gm impure calcium reacted with dilute Sulphuric acid
releasing 6 dm3 hydrogen gas at r.t.p. Calculate percentage
purity of the used calcium.

20.0 cm3 of sulfuric acid, concentration 0.30 mol / dm3, was added to
40 cm3 of sodium hydroxide, concentration 0.20 mol /dm3.
2 NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O
(i) How many moles of H2SO4 were added?
.............................. [1]
(ii) How many moles of NaOH were used? ............................... [1]
(iii) Which reagent is in excess? Give a reason for your choice.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….[2]

- 67 -
A mineral of the type FeSO4.xH2O contains 37.2% of water.
Complete the calculation to determine x.
mass of one mole of H2O = 18 g
mass of water in 100 g of FeSO4.xH2O = 37.2 g
number of moles of H2O in 100 g of FeSO4.xH2O = .................
mass of FeSO4 in 100 g of FeSO4.xH2O = .................g
mass of one mole of FeSO4 = 152 g
number of moles of FeSO4 in 100 g of FeSO4.xH2O = .................
x = .................

20 cm3 hydrocarbon needs 70 cm3 oxygen for


complete combustion forming 40 cm3 carbon
dioxide. Deduce the formula of this hydrocarbon.

- 68 -
Calculate the percentage of {copper Cu, sulfur S, and oxygen O} in
copper sulfate CuSO4
Mr. of Cu = 63.5, Mr. of S = 32, Mr. of O = 16
Mr. of CuSO4 = {63.5 + 32 + (4 x 16)} = 159.5
Cu%= (63.5/159.5) X 100 = 40%

S%= (32/159.5) X 100 = 20%

O%= ((4 X 16)/159.5) X 100 = 40%

Which is the best fertilizer giving higher nitrogen yield ammonium


nitrate NH4NO3 or urea (NH2)2CO?

- 69 -
Converting Between Concentration Units
The concentration of a solution can be expressed as mol/dm3 or g/dm3
3 3
 to convert from mol/dm to g/dm , multiply by the Mr.

3 3
 to convert from g/dm to mol/dm , divide by the Mr.

Example
Calculate the concentration of 0.1 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide
solution in g/dm3. (Mr of NaOH = 40)

Concentration = 0.1 × 40 = 4 g/dm3

Calculate the concentration of 7.3 g/dm3 hydrochloric acid in


mol/dm3. (Mr of HCl = 36.5)

Calculate the concentration of 1.25 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide


solution in g/dm3.

Calculate the concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide,


NaOH, in mol/dm3, when 80 g is dissolved in 500 cm3 of water.

- 70 -
Molecular & Empirical Formula
Molecular Empirical
2
C2H6 CH3
X2
6
C6H12 CH2
X6
2
C4H10 C2H5
X2
4
C4H4 CH
X4
1
C3H8 C3H8
X1
6
C6H12O6 CH2O
X6
2
P4O10 P2O5
X2
2
N2O4 NO
X2

- 71 -
A compound consists of 40% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen and oxygen.
Deduce empirical & molecular formulae of this compound. (Mr=180)

- 72 -
Topic 5
Periodic Table
& Redox
- 73 -
- 74 -
Vertical columns are called groups; Group number is the
number of valency electrons.
Horizontal rows are called periods; Period number is the
number of electronic shell.
Examples:
Li3: 2,1 (Group 1, Period 2)
P15: 2,8,5 (Group 5, Period 3)
Sr38: 2,8,18,8,2 (Group 2, Period 5)
Elements are arranged in the periodic table by Atomic Number
(proton number) one by one & there is no missing numbers, so no
new elements can be discovered in between.
Metallic properties decrease across the period. “from left to
right”
Non-Metallic properties increase across the period. “from left
to right”

- 75 -
Metals
Group I Group II
Transition Metals
Alkali Metals Earth Metals
Solid/Shiny/Malleable/Ductile/Good conductor of heat & electricity
Physical Properties

Soft Hard Hard


Low M.P. & B.P. Higher M.P. & B.P. Highest M.P. & B.P.
Low Density Higher Density Highest Density
Form white compounds Form white Form colored
“Colourless Ions” compounds compounds
Soluble/Insoluble Soluble/Insoluble
Soluble Compounds
Compounds Compounds
highly Reactive Reactive Less Reactive
More than One
One Oxidation State One Oxidation State Oxidation State
Chemical Properties

(+1) (+2)
except zinc
No Catalytic Have Catalytic
No Catalytic Properties
Properties Properties
Don’t React with cold
React with cold water React with cold water
water
Compounds Don’t Compounds Compounds
Thermally Decompose Thermally Thermally
except nitrates Decompose Decompose

All metals are silvery grey except copper “red brown” & gold “yellow”

- 76 -
Group I (Alkali) Metals

Density & Reactivity

M.P. & B.P.


Low Density “Density increases down the group”
Cesium is the most dense & Lithium is the least dense
Low M.P. & B.P. “M.P. & B.P. decrease down the group”
Cesium has the lowest M.P. & B.P. & Lithium has the highest M.P. & B.P.
Highly Reactive “Reactivity increases down the group”
Cesium is the most reactive & Lithium is the least reactive.

Group II (Alkaline Earth) Metals

Reactivity increases down the group while


density, M.P. & B.P. don’t show a regular
trend.

- 77 -
Transition Metals

Metals Reaction with Water

Liquid Water Gaseous Water


(Cold/Warm/Hot) (Steam)

Group I & II Group II,


Fe, Zn & Sn
Forms

Metal
Forms
Hydroxide +H2
Metal oxide
+H2

- 78 -
Thermal Decomposition of Metal Compounds

Group I Rest of Metal


Compounds Compounds

Don’t undergo thermal undergo thermal


decomposition except nitrates decomposition

Metal nitrate Metal oxide + Nitrogen dioxide + O2


Metal nitrate Metal nitrite + O2

The more the metal reactivity, the less the extent


of thermal decomposition of its compounds.

- 79 -
Group VII (Halogens) Non-Metals

Physical Properties:
Low M.P. & B.P. “M.P. & B.P. increase down the group”
Low density. “Density increases down the group”
Color gets darker down the group
Chemical Properties:
Reactive. “Reactivity decreases down the group”
Monovalent. (-1) “Usually forming colourless ions”
Diatomic. (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, At2) “Two non-metal atoms covalently bonded”
The more reactive halogen displaces (oxidizes) the less reactive one
from its compounds.
Cl2(aq) + 2KBr(aq) 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
Colorless Colorless Colorless Orange
Br2(aq) + 2KCl(aq) No Reaction

- 80 -
Group VIII Noble Gases
All of them are gases.
All of them are inert.
Their outer most energy level is
completely filled so their valencies are zero. “they don't lose, gain, or share”
All of them have 8 valency electrons except Helium have 2 only.
Mono-atomic.
Uses
Helium: in filling balloons.
Argon: in filling light bulbs.
Krypton & Xenon: Commercial lights.

- 81 -
“Electron(s) transfer between different species”

- 82 -
Chemical Reactivity Series
The more reactive metal
displaces (reduces) the less reactive
one from its compounds.
Ca + PbSO4 CaSO4 + Pb
CaSO4 + Pb No Reaction
The elements under carbon can
be reduced (displaced) by carbon
but the others above carbon can’t.
C + SnO2 CO2 + Sn
C + Al2O3 No Reaction
The elements above hydrogen
can react with acids (displaces or
reduces hydrogen) and those below
hydrogen can’t.
Fe + H2SO4 FeSO4 + H2 “Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen”
Cu + H2SO4 No Reaction

Oxidation Oxidation
O.A. O.A.
CuO + H2 Cu + H2O Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2
R.A R.A
. Reduction . Reduction
Oxidation Oxidation
O.A. O.A.
Mg + CuSO4 MgSO4 + Cu Cl2 + 2KI 2KCl +I2
R.A R.A
. Reduction . Reduction

- 83 -
Formulating Ionic Equations for Redox Reactions
Chemical Equation Ionic Equation

Formulating Ionic Equations for Neutralization Reactions


Chemical Equation Ionic Equation

Formulating Ionic Equations for Precipitation Reactions


Chemical Equation Ionic Equation

- 84 -
The Periodic Table of Elements

Group
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
1 2

H He
hydrogen helium
Key 1 4
3 4 atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10

Li Be atomic symbol B C N O F Ne
lithium beryllium name boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
7 9 relative atomic mass 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
85 88 89 91 93 96 – 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

Cs Ba lanthanoids
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
caesium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
133 137 178 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 – – –
87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 114 116

Fr Ra actinoids
Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Fl Lv
francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium flerovium livermorium
– – – – – – – – – – – – –

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

lanthanoids La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
139 140 141 144 – 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
actinoids actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
– 232 231 238 – – – – – – – – – – –

The volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.).

- 85 -
Topic 6
Electrolysis
Electrolysis
“It is the process of breaking
down ionic compounds (molten
or aqueous) by electricity”

- 86 -
Electrolysis is an endothermic chemical reaction; where
electrical energy is converted into chemical energy.
Current direction from anode to cathode.
The electrolyte must be liquid (molten/aqueous) ionic in order
to have free moving ions.
The electrode would rather be:
 Good conductor of electricity.
Platinum

 High M.P.
Metal

Non-Metal
Graphite
 Inert.
 Cheap.
The upper circuit is applied by electrons at the anode via
oxidation of –ve ions.
Negative Electrode “Cathode” Positive Electrode “Anode”
+ve ions (Cations) are attracted -ve ions (Anions) are attracted
“oppositely charged” “oppositely charged”
Gaining Electrons “Reduction” Losing Electrons “Oxidation”

- 87 -
I- Molten Electrolysis

Cathode Anode
Product Lead metal (Pb) Bromine gas (Br2)
Observation Silvery Grey Deposit Red Brown Bubbles

By Time; electrolyte is used up


- 88 -
Application on Molten Electrolysis
Aluminum Extraction

Aluminum Ore is called Bauxite.


Bauxite M.P. is too high (about 2100 ᵒC).
Bauxite dissolves in molten Cryolite at 900 ᵒC.
Oxygen formed at the anode reacts with carbon (graphite)
forming the electrode forming CO2 (excess oxygen/complete
combustion) or CO (limited oxygen/incomplete combustion).
Anode get eroded & should be replaced periodically.
Cryolite uses: 1- Decreases Bauxite M.P.
2- Increases Conductivity.
- 89 -
II- Aqueous Electrolysis

 Sodium Chloride solution is called brine or saline.


 Chlorine or Sodium hydroxide are prepared by the electrolysis of
concentrated brine solution.

- 90 -
Cathode Anode
Product Observation Product Observation
Hydrogen Colourless Oxygen Colourless
NaCl(aq)dil.
Gas bubbles Gas bubbles
NaCl “Gets more Concentrated” Neutral
Electrolyte It may be accepted to say: “Stays the same”
Greenish
Hydrogen Colourless Chlorine
NaCl(aq)Conc. yellow
Gas bubbles Gas
bubbles
NaOH “Sodium Hydroxide” Alkaline
Electrolyte Litmus paper will change from red to blue
Copper Red brown Oxygen Colourless
CuSO4(aq)
Metal Deposit Gas bubbles
H2SO4 “Sulphuric Acid” Acidic
Electrolyte  Litmus paper will change from blue to red
 Blue colour of the electrolyte fades

By Time; electrolyte changes

- 91 -
III- Active Electrolysis

Gets thicker
Gets thinner

electrolyte never changes


“Because ions reduced at the cathode
are replaced by atoms oxidized at
the anode with the same rate”

- 92 -
Applications on Active Electrolysis
1- Refining Metals

Gets thinner Gets thicker

Impure pure
Metal Metal
at the at the
Anode cathode

- 93 -
2- Electroplating

Metal object
at the at the
Anode Cathode

- 94 -
Topic 7
Acids, Bases,
Oxides &
Salts
Acid base
Indicator
Strong Weak Weak Strong
Red Red Litmus Paper Blue Blue
Red Red Methyl Orange Yellow Yellow
Colorless Colorless Phenol Phethaline Pink Pink
Colorless Colorless Thymol Phethaline Blue Blue
1-3 4-6 pH 8-11 12-14
Red Orange/Yellow Universal Indicator Blue Purple

- 95 -
- 96 -
Neutralization Reactions
 Acid + Base Salt + water
 A salt must be formed but water may not be
formed.
 Water is not formed when both reactants ((Acid &
Base)) contain no hydrogen or no oxygen at all.
 Carbonates forms Salt + water + CO2
 Sulphites forms Salt + water + SO2
 Ammonium forms Salt + water + NH3

Yielding salt + water

Yielding salt only

Yielding salt + water + Gas

- 97 -
‫‪Solubility of Different Compounds‬‬
‫‪Soluble Compounds‬‬ ‫‪Insoluble Compounds‬‬
‫‪Group I & Ammonium‬‬
‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
‫‪(NH4)+‬‬
‫‪Nitrates (NO3)-‬‬ ‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬

‫‪All Acids‬‬ ‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬


‫‪except‬‬
‫‪Sulphates (SO4)-2‬‬ ‫”‪Calcium / Barium / Lead “Ca/Ba/Pb‬‬
‫‪except‬‬
‫)‪Halides (Cl-/Br-/I-‬‬ ‫”‪Silver / Lead “Ag/Pb‬‬
‫‪Group I & Ammonium (NH4)+‬‬ ‫‪Carbonates (CO3)-2/Sulphites (SO3)-2/Nitrites (NO2)-‬‬
‫‪Hydrogen Carbonates (HCO3)-/Phosphates (PO4)-3‬‬
‫‪Group I,II & Ammonium‬‬ ‫‪(NH4)+‬‬
‫‪Oxides O-2/Hydroxides (OH)-‬‬

‫”‪“Group II oxides & hydroxides are soluble in excess water‬‬

‫‪- 98 -‬‬
- 99 -
Salt Precipitation Neutralization Titration

MgCO3

Na2SO4

PbBr2

AlCl3

Sr(NO3)2

LiNO3

CoSO3

BaSO4

AgI

RbBr

CaCl2

Sr3(PO4)2

KNO3

- 100 -
Formulating Ionic Equations for Neutralization Reactions
Chemical Equation Ionic Equation

Formulating Ionic Equations for Precipitation Reactions


Chemical Equation Ionic Equation

- 101 -
Testing Ions
I-Testing Cations
NaOH NH4OH
Cation
drops excess Drops excess
Ca+2 White ppt White ppt ‫ــــــــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــــــــ‬
insoluble in excess

Al+3 White ppt Dissolves White ppt White ppt


soluble in excess insoluble in excess

Zn+2 White ppt Dissolves White ppt Dissolves


soluble in excess

Cr+3 Green ppt Dissolves Green ppt Green ppt


soluble in excess insoluble in excess

Fe+2 Green ppt Green ppt Green ppt Green ppt


insoluble in excess insoluble in excess

Fe+3 Red brown ppt Redinsoluble


brown ppt Red brown ppt Red brown ppt
in excess insoluble in excess
Dissolves
Cu+2 Blue ppt Blue ppt Blue ppt soluble in excess
insoluble in excess
dark blue solution
(NH4)+ + NaOH + HEAT Effervescence of pungent gas “Ammonia (NH3)”
Turns damp red litmus paper blue/pH indicator paper 10

- 102 -
II- Testing Anions
Anion Reagent Observations
Carbonates
Any Acid “HCl” Effervescence of colorless gas “Carbon dioxide (CO2)”
(CO3)-2 Turns clear lime water turbid or milky.

Sulphites Any Acid “HCl” Fizzing of colorless gas “Sulphur dioxide (SO2)”
(SO3)-2 + HEAT
Nitrates NaOH + Heat + Effervescence of pungent gas “Ammonia (NH3)”
(NO3)- Aluminum foil Turns damp red litmus paper blue/pH indicator paper 10
Sulphates BaCl2/HCl
White ppt “Barium Sulphate (BaSO4)”
(SO4)-2 Ba(NO3)2/HNO3
Cl-: White ppt (AgCl/PbCl ) 2
AgNO3/HNO3 -: Creamy White ppt (AgBr/PbBr )
Halides Pb(NO Br 2
3)2/HNO3
I-: Yellow ppt (AgI/PbI ) 2

- 103 -
III- Flame Test
1-Place a (tungsten/nichrome) wire in a concentrated acid. “for cleaning”
2-Wipe the wire with a damp piece of cloth.
3-Place the tested salt on the wire.
4-Put the wire in a non-luminous flame.

Metal Name Ion Symbol Flame color


Lithium Li+ Red
Sodium Na+ Yellow
Potassium K+ Lilac
Calcium Ca+2 Brick Red
Barium Ba+2 Light Green
Copper Cu+2 Blue Green

- 104 -
IV- Testing Gases
Gas Test Result
Hydrogen
Lighted Splint Burns with pop sound
(H2)
Oxygen
Glowing Splint Glows more/Relights
(O2)
Carbon dioxide
Clear lime water Turbid/Milky
(CO2)
Sulphur dioxide
(SO2)
Ammonia Damp red litmus paper Turns blue
(NH3) pH indicator paper 10
Chlorine
Damp red litmus paper Bleaches
(Cl2)

- 105 -
Topic 8
Metals
Extraction &
Reactivity
Metals Reactivity

In chemical reactivity series; the more reactive (above) metal


reduces the less reactive (below) metals from its compounds
and solutions.
Mg(S) + ZnSO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + Zn(s)
Na(S) + ZnSO4(aq) Dangerous
Ca(S) + ZnSO4(aq) Dangerous
Cu(S) + ZnSO4(aq) No Reaction
Carbon can reduce elements below (less reactive) from its
oxides
C + 2ZnO 2Zn + CO2
C + Al2O3 No Reaction

- 106 -
Only Metals above hydrogen can react with acids “Giving salt +
hydrogen”
Fe + H2SO4 FeSO4 + H2
Sn + 2HCl SnCl2 + H2
Ag + HCl No Reaction
“silver can be cleaned safely with acids”
How to determine reactivity order experimentally?
Add same mass & size of the different metals to the same volume,
concentration & temperature of an acid, then detect the
observations.

Sodium Magnesium Zinc Tin Copper

Explosive Strong Weaker Weakest NO


Very Dangerous Effervescence Effervescence Effervescence Effervescence

- 107 -
Metals Reaction with water can be summarized as follows:

Only the least reactive metals can be found as pure “native”


elements in the nature like silver, gold & platinum.

- 108 -
Copper Extraction
1-Reduction by Carbon:
2CuO + C 2Cu + CO2
“Black” “Red Brown”

2-Refining by Active Electrolysis:

- 109 -
Copper Uses:
Wires: Good Conductor of electricity & Ductile.
Alloys:
 Bronze (Copper/Tin) Used in statues.
 Brass (Copper/Zinc) Used in musical instruments & Door knobs.
Pots: Good Conductor of heat & Unreactive.
Aluminum Extraction

- 110 -
Aluminum Ore is called Bauxite.
Bauxite M.P. is too high (about 2100 ᵒC).
Bauxite dissolves in molten Cryolite at 900 ᵒC.
Oxygen formed at the anode reacts with carbon (graphite)
forming the electrode forming CO2 (excess oxygen/complete
combustion) or CO (limited oxygen/incomplete combustion).
Anode get eroded & should be replaced periodically.
Cryolite uses: 1- Decrease Bauxite M.P. 2- Increase Conductivity.
Aluminum Uses:
Air-Crafts Bodies: Strong ”Hard” & Light “low density”.
Over-Head Cables: Good conductor of electricity & Light “low
density”.
Food Containers: Resists corrosion “Protective oxide layer that doesn’t
react with food”.
Utensils: Good conductor of heat & Resists corrosion “Non-porous
insoluble oxide layer that doesn’t react with food”.

- 111 -
Iron Extraction

1-Blast Furnace:
Coke coal burns forming carbon dioxide and releasing a huge
amount of energy. “Source of Heat”
C + O2 CO2 “Exothermic Reaction”
Carbon dioxide is reduced by coke coal into carbon monoxide.
2CO2 + C 2CO “Redox”
Iron (III) oxide is reduced into cast iron by carbon monoxide
&/or coke coal.
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2 “Redox”
2Fe2O3 + 3C 4Fe + 3CO2 “Redox”
Lime stone thermally decomposes into lime and carbon dioxide.
CaCO3 CaO + CO2 “Thermal Decomposition”
Lime “Basic Oxide” neutralizes sand “Acidic Oxide” forming slag “Salt”.
CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3 “Neutralization”
- 112 -
- 113 -
2-Converter:

Impure iron (cast iron/pig iron)


from the blast furnace falls into a
converter where oxygen is bubbled
through.
Carbon & Sulphur impurities
are oxidized to CO2 & SO2 gases
escaping away. Silicon & Phosphorus
are oxidized to solid acidic oxides
neutralized by basic lime forming slag.
“Slag is a salt that has lower density
than iron so it forms a layer above
molten iron (in blast furnace &
converter) that protects steel from oxidation”

- 114 -
Iron Uses:
Mild Steel (about 0.25% Carbon): Gates, Car Bodies.
Heavy Steel “High Carbon Steel” (about 1% Carbon):
Railways, Bridges, Constructions, Machinery & Weapons.
Stainless Steel (Iron/Carbon/Nickel/Chromium):
Utensils, Cutleries, Surgical Instruments & Pipes for chemical
plants.

Rust: Hydrated Iron (III) Oxide “Fe2O3.2H2O”


 Both Water & Oxygen are needed for rust formation.
 Salts increases the rate of rusting significantly.

- 115 -
Rusting Protection Methods:
1. Painting.
2. Oiling & Greasing.
3. Electroplating. “covering steel with a layer of less reactive metal”
4. Galvanization. “covering steel with a layer of more reactive metal”
5. Sacrificial Protection.
Zinc is more reactive than Steel.
Zinc loses electrons (oxidized) instead of steel.
Zinc corrodes & steel doesn’t rust.

“If a galvanized steel object got


scratched, the steel object won’t rust as
it is still protected by sacrificial
protection”

- 116 -
Recycling Metals
Saves mineral resources “as they are limited”
Saves energy & cheaper than extracting from its ore.
Decrease landfill sites pollution.

- 117 -
Topic 9
Heat Change
- 118 -
Catalyst: Substance that speeds up a chemical reaction
without being used up or chemically changed
through finding alternative pathway
for the reaction.
Chemical Reaction: Breaking bonds in the reactants &
forming new bonds in the products.

- 119 -
Cl2 + H2 2HCl H-H = 430 KJ
Cl-Cl = 240 KJ
Cl-Cl + H-H H-Cl H-Cl = 435 KJ

H-Cl
H = Reactants – Products
H = (240 + 430) – (2 X 435) = -200
exothermic

H-H = 430 KJ
- = 940 KJ
N=N
N-H = 390 KJ

H = Reactants – Products
H = (940 + 3X430) – (6X390) = -110
exothermic
I2 + 3Br2 2IBr3 I-I = 150 KJ
Br-Br=240 KJ
I-Br = 175 KJ

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O


C-H = 410 KJ
O=O = 500 KJ
C=O = 800 KJ
O-H = 470 KJ
- 120 -
All fuels must be burnt – in the presence of oxygen – except
uranium (U235).
All burnt fuels produces CO2 in case of complete combustion
in the presence of enough or excess oxygen and CO in case
of incomplete combustion in the presence of limited oxygen except
H2.
CO2 is pollutant as it is a greenhouse gas eventually causing
global warming.

- 121 -
Hydrogen Fuel Cell

The over-all equation is 2H2 + O2 2H2O


Physical & Chemical Changes
Physical Changes Chemical Changes
No new substances are formed New substance(s) is formed
Easy to reverse Very difficult to reverse
Boiling, Freezing, Dissolving,… Redox, Combustion, Cooking,….

- 122 -
Topic 10
Rates of
Chemical
Reactions
Rates of Chemical Reactions

Chemical Reaction: Breaking bonds in the reactants &


forming new bonds in the products.
Successful Collisions: When reactants molecules collide
with energy higher than activation energy (Ea).

Activation energy (Ea): Minimum energy required to start


a chemical reaction.

- 123 -
Factors Affecting Reactions Rate
1-Temperature:

2-Pressure: “Gases Only”

- 124 -
3-Concentration:

4-Surface Area (Size):

- 125 -
5-Catalyst:

- 126 -
6-Light: “for photochemical reactions only”
 Photosynthesis

 Chlorination “Halogenation” of Alkanes


CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl
 Decomposition of metal halides
U.V.
2AgBr 2Ag + Br2
White Black

- 127 -
Possible Measured Variables to Detect Reaction Rate

Stopper (pung) Prevents gas escaping

Not Stopper to avoid bursting

- 128 -
Mg + 2HCl(aq)
(S) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Observations:
Silvery grey solid dissolves.
Colorless Bubbles.

Limiting: Mg Limiting: HCl


Excess: HCl Excess: Mg

CuO(S) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(L)


Observations:
Black solid dissolves.
Blue Solution appears.

Limiting: CuO Limiting: H2SO4


Excess: H2SO4 Excess: CuO
CuCO3(S) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(L) + CO2(g)
Observations:
Green solid dissolves.
Blue Solution appears.
Colorless Bubbles. Limiting: CuCO3 Limiting: H2SO4
Excess: H2SO4 Excess: CuCO3
CuCO3 CuO + CO2
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
For thermal decomposition; reaction finished when we “Heat,
Cool & Reweight till constant mass”

- 129 -
Reactions Rate Graphs
The rate of any reaction decreases with time because the reactants
concentrations decrease with time decreasing the reactants particles so
decreases successful collisions.
Exothermic reactions are exception for this rule as their rate
increases with time because temperature increases increasing KE that
increases particles speed, increasing successful collisions.

More steeper = Gradient increases = Closer to the Y axis

- 130 -
For exothermic & endothermic
reactions; reaction is finished at the
peak of the curve.
By time the temperature returns
back to room temperature.

- 131 -
CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
(a) The type of the reaction is …………………… .
(b) The reaction finished when ……………………… .
(c) HCl is excess because …………………. .
(d) Choose from the graph (a, b, c or d):
1-Double HCl concentration.
2-Lower temperature used.
3-Double CaCO3 mass.
4-Copper added.
5-Half HCl Concentration.
6-Half CaCO3 mass.
7-Use CaCO3 powder instead of lumbs.
8-Higher temperature used.
9-Catalyst is used.

- 132 -
Determining the more concentrated solution in titration
HCl (A) HCl (B)
Vol.= 30 cm3 Vol.= 15 cm3 NaOH NaOH
Conc.= ?? Conc.= ?? Vol.= 20 cm3 Vol.= 40 cm3

Same Concentration
of NaOH

HCl (C) HCl (D)


Same Volume & Vol.= 30 cm3 Vol.= 30 cm3
Conc.= ?? Conc.= ??
Concentration of NaOH
“B is more concentrated than A” “D is more concentrated than C”

- 133 -
Determining temperature change according to volume
Adding substance (X) to 100 cm3 water will increase the
temperature of water by 6 ᵒ C.
Eventually, adding substance (X) to 200 cm3 water will
increase the temperature of water by 3 ᵒ C.
As well as, adding substance (X) to 50 cm3 water will increase
the temperature of water by 12 ᵒ C.

Determining concentration effect on reaction rate


Na2S2O3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2O + S + SO2
Yellow ppt.
Turbid the solution

- 134 -
- 135 -
Determining temperature effect on reaction rate

- 136 -
Determining catalyst effect on reaction rate

- 137 -
Reversible &
Equilibrium
Reversible Reactions
“With Different Conditions”

- 148 -
Chemical Equilibrium
“With The Same Conditions”

Equilibrium
“The rate of the forward reaction
equals the rate of the backward
reaction & the concentrations of
reactants & products are constant”

- 149 -
Factors Affecting Chemical Equilibria
1-Temperature:

Exothermic
NH3 + HCl Endothermic
NH4Cl
Increasing temperature will shift the reaction backward (reverse)
decreasing ammomium chloride yield “Endothermic”.
Decreasing temperature will shift the reaction forward (right
side) increasing ammoniumchloride yield “Exothermic”.
2-Pressure: “Gases Only”

4 Moles Reactants Gases 2 Moles Products Gases

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

- 150 -
Increasing pressure will shift the reaction forward (right side)
increasing ammonia yield “Less Gas Moles/Volume”.
Decreasing pressure will shift the reaction backward (reverse)
decreasing ammonia yield “More Gas Moles/Volume”.
3-Concentration:

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)


Increasing concentration of reactnats (SO2/O2) will shift the
reaction forward (right side) increasing SO3 yield “Shifts towards less
concentration”.
Decreasing concentration of reactnats (SO2/O2) will shift the
reaction backward (left side) decreasing SO3 yield “Shifts towards less
concentration”.

- 151 -
Topic 11
Non-Metals
Oxygen Nitrogen Hydrogen
Properties  21% of air  78% of air  Lighter than air “lowest Mr”
 Help in burning  Not flammable “burns under high (Not Used in filling balloons)
 Not flammable temp. & pressure e.g. lightning”  flammable
 Hardly soluble “insoluble”  Insoluble  Insoluble
 Neutral Gas  Neutral Gas  Neutral Gas
Uses  Respiration  Ammonia manufacture  Ammonia manufacture
 Steel industry  HNO3 manufacture  HCl manufacture
 Oxygen tanks  Making proteins  Margarine industry
“divers & hospitals”  Making fertilizers‡  Fuel “Clean & Renewable”
 Welding & cutting metals 2H2 + O2 2H2O
“Oxyacetylene flame”

Collection Over Water “insoluble” Over Water “insoluble” Over Water “insoluble”

Test Glowing Splint Lighted Splint


Obs.: Glows More “relights” Obs.: Burns with pop sound

Drying H2SO4/CaO/Silica Gel “Neutral” H2SO4/CaO/Silica Gel “Neutral” H2SO4/CaO/Silica Gel “Neutral”

Preparation  Fractional Distillation of liquid Air  Cracking Hydrocarbons


 Group I Nitrates Thermal  Water/Acid Electrolysis
Fractional Distillation of liquid
Decomposition  Metal + Acid reaction
Air
2NaNO3 2NaNO2 + O2  Natural Gas “Mainly Methane”
 Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide  Passing Steam over coke
MnO2
2H2O2 2H2O + O2 C + 2H2O CO2 + 2H2

Fertilizers: Substances added to the soil to increase crops yield by adding essential nutrients (N/P/K) to the soil. They’re
mainly ammonium and/or nitrates compounds. (e.g. Urea/NH4NO3/(NH4)2SO4/(NH4)3PO4) “Ammonium compounds are soluble & Acidic”

Nitrogen is important for proteins synthesis which promotes plants growth.

- 152 -
Ammonia Sulphur Dioxide Carbon Dioxide
Properties  Pungent smell  0.032% of air
 Reducing agent
 Lighter than air  Heavier than air
 Heavier than air
 Soluble  Puts off fire
 Soluble
 Basic Gas  Soluble
 Acidic Gas
 pH=10  Acidic Gas
Uses  HNO3 manufacture  Paper manufacture “Bleaches wood bulb”  Photosynthesis
 Making fertilizers  Food preservative “Kills bacteria”  Fire extinguishing
 H2SO4 manufacture “Contact process”

Collection Downward delivery tube


Upward delivery tube “soluble /light” Downward delivery tube “soluble /heavy”
“soluble /heavy”

Test Damp red litmus paper Clear lime water


Obs.: Turns blue Obs.: Turbid/Milky
Drying CaO/KOH “Basic” H2SO4 “Acidic” H2SO4 “Acidic”

Preparation  Burning Sulphur in Air  Respiration


Haber Process
S + O2 SO2  Combustion
200atm/450ᵒC/Fee  Roasting Zinc Blend in air  Carbonates + Acid
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
2ZnS + 3O2 2ZnO + 2SO2  Carbonates thermal
decomposition

- 153 -
Carbon Sulphur Sulphuric Acid
Properties  Solid  Solid  Strong Acid “fully ionized”
 Black  Yellow  Dehydrating Agent‡
 Insoluble  Insoluble
 C + O2 CO2  Low M.P.
 2C + O2 2CO  S + O2 SO2
Uses  Medicine  Making Fertilizers
 Fuel
 H2SO4 manufacture  Making Detergents
 Reducing Agent in metals extraction
“Contact process”  In Car Batteries

Preparation  Coal Mines  Petroleum Contact Process


 Volcanic regions 1) S + O2 SO2
 Underground deposits.
2atm/450ᵒC/V2O5
 Zinc ore “Zinc Blend” 2) 2SO2 + O2 2SO3
3) SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7
4) H2S2O7 + H2O 2H2SO4


Adding Concentrated Sulphuric acid “Dehydrating Agent”
to glucose will absorb water turning glucose into carbon
while diluted Sulphuric acid won’t make any visible
change.

- 154 -
Carbonate Compounds:
Properties:
 Basic
 Insoluble “except group 1 & ammonium”
 Undergo thermal decomposition “except group 1” giving metal oxide + CO2
 Adding acids forms salt + water + CO2
Uses:
 Neutralize soil acidity
 In iron extraction
 Making cement
 Making Lime
 Desulfurization of flue gas
“Flue gases involves the emission of acidic gases like SO 2, these gases can be neutralized
by basic compounds like lime & slaked lime”
Lime Kiln

- 155 -
Limestone Cycle

- 156 -
CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

Haber Process

- 157 -
200atm/450ᵒC/Fe
N2 + 3H2 Endothermic 2NH3
Cooling will liquify ammonia only while excess H2 & N2 are recycled
Contact Process
1) Burning Sulphur in Air:
S + O2 SO2
2) Sulphur dioxide reacts with oxygen forming Sulphur trioxide
2atm/450ᵒC/V2O5
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
3) Sulphur trioxide reacts with sulphuric acid forming oleum
SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7
4) Oleum is diluted with water forming sulphuric acid
H2S2O7 + H 2O 2H2SO4

- 158 -
Sulphur trioxide can react with water forming sulphuric acid
but this reaction is so dangerous “explosive”
SO3 + H2O H2SO4 “exothermic”

Br2 is the only liquid


non-metal at r.t.p. the
rest are solids or gases

- 159 -
Topic 12
Air & Water
Pollution
Water
Sources:
Rivers/Lakes/Rains/Underground water/Seas/Oceans.
Uses:

Drinkable Water:
 Mainly from Rivers

 From seas & oceans “Simple Distillation”


Water Pollutants:
 Some toxic metal compounds.
 Some plastics harm aquatic life.
 Sewage contain microbes that cause diseases.
 Nitrates & phosphates deoxygenate water, deteriorating aquatic life.

- 160 -
Tests for water:
 Physical Test “Purity Test” B.P. = 100ᵒC
 Chemical Test “Presence Test”

- 161 -
Air
Air Consists of:
 78% Nitrogen
 21% Oxygen
 0.9% Argon
 0.04% Carbon Dioxide
 Water Vapor
 Traces of Noble Gases
Air Components “mainly O2 & N2” can be separated fractional
distillation of liquid air “according to differences in B.P.”.
Air is liquefied by compressing & cooling.

- 162 -
Pollutant Sources Effect Solutions
 Green House Gas  Stop deforestation
Burning fossil fuels in excess air
CO2 (Complete Combustion)
Global Warming  Reduce fossil fuels usage
 Acid Rain  Neutralize Acidic Gases
Burning fossil fuels in limited air Poisonous (Toxic) Gas
CO (Incomplete Combustion) Prevents RBCs from Carrying O2
Use Catalytic Converter

 Acid Rain
Nitrogen burns only at high temp. & pressure  Use Catalytic Converter
NO/NO2 e.g. lightning, car engines, forest fires  Smog
 Neutralize Acidic Gases
 Respiratory Problems
 Factory Fumes “Flue Gases”  Acid Rain  Neutralize Acidic Gases
SO2  Burning fossil fuels “Contain Sulphur”  Respiratory Problems  Desulfurize Fuel
 Combustion, Fire, Smokestacks, Wood stoves.  Smog
 Use clean energy sources
Particulates  Construction sites, Unpaved roads.  Increase Cancer Risk
 Use emissions controls
 Disrupting soil, Agriculture processes.  Respiratory Problems
 Use Unleaded Petrol
Lead Comp. Burning petrol containing lead additive Brain Cells Damage
 Stop Lead Additives
Green House Gas
Methane Vegetative decomposition of animal waste
Global Warming
Reduce livestock farming

- 163 -
Green House Effect & Global Warming
“Carbon Dioxide & Methane”

- 164 -
Catalytic Converter:

It is a metallic can exists in most modern cars to treat harmful gases


emitted from the engine.
Consists of:
 Ceramic cells to increase the surface area exposed to the reaction.
 Palladium or platinum (expensive metals) which act as a catalyst
to increase the speed of the chemical reaction.
2CO + 2NO 2CO2 + N2

- 165 -
Acid Rain pH=4
Destroy Crops Endanger Aquatic Destroy
Increased Soil Acidity Marine Life Stone Work
Increased Water Acidity

Acidity Treatment
Soil Water
Better Use Better Use
Lime Stone Lime
CaCO3 “Insoluble” CaO “soluble”

- 166 -
Carbon Cycle

- 167 -
Topic 13
Organic
Chemistry
Organic Chemistry
“Chemistry of carbon compounds from living organisms’ origin”
Naming of Organic Compounds

Hydrocarbons
“Organic compounds consist of carbon & hydrogen only”
Properties:
 Flammable.
 Insoluble.
 The first 4 members are gases.
 Distinctive smell “Petrol odor”

- 168 -
Alkanes Alkenes
General Formula CnH2n+2 CnH2n
Functional Group -C- C=C
Double Bond No Double Bond Double Bond
Saturation Saturated Unsaturated
React by Substitution Addition
Reactivity Less Reactive More Reactive
Empirical Formula Not fixed CH2

As the number of carbon atoms increase “chain gets longer”:


Mr/B.P./M.P./Viscosity/Density/Heat of combustion/Darker color
Diffusion/Chemical Reactivity/Volatility/Flammability

- 169 -
Subistitution Reactions: For (saturated) alkanes & gives 2 products.

Addition Reactions: For (unsaturated) alkenes, giving 1 product only.

- 170 -
Cracking:
“Breaking down long chain alkanes (Hydrocarbons) into shorter ones
by heating”

- 171 -
Uses of Cracking:
1. Source of hydrogen. “Clean fuel”
2. Source of alkenes. “More reactive”
3. Source of shorter hydrocarbons. “Better fuel”
Petroleum “Crude Oil”
“Mixture of miscible hydrocarbons “alkanes” separated by fractional
distillation”

- 172 -
Fraction Fuel Uses
Refinery Gas Bottled Gas
Gasoline Vehicles
Naphtha Chemical Industry
Kerosene “Paraffin” Jet engines/Stoves
Diesel Oil Trains/Trucks
Fuel Oil Ships/Domestic Heating
Lubricating Oil Lubrication
Bitumen Roads/Roofs

Alcohols
Properties:
 Flammable.
 Soluble.
 Antiseptic smell. “Alcoholic odor”
General Formula: CnH2n+1OH
Functional Group: OH

- 173 -
- 174 -
Notes on alcohol preparation by fermentation:
 Anaerobic means absence of oxygen or air.
 By time reaction stops:
 Glucose is used up.
 Alcohol killed yeast.
 Respiration is exothermic, increasing temperature that causes
denature of yeast enzymes.
 Use Air Lock/water Lock:
Prevents oxygen entrance & allows carbon dioxide release.
 Finally, filtration then fractional distillation are done, yielding
pure alcohol.
Alcohols Uses:
1. Disinfectant.
2. Fuel.
3. Solvent.

- 175 -
Carboxylic Acids
Properties:
 Inflammable.
 Soluble.
 Weak Acids. “pH = 4-6”
 Distinctive smell. “Vinegar odor”
General Formula: Cn-1H2n-1COOH/CnH2nO2
Functional Group: COOH

- 176 -
Method of Preparation
“Oxidation of Alcohols”
alcohol + [O] carboxylic acid
C2H5OH CH3COOH
ethanol ethanoic acid

- 177 -
1

Cracking

2
Dehydration

Redox

 The tube will get cracked when we stop heating due to back suction.
 To avoid this, remove delivery tube from water before stopping heat.
- 178 -
Carboxylic
Alkanes Alkenes Alcohols
Acids
Bromine
Decolorizes
Water
Acidified
Decolorizes
KMnO4
Acidified Orange to
K2Cr2O7 green
Carbonates Effervescence
General
CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n+1OH Cn-1H2n-1COOH
Formula
Functional
C=C -OH -COOH
Group
Flammability Flammable Flammable Flammable Inflammable
Solubility Insoluble Insoluble Soluble Soluble
Neutral Neutral Neutral Weak Acid
pH
(7) (7) (7) (4-6)
Distinctive Distinctive Antiseptic Distinctive
Odor
(Petrol) (Petrol) (Alcohol) (Vinegar)

Any organic family “homologous series” have the following in


common:
1. Same General Formula.
2. Same Functional Group.
3. Same Method of Preparation.
4. Similar Chemical Properties.
5. Trend in Physical Properties.
6. Any two consecutive members increase by CH2.

- 179 -
Esters
Properties:
 flammable.
 Insoluble. “Oily in nature”
 Pleasant smell.
Functional Group: -COO-

Method of Preparation

- 180 -
How to draw & name an ester?
1. Draw carboxylic acid first then the alcohol.
2. Take (OH) from the acid & (H) from the alcohol.
3. Upon naming; write the alcohol first with suffix (yl) instead of
(anol), then the carboxylic acid with suffix (anoate) instead of
(anoic acid).

- 181 -
Isomers
“Same Molecular formula but different structural formula”
I. Alkanes

- 182 -
II. Alkenes

III. Alcohols

- 183 -
Hydration of 1-Butene may release two products, How?

1-Butanol

1-Butene

2-Butanol

Polymerization
It is the process of joining many small molecules (monomer) together
to form a large molecule (a macromolecule) called (polymer).

Monomer: small molecule which can be joined together


(polymerized) to make a polymer.

Polymer: Large (giant) Long (chain) molecule formed


when monomers (small molecules) joined together.

- 184 -
Addition Polymerization Condensation Polymerization
Made from a single monomer Usually made from more than
only “Alkene” one monomer
Monomers contain double bond Monomers contain two
functional groups
Produces a single product Produces two products
“Polymer” “Polymer + Water”
Forms a synthetic polymer only Forms natural “Biodegradable” or
“Non-Biodegradable” synthetic polymer “Non-
Biodegradable”

1- Addition Polymerization

- 185 -
- 186 -
Plastics
Advantages:
1. Unreactive.
2. Flexible.
3. Insulator.
Disadvantages:
1. Non-Biodegradable.
2. If burnt; Cause pollution. “releases toxic & pollutant gases”
3. Visual Pollution.
4. Accumulation in oceans.
5. Shortage of landfill sites.
6. Endanger wild life.

- 187 -
2- Condensation Polymerization
I. Polyesters
A. Natural Polyesters “Fats & Oils”
Monomers: “Fatty Acids + Glycerol”

Polymer: “Fats & Oils”

B. Synthetic Polyesters “Tyrelene/PET”


Monomers: “Dicarboxylic Acid + Diol”

Polymer: “Tyrelene/PET”

PET Uses: Clothing Tires Carpets


- 188 -
II. Polyamides
A. Natural Polyamides “Proteins”
Monomers: “Amino Acids”

Polymer: “Proteins”

Amide “Peptide” Linkage

B. Synthetic Polyamides “Nylon”


Monomers: “Dicarboxylic Acid + Diamine”

- 189 -
Polymer: “Nylon”

Amide Linkage

Nylon Uses: Fabrics Nets Ropes Parachutes

Protein Nylon
Natural Polyamide Polymer Synthetic Polyamide Polymer
Amide “Peptide” Linkage Amide Linkage
Made of 20 different monomers Made of 2 monomers only
“Amino Acids” “Dicarboxylic Acid + Diamine”
Can be hydrolyzed by heating Can’t be hydrolyzed
with H2SO4 “Biodegradable” “Non-Biodegradable”

“Biodegradable” means can be broken


down or decomposed by microorganisms.
“Recyclable” means can be broken down
artificially into small monomers &
repolymerized again”

- 190 -
The Periodic Table of Elements

Group
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
1 2

H He
hydrogen helium
Key 1 4
3 4 atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10

Li Be atomic symbol B C N O F Ne
lithium beryllium name boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
7 9 relative atomic mass 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
85 88 89 91 93 96 – 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
lanthanoids
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
caesium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
133 137 178 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 – – –
87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 114 116
actinoids
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Fl Lv
francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium flerovium livermorium
– – – – – – – – – – – – –

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

lanthanoids La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
139 140 141 144 – 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

actinoids Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
– 232 231 238 – – – – – – – – – – –

The volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm 3 at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.).

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