ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Subject code -21UACES1

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 SYLLABUS
UNIT-1:The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies: Definition, Scope
and importance- Need for public awareness
UNIT-2:Natural Resources: Renewable and non-renewable resources
A). Forest Resources: Use and Over-Exploitation, Deforestation, Case Studies, Timber
Extraction, Mining, Dams and Their Effect on Forests and Tribal People.
B). Water Resources: Use and Over-Utilization of Surface and Ground Water, Floods,
Drought, Conflicts over Water, Dams- Benefits and Problems.
C). Mineral Resources: Use and Exploitation, Experimental Effects of Extracting and
Using Mineral Resources, Case Studies.
D). Food Resources: World Food Problems, Changes Caused by Agriculture and
Overgrazing. Effects of Modern Agriculture, Fertilizer-Pesticide Problems, Water
Logging. Salinity, Case Studies.
E). Energy Resources: Growing Energy Needs, Renewable and Non-Renewable
Energy Sources, Use of Alternate Energy Resources, Case Studies.
F). Land Resources: Land as a Resource, Land Degradation, Main Induced Landsides,
Soil- Erosion and Desertification.
●​ Role of Individual in Conservation of Natural Resources
●​ Equitable Use of Resources for Sustainable Lifestyle
UNIT-3: ECOSYSTEMS, BIO-DIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION
Ecosystems: Concept of an Ecosystem, Structure and Function of an Ecosystem,
Energy Flow in The Ecosystem, Food Chains, Food Webs and Ecological Pyramids.
Biodiversity and Its Conservation: Introduction- Definition: Genetic, Species and
Ecosystem Diversity, Bio-Geographical Classification of India, Value of Biodiversity:
Consumptive Use, Productive Use, Social Ethical, Aesthetic and Option Values.
Biodiversity at Global, National and Local Levels, India as a Mega-Diversity Nation, Hot
Spots of Biodiversity, Threats to Biodiversity: Habitat Loss, Poaching of Wildlife,
Man-Wildlife Conflicts, Endangered and Endemic Species of India, Conservation of
Biodiversity: In-Situ And Ex-Situ Conservation of Biodiversity.
UNIT-4:Environmental Pollution: Causes, Effects And Control Measures of: A).Air
Pollution, B).Water Pollution, C). Soil Pollution, D). Marine Pollution, E). Noise Pollution,
F). Thermal Pollution, G). Nuclear Hazards
UNIT-5:Field Work
●​ Visit to a Local Area to Document Environmental Assets-River/ Forest/
Grassland/ Hill/ Mountain

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 ●​ Visit to a Local Polluted Site- Urban/Rural/Industrial/Agricultural
●​ Study of Common Plants, Insects, Birds
●​ Study of Simple Ecosystem-Pond, River, Hill Slopes, etc.,

UNIT-1
INTRODUCTION:
The word Environment is derived from the French word “Environ” which means
“surrounding”. Our surrounding includes biotic factors like human beings, Plants,
animals, microbes, etc and abiotic factors such as light, air, water, soil, etc. Environment
is a complex of many variables, which surrounds man as well as the living organisms.
Environment includes water, air and land and the interrelation ships which exist among
and between water, air and land and human beings and other living creatures such as
plants, animals
and micro organisms. She suggested that environment consists of an inseparable whole
system constituted by physical, chemical, biological, social and cultural elements, which
are interlinked
individually and collectively in myriad ways. The natural environment consist of four inter
linking systems namely, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere and the
biosphere. These four systems are in constant change and such changes are affected
by human activities and vice versa.
Components of Environment
Environment has been classified into four major components:
1. Hydrosphere,
2. Lithosphere,
3. Atmosphere,
4. Biosphere.
Hydrosphere :includes all water bodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and
ocean etc. Hydrosphere functions in a cyclic nature, which is termed as hydrological
cycle or water cycle. Lithosphere means the mantle of rocks constituting the earth’s
crust. The earth is a cold spherical solid planet of the solar system, which spins in its
axis and revolves around the sun at a certain constant distance.

• Clean water for drinking (a metabolic re-

quirement for living processes).
• Water for washing and cooking.
• Water used in agriculture and industry.
• Food resources from the sea, including fish,crustacea, sea weed, etc.
• Food from fresh water sources, including

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fish, crustacea and aquatic plants.
• Water flowing down from mountain ranges
harnessed to generate electricity in hydroelectric projects.

Lithosphere mainly contains soil, earth rocks, mountains etc. Lithosphere is divided
into three layers-crusts, mantle and core (outer and inner). Atmosphere The cover of the
air, that envelope the earth is known as the atmosphere.

• Soil, the basis for agriculture to provide us

with food.
• Stone, sand and gravel, used for construction.
• Micronutrients in soil, essential for plant
growth.
• Microscopic flora, small soil fauna and fungi in soil, important living organisms of the
lithosphere, which break down plant litter as well as animal wastes to provide nutrients
for plants.
• A large number of minerals on which our
industries are based.
• Oil, coal and gas, extracted from underground sources. It provides power for vehicles,
agricultural machinery, industry, and for our homes.

Atmosphere is a thin layer which contains gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. and
which protects the solid earth and human beings from the harmful radiations of the sun.
There are five concentric layers within the atmosphere, which can be differentiated on
the basis of temperature and each layer has its own characteristics. These include the
troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere and the exosphere.

• Oxygen for human respiration (metabolic requirements).

• Oxygen for wild fauna in natural ecosystemsand domestic animals used by man as
food.
• Oxygen as a part of carbon dioxide, used
for the growth of plants (in turn are used
by man).

Biosphere it is otherwise known as the life layer, it refers to all organisms on the earth’s
surface and their interaction with water and air. It consists of plants, animals and
micro-organisms, ranging from the tiniest microscopic organism to the largest whales in
these Biologyis concerned with how millions of species of animals, plants and other
organisms grow, feed,move, reproduce and evolve over long periods of time in different

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environments. Its subject matter is useful to other sciences and professions that deal
with life, such as agriculture, forestry and medicine. The richness of biosphere depends
upon a number of factors like rainfall, temperature, geographical reference etc. Apart
from the physical environmental factors, the man made environment includes human
groups, the material infrastructures built by man, the production relationships and
institutional systems that he has devised. The social environment shows the
way in which human societies have organized themselves and how they function in
order to satisfy their needs

• Food, from crops and domestic animals,

providing human metabolic requirements.
• Food, for all forms of life which live as in-
terdependent species in a community and
form food chains in nature on which man is
dependent.
• Energy needs: Biomass fuel wood collected from forests and plantations, along with
other forms of organic matter, used as a source of energy.
• Timber and other construction materials.

MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES:

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical and
biological sciences, (including but not limited to Ecology, Physics,Chemistry, Biology,
Soil Science, Geology, Atmospheric Science and Geography) to the study of the
environment, and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental science
provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of
environmental systems.

Related areas of study include environmental studies and environmental engineering.

Environmental studies incorporate more of the social sciences for understanding human
relationships, perceptions and policies towards the environment. Environmental
engineering focuses on design and technology for improving environmental quality.

Environmental scientists work on subjects like the understanding of earth processes,

evaluating alternative energy systems, pollution control and mitigation, natural resource
management, and the effects of global climate change. Environmental issues almost
always include an interaction of physical, chemical, and biological processes.

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 Definition:
Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. It is
essentially a multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural
world and human impacts on its integrity. It is an applied science as its seeks practical
answers to making human civilization sustainable on the earth’s finite resources.
Its components include biology, geology, chemistry, physics, engineering
,sociology, health, anthropology, economic , statistics , computer and philosophy.

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE:

Because of environmental studies has been seen to be multidisciplinary in nature so it is
considered to be a subject with great scope. Environment is not limited to issues of
sanitation and health but it is now concerned with pollution control, biodiversity
conservation, waste management and conservation of natural resources. This requires
expert eyes and hence is creating new job opportunities. The opportunities in this field
are immense not only for scientists but also for engineers, biologists. There is a good
chance of opportunity to find a job in this field as environmental journalists.
Environmental science can be applied in the following spheres:
Ecosystem Structure and Function:
The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of the processes that
link the leaving organism or in other words biotic component to the non-living organism
or a biotic component. So for the study of environment we should aware with biotic and
a biotic components.
Natural Resource Conservation

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 For managingand maintenance offorests which are naturalresources and
forthemaintenance of wildlife forms task under natural resource conservation. It is also a
scope of environmental studies
Environmental Pollution Control
With the knowledge of environmental science everybody can control the
pollution. He/she can handle the waste management and also look for ways to control
pollution on the aspect of pollution control.
Environmental management
There a reseveral independent environmental consultants who are working
with Central and State pollution control Board. They offer advice to solve the problems
of environment the optimum solution for the upcoming problems. They give direction for
controlling pollution due to industrial development. There are several current
consultants who are working with government pollution control boobs, involved in policy
making, pollution control and maintenance of ecological balance.
The scope of environmental studies inindustry
Environment is not a single subject. It is an integration of several subjects that
include bothScience and Social Studies. To understand all the different aspects of our
environment we need to understand biology, chemistry, physics,geography, resource
management, economicsand population issues. Thus the scope of environmental
studies is extremely wide and covers some aspects of nearly every major discipline.
Environmental scientists work towards maintenance of ecological balance, they
also work towards conservation of biodiversity and regulation of natural resources as
well as on preservation of natural resources. Most of the industries have a separate
environmental research and development section. These sections govern the impact
that their industry has on the environment. Our environment is being degraded by the
rapid industrialization. To combat this menace there is a growing trend towards
manufacture of "green" goods and products. So we can say that there is a good scope
in the field of industry from environmental studies.
Research and development
Research and development have tremendous scope due to increment in
public awareness regarding the environment. Various universities and governmental
organizations offer a scope for such research. These universities conduct research
studies in order to develop the methods toward monitoring and controlling the source of
environmental pollution. Due to an increasing threat from global warming, many steps
are being undertaken for the reduction of greenhouse gases and the adoption of
renewable energy resources. They generate awareness now regarding
the use of solar energy for variety of purposes. This provides scope of environmental
history in the field of research and development.
Social Development

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NGO (Nongovernmental organizations) help in creating awareness regarding the
protection of the environment and making the masses aware of various environmental
issues . They also generate a public opinion in this field. They work towards
disseminating information and in bringing aboutchanges inpoliticalpolicies thatare
personally effect theenvironment. Thesocial dimension of this profession includes
controlling population explosion through organizing advisory awareness camps

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE:

The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and
conservation of our indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment.
Environment science has become significant for the following reasons:
1.Environment Issues Being of International Importance
It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming and
ozone depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national
issues but are global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and
cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in theWake of Development
Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, and
Transportation Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased
out in the developed World. The North, to cleanse their own environment has fact fully,
managed to move ‘dirty’ Factories of South. When the West developed, it did so
perhaps in ignorance of the Environmental impact of its activities. Evidently such a path
is neither practicable nor desirable, even if developing world follows that.
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution
World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planted lives in India.
Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land
area, there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural
experts have recognized soilshealth problems likedeficiency of micronutrientsand
organic matter, soil salinity anddamage of soil structure.
4. Need to Save Humanity from Extinction
It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequent to our
activities Constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of
development.
5. Need for Wise Planning of Development
Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the
product have all to by synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of
development our actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the
environment and development.

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NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
It is essential to make the public aware of the formidable consequences of the
Environmental Degradation, if not retorted and reformative measures undertaken would
result in the extinction of life. We are facing various environmental challenges. It is
essential to get the country acquainted with these challenges so that their acts may be
eco-friendly.

Some of these challenges are as under:

1.Growing Population
A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per cent every year. Over
17 million people are added each year. It puts considerable pressure on its natural
resources and reduces the gains of development. Hence, the greatest challenge before
us is to limit the population growth. Although population control does automatically lead
to development, yet the development leads to a decrease in population growth rates.
For this development of the women is essential.
2. Poverty
India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and
environmental degradation have a nexus between them. The vast majority of our people
are directly dependent on the nature resources of the country for their basic needs of
food, fuelshelter and fodder. About40% of our people are still below the poverty
line.Environment degradationhasadversely affected the poor who depend upon the
resources of their immediate surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the
challenge environment degradation are two facets of the same challenge. The
population growth is essentially a function of poverty. Because, to the very poor, every
child is an earner and helper and global concerns have little relevance for him
3. Agricultural Growth
The peoplemust beacquainted withthe methodsto sustain andincrease agricultural
growth with damaging the environment. High yielding varieties have caused soil salinity
and damage to physical structure of soil.
4. Need to Ground water
It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater. Factors like community wastes,
industrial effluents and chemical fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface
water and affected qualityofthegroundwater.Itisessentialtorestorethewater qualityofour
riversandother water bodies as lakes are an important challenge. It so finding our
suitablestrategies for consecrationof water, provision of safe drinking water and keeping
water bodies clean which are difficult challenges is essential.
5. Development and Forests

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Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With increasing demand of water, plan to
harness the mighty river through large irrigation projects were made. Certainly, these
would submerge forests; displace local people, damage flora and fauna. As such, the
dams on the river Narmada, Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become areas of political
and scientific Debate..

UNIT-II
NATURAL RESOURCES
The word resource means a source of supply. The natural resources include water, air,
soil, minerals, coal, forests, crops and wildlife are examples. All the resources are
classified based on quantity, quality, re-usability, men’s activity and availability.
(OR)
Our environment provides us with a variety of goods and services necessary for our day
to day lives. These natural resources include, air, water, soil, minerals, along with the
climate and solar energy, which form the non-living or ‘abiotic’ part of nature. The ‘biotic’
or living parts of nature consists of plants and animals, including microbes. Plants and
animals can only survive as communities of different organisms, all
closely linked to each in their own habitat, and requiring specific abiotic conditions.
Thus, forests, grasslands, deserts, mountains, rivers, lakes and the marine environment
all form habitats for specialised communities of plants and animals to live in.
Interactions between the abiotic aspects of nature and specific living organisms together
form ecosystems of various types.Many of these living organisms are used as our food
resources. Others are linked to our food less directly, such as pollinators and dispersers
of plants, soil animals like worms, which recycle nutrients for plant growth, and fungi
and termites that break up dead plant material so that micro-organisms can act on the
detritus to reform soil nutrients.

Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in
their relatively unmodified (natural) form. A natural resource’s value rests in the amount
of the material available and the demand for it. The term was introduced to a broad
audience by E.F.Schumacher in his 1970s book Small is Beautiful.

Renewable and non-renewable resources are two categories of natural resources that
are essential for human activities and the environment.

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a)Renewable resource orinexhaustible resources
The renewable resources can maintain themselves or can be replaced if managed
wisely. These resources are constantly renewed in nature. The renewable resources
are therefore not likely tobe lost due to excessive and unwise use.
Examples:
- Solar Energy: Energy from the sun that can be harnessed using solar panels.
- Wind Energy: Energy generated from wind using turbines.
- Hydropower: Energy produced from the movement of water, typically in rivers or
dams.
- Biomass: Organic materials (like plant and animal waste) that can be used for fuel.
- Geothermal Energy: Energy from the heat stored beneath the earth's surface.

b)Non-renewable resources orexhaustible resources

These resources once used are lost forever, as they are not restored. They include
metallic mineralsandfossilfuels. Atcurrentrates of usage,all theindustrial metalsmay
loseforlessthan a century and those of petroleum and natural gas may exhaust in 15-20
years.
Examples:
- Fossil Fuels: Includes coal, oil, and natural gas, formed from the remains of ancient
plants and animals.
- Minerals: Such as gold, silver, and iron, which are extracted from the earth and do
not regenerate.
- Nuclear Fuels: Such as uranium, which is used in nuclear reactors but is limited in
supply.

Natural Resources and Associated Problems

Human population is growing day-by-day. Continuous increase in population caused an
increasing demand for natural resources. Due to urban expansion, electricity need and
industrialization, man started utilizing natural resources at a much larger scale.
Non-renewable resources are limited. They cannot be replaced easily. After some time,

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these resources maycome to an end. It is a matter of much concern and ensures a
balance between population growth and utilization of resources. This over utilization
creates many problems. In some region are problems of water logging due to over
irrigation. In some areas, there is no sufficient water for industry and agriculture. Thus,
there is need for conservation of natural resources.

There are many problems associated with natural resources:

Forest resources and associated problems
●​ Useandover-exploitation.
●​ Deforestation.
●​ Timberextraction.
●​ Mining anditseffectsonforest.
●​ Damsandtheireffectsonforestsandtribal people.
Water resources and associated problems
●​ Useandoverutilization ofwater.
●​ Floods,droughts etc.
●​ Conflictsover water.
●​ Damsandproblems.
Mineral resource and associated problems
●​ Use and exploitation.
●​ Environmentaleffectsofextractingandusing minerals.
Food resources and associated problems
●​ World food problems.
●​ Changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing.
●​ Effectsofmodernagriculture.
●​ Fertilizer-pesticide problems.
●​ Waterloggingandsalinity.
Energy resources and associated problems
●​ Growing energy needs.
Land resources and associated problems
●​ Land degradation.
●​ Man-induced landslides.
●​ Soilerosionanddesertification.

a)FOREST RESOURCES
Forests are one of the most important natural resources and a part of biosphere since
these are natural assets on this earth. Forests predominantly composed of trees,
shrubs, woody vegetation etc… Approximately 1/3rd of the earth’s total land area is
covered by forests. Forests are important ecologically and economically. Ecologically

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forests are to be considered as earth’s lungs because they consume CO2and release
O2which is required for sustaining the life on this earth. The poisonous gas CO2is
absorbed by the trees of forests and reduces the global warming and helps to continue
hydrological cycle, reduce soil erosion. Forest ecosystems are extremely good & hold a
good quantity of water. Economically forests provide timber, fodder to grazing
animals, firewood (conventional fuel), bamboos, rubbers, medicines, gums, resins, food
items etc

USES OF FOREST
1. Water shed protection:
• Reduce the rate of surface run-off of water.
• Prevent flash flood sands oil erosion.
• Produces prolonged gradual run-off and thus prevent effects of drought.
2. Atmospheric regulation:
• Absorption of solar heat during evapo-transpiration.
• Maintaining carbondioxide levels for plant growth.
• Maintaining the local climatic conditions.
3. Erosion control:
• Holdingsoil (bypreventingrainfromdirectly washing soilaway).
4. Land bank:
• Maintenance of soil nutrients and structure.
5. Localuse-Consumption of forest produce by local people who collect it for
subsistence –(Consumptive use)
• Food-gathering plants,fishing, hunting from the forest.(In the past when wild life was
Plentiful, people could hunt and kill animals for food. Now those populations of most
Wildlife species have diminished; continued hunting would lead to extinction.)
• Fodder -forcattle.
• Fuelwood and charcoal for cooking, heating.
• Poles-building homes especially in rural and wilderness are as.
• Timber–householdarticlesand construction.
• Fiber-weaving of baskets,ropes,nets,string,etc.
• Sericulture –forsilk.
• Apiculture-bees for honey,forest beesalso pollinatecrops.
• Medicinal plants - traditionally used medicines, investigating them as potential Source
for new modern drugs.
6. Marketuse -(Productiveuse)
• Most of the above products used for consumptive purposes are also sold as source
ofincome for supporting the livelihoods of forest dwelling people.
• Minor forest produce-(non-woodproducts):Fuelwood, fruit, gum, fiber, etc. which are

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Collected and sold in local markets as a source of income for forest dwellers.
• Major timber extraction-construction,industrial uses,paperpulp,etc.Timber extraction is
done in India by the Forest Department, but illegal logging continues in many of the
forests of India and the world.

OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS

Forest has been known to possess huge potential for human use and they have been
exploited since early times for their vast potential. Exploitation of forest has taken place
to meet human demands in the following ways:
●​ Due to wood cutting and large scale logging for raw materials like timber,
pulp wood, fuel wood etc
●​ Deforestation due toroadconstruction
●​ Clearing of forest to create more agricultural lands to meet the food needs
of growing population
●​ Encroachmentofforestsleadingtodestructionofabout19.57lakh hectares
(2013)of forest in the country
●​ About78%offorest areaisunderheavy grazing
●​ Miningactivitiesleadstoclearing offorests
●​ Bighydro electricprojectsresult inlargescale destruction of forest
In India, Joint forest management has come up as innovative approach involving
community participation so that the rural economy is strengthened as well as forest
resources are conserved through public involvement

DEFORESTATION
Deforestation is the permanent destruction of in digenous forests and woodlands. The
term does not include the removal of industrial forests such as plantations of gums or
pines. Deforestation has resulted in the reduction of indigenous forests to four-fifths of
their pre-agricultural area. Indigenous forests now cover 21% of the earth's land
surface. Deforestation refers to the loss of forest cover (or) theaimlessdestruction of
trees. The clearing of forests across the earth has been occurring on a large scale basis
for many centuries. This process involves the cutting down, burning and damaging of
forests. Currently 12 million hectares of forests are cleared annually
andthecurrentrateofdeforestationcontinues, theworld’sforestswillvanishwithinthenext100
years about 80% of the original forests on the earth have already been cleared.

Major causes of Deforestation:

a. Shifting cultivation:There are an estimated 300 million people living as shifting

cultivators who practice slash and burn agriculture and are supported so clear more

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than 5 lakh ha of forests for shifting cultivation annually. In India, we have this practice
of North-East and to some extent in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and M.P. which app
contribute to nearly half of the forest clearing annually.

b. Fuel requirements:Increasing demands for fuel wood by the growing population in

India alone has shooted up to 300-500 million tons in 2001 as compared to just 65
million tons during independence, thereby increasing the pressure on forests.

c. Raw materials for industrialuse:Wood for making boxes, furniture,

railway-sleepers,plywood, match boxes, pulp for paper industry etc. have exerted
tremendous pressure on forests. Plywood is in great demand for packing tea for Tea
industry of Assam while fir tree wood is exploited greatly for packing apples in J & K.

d. Development projects:Massive destruction of forest soccurs for various

development projects like hydroelectric projects, big dams, road construction, mining
etc.

e. Growing food needs:In developing countries this is the main reason for
deforestation. To meet the demands of rapidly growing population, agricultural lands
and settlements are created permanently by clearing forests.

f. Overgrazing:The poor in the tropics mainly rely on wood as a source of fuel leading
to loss of tree cover and the cleared lands are turned in to the grazing lands. Over
grazing by the cattle leads to further degradation of these lands.

g. Conversion of forest sand woodlands to agricultural land to feed growing numbers of

people

Majoractivities and threatstoForests resources:

1.Timber Extraction:Logging for valuable timber,such as teak and Mahogany not only
invol vesa few large trees per hectare but about a dozen more trees since they are
strongly interlocked with each other a by vines etc. Also road construction for making
approach to the trees causes further damage to the forests. The steps in timber
extraction are:
a) Clear felling
b) Mechanized logging
c) Manual logging
d) Selective logging

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2. Mining:Mining operations for extracting minerals and fossil fuels likec oal often
involves vast forest areas. Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining while
that from deep deposits is done by sub-surface mining. More than 80000 ha of land of
the country is presently under the stress of mining activities. Mining and its associated
activities require removal of vegetation along with underlying soil mantle and overlying
rock masses. This results in defacing the topography and destruction of the landscape
in the area. Large scale deforestation has been reported in Mussorie and Dehradun
valley due to indiscriminating mining of various minerals over a length of about 40 Km.

DAMS AND OTHER EFFECTS ON FOREST AND TRIBAL PEOPLE

Forest are directly are indirectly effected by the forest. Hydro-electric dams are main
cause for deforestation. About 40,000 large dams are currently obstructing Workloads
Rivers. Destruction of forest occurs for constructing big dams, which alters ecological
balance. In these way landslides, droughts and floods conditions may rise in area.
Socio-economic problems related to tribal and native people results from big dam
construction
Dam construction produces a number of health hazards. Thousands of workers who
build the dams attacked by the diseases like AIDS, measles, tuberculosis, syphilis etc.
Dam building has resulted in wide range human rights violations. Rehabilitation policy of
the government is important and typical when most of the displaced persons are tribal
people. Tribal life and culture are mostly associated with forest important and typical
when most of the displaced persons are tribal people. Tribal life and culture are mostly
associated with forest

b)WATER RRSOURCES
Water resources are sources of water that are useful orpotentially useful. Uses of water
include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities.
Virtually all ofthese human uses require fresh water.
Distribution of water on earth:
97% of the water on the Earth is salt water. Only three percent is fresh water;
slightlyover two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice. The remaining unfrozen
freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above
ground or in the airFresh water occurs mainly in two forms
1.Ground water and
2. Surface water
1. Groundwater:About 9.86% of the total fresh water resources is in the form of ground
water and it is about 35-50 times that of surface water supplied
USES OF WATER:
1. DOMESTIC USE: Water used in the houses for the purposes of drinking, bathing,

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washing Clothes, cooking, sanitary & other needs. The recommended value according
to Indian standard specification for domestic use is 135 liters/day
2. INDUSTRIAL USE: Water is required for various industries such as cement, mining,
textile, leather industries.
3. PUBLICUSE:This includes water used for public utility purpose such as watering
parks, Flushing streets, jails etc.
4. FIRE USE: Water is used incase of accidents and to prevent the fire issues.
5. IRRIGATION:To grow crops which is the main sources for food?
6. OTHERUSES:Hydro electric power generation requires water.

OVER UTILIZATION OF GROUND WATER AND SURFACE WATER

Over useof groundwater has following effects.
1. Lowering of water table: Excessive use of ground water for drinking, irrigation and
Domestic purposes has resulted in rapid depletion of ground water in various regions
leading to lowering of water table & drying of wells.Thereasons forshortageofwaterare:
a. Increaseing population,
b. Increasing demand of waterfor various purposes.
c. Unequal distribution of freshwater.
d. Increasing pollution of watersources cause over exploitation.
2. Ground subsidence: When ground water withdrawal is greater than its recharge
rate,the sediments in the aquifer become compacted. This is called ground subsidence
whichmay cause damage of buildings, destroy water supply systems etc.
3. Drought. A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a
deficiency initswater supplywhether surfaceor undergroundwater.Generally,this occurs
when a region receives consistently below average precipitation.
We can define drought in four main ways:
a) Meteorological drought:related to rainfall amounts
b) Hydrological drought:determined by water levels inreservoirs
c) Agricultural drought: related to the availability of water for crops
d) Socio economic Drought:related to demandand supply of economic goods
a) Meteorological Drought: Meteorological drought is generally defined by comparing
the rainfall in a particular place and at a particular time with the average rainfall for that
Place.The definition is, therefore, specific to a particular location.Meteorological drought
leads to a depletion of soil moisture and this almost always has an impact on crop
production.
b) Hydrological Drought: Hydrological drought is associated with the effect of low
rainfall on water levels in rivers ,reservoirs, lakes and aquifers. Hydrological droughts
usually are noticed some time after meteorological droughts. First precipitation
decreases and, Sometime after that, water levels in rivers and lakes drop.

17
C) Agricultural Drought: Agricultural drought mainly effects food production and
farming. Agricultural drought and precipitation shortages bring soil water deficits,
reduced ground water or reservoir levels, and so on. Deficient topsoil moisture at
planting may stop germination, leading to low plant populations.
d) Socioeconomic Drought: Socioeconomic drought occurs when the demand for an
economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall in water
supply.The supply of manyeconomicgoods,suchaswater,forage,foodgrains,fish,
andhydroelectricpower,depends on weather. Due to variability of climate, water supply is
sufficient in some years but not satisfactory to meet human and environmental needs in
other year

FLOODS
Aflood isan overflow of water that submergeslandwhich isnormally dry.The European
Union(EU) Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally
covered by water. Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such
as a river or lake, in whichthewater overtopsor breaks, resultinginsomeof thatwater
escapingitsusualboundaries, or it may occur dueto anaccumulation of rainwater on
saturated ground inan areaflood. Floods can also occur in rivers when theflow rate
exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly at bends in the waterway. Floods
often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are in the natural flood plains of
rivers.

CONFLICTS OVER WATER:

Water conflict is a term describing a conflict between countries, states, orgroupsover
anaccess to water resources. The United Nations recognizes that water disputes result
from opposing interests of water users, public or private.

A wide range of water conflicts appear throughout history, though rarely are traditional
wars waged over water alone. Instead, water has historically been a source of tension
and a factor in conflictsthatstartforotherreasons. However, water
conflictsariseforseveralreasons, including territorial disputes, a fight for resources, and
strategic advantage.

These conflicts occur over both freshwater and saltwater, and between international
boundaries. However, conflicts occur mostly over freshwater; because freshwater
resources are necessary,yet limited, they are the center of water disputes arising out of
need for potable water. As freshwater is a vital, yet unevenly distributed natural
resource, its availability often impacts the living and economic conditions of a country or

18
region. The lack of cost-effective waterdesalinationtechniques in areas like the Middle
East, among other elements of water crises can put severe pressures on all water users

According to the 1992 International Conference on Water and the Environment, Water is
a vital element for human life, and any human activity relates somehow to water.
Unfortunately, it isnot a renewable resource and in the future it "might get worse with
climate change

Water conflicts occur because the demand for water resources and potable water
extend far beyond the amount of water actually available. Elements of a water crisis
may put pressures on affected parties to obtainmore of a shared water resource,
causing diplomatic tension or outright conflict.

The Cauvery water dispute: Out of Indias 18 major rivers, 17 are shared between
different states.In all these cases, there are intense conflicts over these resources which
badly seem to resolve. The Cauvery river water is a born of contention between
tamilnadu and Karnataka and the problem is almost hundred years old. Tamilnadu
occupying the downstream region of the river wants water-use regulated in the
upstream state Karnataka refuses to do so and claims its privacy over the river as up
stream user.The river water is almost fully utilized and both the states having increasing
demands for agriculture and industry. The consumption is more in Tamilnadu than
Karnataka where the catchment area is rockier. On June 2, 1990, the Cavery Water
dispute tribunal was set up which through an interim award directed Karnataka to
ensure that 205 TMCF of water was made available in Tamilnadus mettur dam every
year, till a settlement was reached. In 1991-92 due to good monsoon, there was no
disputr as there wasgood stock of water in Mettur , but in 1995, the situation turned into
a crisis due to delayed rains and an expert committee was set up to look into the matter
which found there was a complex cropping pattern in Cauvery basin. Sambra paddy in
winter, Kurvai paddy in summer and some cash crops demanded intensive water, thus
aggravating the water crisis. Proper selection of crop varieties, optimum use of water,
better rationing and rational sharing patterns, and pricing of water are suggested as
some measures to solve the problem.

DAMS-BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS

Today there are more than 45,000 large dams around the world, which play an
important role in communities and economies that harness these water resources for
their economic development. Current estimates suggest some 30-40% of irrigated land
worldwide relies on dams.Hydropower, another contender for the use of stored water,
currently supplies 19% of theworld’s total electric power supply and is used in over 150

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countries. The world’s two most populous countries –China and India – have built
around 57% of the world’s large dams.

BENEFITS:
River valley projects with big dams have usually been considered to play a key role in
the development process due to their multiple uses. India has the distinction of having
the largest number of river valley projects.The tribal’s living in the area pin big hopes on
these projects as they aim at providing employment and raising the standard and quality
of life. The dams have tremendous potential for economic upliftment and growth. They
can help in checking floods and famines, generate electricity and reduce water and
power shortage, provide irrigation water to lower areas, provide drinking water in remote
areas and promote navigation, fishery etc

PROBLEMS:
• Fragmentation and physical transformation of rivers.
• Serious impacts on river in eecosystems.
• Social consequences of large dams due to displacement of people.
• Water logging and Stalinization of surrounding lands.
• Dislodging animal populations, damaging their habitat and cutting off the irmigration
routes.
• Fishing and travel by boat disrupted.
Large dams have had serious impacts on the lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual
existence of indigenous and tribal peoples. They have suffered disproportionately from
the negative Impacts of dams and often been excluded from sharing the benefits. In
India, of the 16 to 18 million people displaced by dams, 40 to 50% were tribal people,
who account for only 8% of ournation’s one billion people.

c)MINERAL RESOURCES
A mineral is a naturally occurring substance of definite chemical composition and
identifiable physical properties. An ore is a mineral or combination of minerals from
which a useful substance, such as a metal, can be extracted and used to manufacture a
useful product.The geological processes are caused for the formation of the minerals
over millions of years ago in the earth’s crust. Minerals are generally localized in
occurrence and the deposits are very sporadicin distribution. Mineral resources are non
renewable and the mineral /oreisextracted by the process of mining.Iron, aluminum,
zinc, manganese and copper are important raw materials for industrial use. Important
non-metalresources include coal, salt, clay, cement and silica. Stoneused for building
material, such as granite, marble, limestone, constitute another category of minerals.
Minerals with special properties that humans value for their aesthetic and ornamental

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value are gems such as diamonds, emeralds and rubies. The luster of gold, silver and
platinum is used for ornaments. Minerals in the form of oil, gas and coal were formed
when ancient plants and animals were converted into underground fossil fuels.
Uses of minerals:
Minerals are used in a large number of ways for domestic,industrial,commercial Sectors
etc…
1. Generation of energy by using coal (lignite / anthracite); uranium, gold, silver,
platinum, diamond are used in jewellery. Copper, aluminum etc are used as cables for
transmission of power.
2. Someofthe minerals are used in ayurvedam as medicine.
Gold is reputed to strengthen the heart muscle and increase energy and stamina.

USE AND EXPLOITATION:

The main uses of minerals are as follows:
(i) Development of industrial plants and machinery.
(ii) Generation of energy e.g. coal, lignite, uranium.
(iii) Construction, housing, settlements.
(iv) Defense equipments weapons, armaments.
(v) Transportation means.
(vi) Communication- telephone wires, cables, electronic devices.
(vii) Medicinal system- particularly in Ayurvedic System.
(viii) Formation of alloys for various purposes (e.g. phosphorite).
(IX) Agriculture - as fertilizers, seed dressings and fungicides (e.g. zineb containing
zinc, Maneb-containing manganese etc.).
(x) Jewellery- e.g. Gold, silver, platinum, diamond.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINERAL EXTRACTION AND USE

► The issue related to the limits of the mineral resources in our earth's crust or in the
ocean is not so significant. More important environmental concern arises from the
impacts of extraction and processing of these minerals during mining, smelting etc.
► Indian Scenario: India is the producer of 84 minerals the annual value of which is
about Rs.50,000 crore.
►At least six major mines need a mention here which are known for causing severe
problems:
▸ (i) Jaduguda Uranium Mine, Jharkhand- exposing local people to radioactive hazards.
▸ (ii) Jharia coal mines, Jharkhand-underground fire leading to land subsidence and
forced displacement of people.
▸ (iii) Sukinda chromite mines, Orissa-seeping of hexavalent chromium into river posing
serious health hazard, Cr6+ being highly toxic and carcinogenic. of groundwater.

21
▸ (iv) Kudremukh iron ore mine, Karnataka- causing river pollution and threat to
biodiversity.
▸ (v) East coast Bauxite mine, Orissa-Land encroachment and issue of rehabilitation
unsettled.
▸(vi) North-Eastern Coal Fields, Assam-Very high sulphur contaminati

Mining and its Process:

Minerals and their ores need to be extracted from the earth’s interior so that they can be
used. This process is known as mining. Mining is the extraction of valuable mineralsor
othergeologicalmaterials from the earth, from an ore body, lode, vein, (coal) seam or
reef, which forms the mineralized horizon and package of economic interest to the
miner.Mining operationsgenerally progressthrough four stages:
(1) Prospecting:Searching for minerals.
(2) Exploration:Assessing thesize,shape, location,
(3) Development: Work of preparing access to the deposit so that the minerals can be
extracted from it.
(4) Exploitation: Extracting the minerals from the mines

Types of mining:
The method of mining has to be determined depending on whether the ore or mineral
deposit is nearer the surface or deep within the earth. The topography of theregion and
the Physical nature of the ore deposit is studied. Mines are of two types
a) Surface(open cutorstripmines)
b) Deep or shaftmines.

a) Surface Mining: Surface mining is used to obtain mineral ores that are close to
Earth’s Surface. The soil and rocks over the ore are removed by blasting. Typically,
theremaining ore is drilled or blasted so that large machines can fill trucks with the
broken rocks. The truckstake the rocks to factories where the ore will be separated from
the rest of the rock.Surface mining includes open-pit mining, quarrying, and strip mining.
1) Open-pit mining creates a big pit from which the ore is mined. The size of the pit
grows
until it is no longer profitable to mine the remaining ore.
2) Strip mines are similar opitmines,but theories removed in large strips.
3) Aquarry is a type of open-pit mine that produces rocks and minerals that are used to
make buildings.

b) Underground Mining: Underground mining is used for ores that are deep in Earth's
surface. For deep ore deposits, it can be too expensive to remove all of the rocks above

22
the ore. Underground mines can be very deep. The deepest gold minein South Africais
more than3,700 meters deep (that is more than 2 miles)! There are various methods of
underground mining. These methods are more expensive than surface mining because
tunnels are made in the rock so that miners and equipment can get to the ore.
Underground mining is dangerous work. Fresh air and lights must also be brought in to
the tunnels for the miners. Miners breathe in lots of particles and dust while they are
underground. The ore is drilled, blasted, or cut away from the
surrounding rock and taken out of the tunnel

Environmental effects:
Mineral extraction and processing in mines involves a negative impact on environment.
Much risk is involved in mining process because of high temperature, pressure
Variations, fire hazards and lack of ventilation in mines.
●​ Mining process involves removal of over burden of soil, ore extraction &
transportation, crushing & grinding of ore, water treatment of ore, storage of
waste material. As a result of these activities cause air pollution, noise pollution,
water pollution, loss of habitat of wildlife, concentration of toxic substances in
tailing ponds and spreading of dust.
●​ People working inmines often suffer from serious respiratory system and
skindiseases.
●​ Mining often causes ground subsidence which results intilting of
buildings,cracksin houses, buckling of roads, bending of rail tracks etc.
●​ Exploration process before a mining involves, geochemical, geophysical surveys
Drilling activities which causes for air pollution, noise pollution etc..
●​ Inaddition, disturbanceofall vegetation(flora)and fauna(animals)from thata region.
●​ Acid mine drainage(AMD), or acid rock drainage(ARD):Theoutflowof
acidicwater from (usually abandoned) metal minesor coal mines. However, other
areas where the earth has been disturbed (e.g. construction sites, subdivisions,
transportation corridors, etc.) may also contribute acid rock drainage to the
environment

CASE STUDIES

► Mining in Sariska Tiger Reserve in AravallisThe Aravalli range is spread over about
692 km in the North-west India covering Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi. The hill
region is very rich in biodiversity as well as mineral resources. The Sariska tiger reserve
has gentle slopy hills, vertical rocky valleys, flat plains as well as deep gorges. The
reserve is very rich in wild life and has enormous mineral reserves like quartzite,
Schists, marble and granite in abundance. Mining operations within and around the

23
Sariska Tiger reserve has left many areas permanently infertile and barren. The
precious wild life is under serious threat.
We must preserve the Aravalli series as a National Heritage and the Supreme Court on
December 31st, 1991 has given a judgement in response to a Public Interest Litigation
of Tarun Bharat Sangh, an NGO wherein both Centre and State Government of
Rajasthan have been directed to ensure that all mining activity within the park be
stopped. More than 400 mines were shut immediately. But, still some illegal mining is in
progress.

d)FOOD RESOURCES
The main sources of human food are plants and animals. Human beings consume
almost all parts of plants in the form of cereals (wheat, barley, millet, rye, oats, maize,
corn, rice etc.); pulses (peas, red grams, green grams); vegetables (carrot, cauliflower,
beans); fruits (banana, orange, grapes, pineapple) and spices (pepper, cloves). Also a
number of products such as milk, butter, egg and meat supplement the requirements.

WORLD FOOD PROBLEMS

Since world’s population is growing every year and the demand of food is also
increasing continuously. Although world’s food production has increased almost three
times during the last 50 years, but at the same time rapid population growth outstripped
the food production. So, the world food problem is a complex one depending on food
production, population increase, the prevalence of poverty and environmental impacts.
Famines are due to lack of access to food but not lack of food. Modern agriculture is
largely based upon technological factors like the use of improved seeds, chemical
fertilizers, synthetic pesticides etc…The green revolution how ever changed traditional
agricultural practices with a rapid increase in food production in developing countries.
An American agricultural scientist, Norman Borlaug developed a high yielding variety of
wheat through new concepts in plant breeding. By the mid 1960’s, the green revolution
was fully adopted in India.

CHANGES CAUSED BY AGRICULTURE AND OVERGRAZING

CHANGES CAUSED BY AGRICULTURE
There are two types of agricultural systems:
(1) Traditional system and (2)Modern and Industrialized system

(1) Traditional system:

Thetraditional system is again sub divided into two types namely:
(a) Traditional Subsistence Agriculture (TSA): In this system, only enough crops or
livestock Are produced for the use of family and a little surplus to sell to meet the needs.

24
(b) Traditional Intensive Agriculture(TIA):Farmers increase their inputs of human
labor,Water fertilizers to get higher yields for the use of their families and to sell small
quantities for getting income.

(2) Modern and industrialized system: In the system of modern and industrialized
agriculture, a large extent of land will be brought under agriculture and huge quantities
of fuel, energy,water, chemical fertilizers, pesticides used to produce large quantities of
single crops purely for sale. This system is spreading in India in the name of Green
revolution. But this modern agricultural system has its own adverse effects on
environment.
a. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers to boost up the crop yield, contaminate
groundwater with nitrate. The presence of excess of nitrate in drinking water is
dangerous for human Health. Excess Nitrate reacts with hemoglobin and causes for
“Blue Baby Syndrome” which kill the infants.
b. The excessive N P K fertilizers in agriculture fields are often washed off with water
and leads to algal blooming and Eutrophication. Phosphates have been
accumulating in soils, lake sediments for decades change the ecology. Increased levels
of phosphates in waterbodies cause Eutrophication ( growth of unwanted plants ).
c. The excessive use of pesticides enters the food chain and become hazardous to
human life.
d. Alargearea of fertile land has becomes a line in recent years due to excessive
irrigation
e. Consumption of fuel energy is more when shifting of human and animall abourt
agriculture machinery. Use of fuel leads to air pollution.
f. Continuing to increase input of fertilizers, water and pesticides eventually produces no
Additional increase in crop yield but slows down the productivity of the crop.
g. Due to increased irrigation, the underground aquifers are slowly and constantly
become dry. The rate at which they are being depleted is much faster than its recharge.
h. Excessive application of chemical fertilizers can increases oil salt content. The
percolation of domestic and industrial sewage also increase the salinity of soil.
i. Thes tag nation of water in the soil in the upper layers causes for water logging which
Causes for less oxygen availability for respiration of plants.

Modern, intensive agriculture causes many problems, including the following:

• Artificial fertilizers and herbicides are easily washed from the soil and polluterivers,
lakes and Water courses.
• The prolongeduse of artificial fertilizers results in soils withal organic matter content
Which is easily eroded by wind and rain?

25
• Dependency on fertilizers. Greater amounts are needed every year to produce the
same Yields of crops.
• Artificial pesticides cans tay in the soil for along time and enter the food chain where
they build up in the bodies of animals and humans, causing health problems.
• Artificial chemicals destroy soil micro-organisms resulting inpoor soil structure and a
eration and decreasing nutrient availability.
• Pestsanddiseases become more difficult to control as they become resistant to
artificial Pesticides. The numbers of natural enemies decrease because of pesticide use
and habitat loss

EFFECTS OF MODERN AGRICULTURE;

Most food in the world was produced organically using organic manure and human and
animal power before 19th century. The agricultural revolution began in England in the
early 19th century with a horse-drawn hoe and a seed drill. After that, in middle of the
19th century, manufacturing of super phosphate fertilizer, nitrogen fertilizer, DDT,
herbicides etc were started and by the middle of the 20th century, most of the
components of modern agriculture were in use on agricultural farms, especially in the
developed countries. Modern agriculture has been of great help in alleviating hunger,
because the world population more than doubled itself during the last half of the 20th
century.
However, unsustainable use of pesticides and fertilizers resulted in their residues in the
produce above safety levels which ultimately cause ill-effects on the consumption of
produce. The main effects of modern agriculture are presented below.
1. The constant use of chemical fertilizer, together with lack of crop rotation, reduces
the soil fertility.
2. The repeated deep ploughing is used to turn over the ground, heavy rains can
carry away the topsoil and make the soil less fertile.
3. Damage to the soil structure by compression due to high tillage is a serious problem
in areas that are intensively farmed.
4. High yield levels are produced by applying large quantities of chemical
fertilizers,instead of by maintaining the natural fertility of the soil, which causes soil,
water and air pollution including their residual effects on the produce.
5. About half of the nitrate in the chemical fertilizer applied is not used by plants and
This unused nitrate runs off the fields to contaminate water.
6. The chemicals used for the control of pest and diseases are accumulating in the
crops and cause health problems on the consumption.
7. Native cultivars and animal breeds lose out to exotic species and hybrids, and are
threatened to extinction.

26
 FERTILIZER-PESTICIDE PROBLEMS
A fertilizer is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soils or to plant
tissues to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. Various
environmental effects of fertilizers are discussed below.
Eutrophication: Run off of phosphate fertilizers from agricultural land to water leads to
Eutrophication. It is the enrichment of a water body with excess nutrients. This process
induces growth of plants and algae, causing algal blooms and this biomass load results
in oxygen depletion of the water body making the water body unsuitable for other
aquatic organisms to survive. Algal blooms produce harmful toxins that can accumulate
in the food
chain, and can be harmful to humans.

Nitrate pollution: Only a fraction of the nitrogen-based fertilizers is converted to

produce available nitrogen to the plants. The remainder accumulates in the soil or lost
as runoff. High application rates of nitrogen containing fertilizers combined with the high
water solubility of nitrate leads to increased runoff into surface water as well as leaching
into groundwater, thereby causing groundwater pollution. Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L
(10ppm) in groundwater can cause 'blue baby syndrome'.

Soil acidification: Nitrogen-containing fertilizers can cause soil acidification when

added to the soil. This may lead to decrease in nutrient availability which may be offset
by liming.

Changes in soil biology: High levels of fertilizer may cause the breakdown of the
symbiotic relationships between plant roots and mycorrhizal fungi.

WATER LOGGING
Water logging refers to the saturation of soil with water. Soil may be regarded as
waterlogged when the water table of the groundwater is too high to conveniently permit
an anticipated activity, like agriculture. In agriculture, various crops need air (specifically,
oxygen) to a greater or lesser depthinthesoil. Water logging of the soil stops air
gettingin. Hownear thewater table must be to the surface for the ground to be classed
as waterlogged varies with the purpose in view. Acrop'sdemand for freedom from water
logging mayvarybetweenseasonsof theyear, as with the growing of rice (Oryza sativa).

Inirrigatedagriculturalland, waterloggingisoftenaccompaniedbysoilsalinityaswaterlogged
soils prevent leaching of the salts imported by the irrigation water

27
SALINITY
Soil salinity is the salt contentin the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is
known as salinization. Salt is a natural element of soils and water. Salinization can be
caused by natural processes such as mineral weathering or the gradual withdrawal of
an ocean. It can also be caused by artificial processes such as irrigation

Salinization is a process that results from:

●​ High levels of saltinthe water.
●​ Landscape features that allow salts to become mobile(movement ofwatertable).
●​ Climatic trends that favors accumulation.
●​ Human activities such as land clearing,aquaculture activities and the salting
oficy roads.
CHANGES CAUSED BY OVERGRAZING
Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods
of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in
poorly managed agricultural applications, or by over populations of native or native wild.
Overgrazing reduces the usefulness, productivity, and biodiversity of the land and is one
cause of desertification and erosion. Overgrazing is also seen as a cause of the spread
of invasive species of non-native plantsand of weeds. Overgrazing typically increases
soil erosion. Reduction in soil depth, soil organic matter and soil fertilityimpair the
land'sfuturenatural and agriculturalproductivity. Soil fertility can sometimes be mitigated
by applying the appropriate lime and organic fertilizers. However, the loss of soil depth
and organic matter takes centuries to correct. Their loss is critical in determining the
soil's water-holding capacity andhow well pasture plants doduringdry weather.

ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy is defined by physicists as the capacity to do work. Energy is found on ourplanet
in a variety of forms, some of which are immediately useful to do work, while others
require a process of transformation. Energy can either be created nor destroyed but
transformed from one form to other. Energy is closely related to force. When a force
causes an object to move, energy is being transferred from the force to kineticenergy.
Energy is present in anumber of forms such as mechanical, thermal, chemical,
biological energy etc.. Energy production and utilization have become essential to carry
out many activities in modern life. Energy is one of the important
requirements that a country needs for its economic growth. At the same time, energy
production has its impact on environment due to pollution and finally affects the quality
of life of people.

GROWING ENERGY NEEDS

28
Energy plays a key role in the process of economic growth of a nation. The industrial
development of any country is dependent on the organized development of its power
resources'.
Energy is also indispensable for agriculture, transport, business and domestic
requirements. In fact, electricity has such a wide range of applications in modern
economic development that its per capita consumption is,to agreat extent, anindex of
thematerial advancement ofthe country.
Energy is the capacity for doing useful work. It is an essential input for economic
growth. This energy is used in the form of electrical energy, thermal energy, light,
mechanical energy and chemical energy etc.
Energy is measured in joules in Siunits. The annual per capita energy consumption
indeveloped countries ranges from 5 to 11 kW whereas in the developing countries it is
between 1 to 1.5 KW Only
Uses of Energy
1. Energy is a primary input in any industrial operation.
2.It is also a major input in sectors such as commerce, transport,tele-communications
etc.
3. The wide range of services required in the household and industrial sectors.
4. Owing to the far-reaching changes in the forms of energy and their respective roles
in supporting human activities, research and training on various aspects of energy and
environment have assumed great significance.

Types of energy:There are three main types of energy;

A.Non-renewable B.Renewable C.Nuclear energy

A. Non – renewable energy resources

Fossil fuels: Fossil means the remains of an animal or a plant which have become hard
and turned into rock. All these found in earth’s crusts which have been formed in the
past by the geological processes. Fossil fuels are solid coal (lignite), liquid(crude oil /
petroleum) and gases (natural gas ).

a) Coal: Huge quantity of plant materials buried under earths crust and altered by
geological process and converted into carbon rich fuel. It is an on –renewable source
because it takes a very long period (million of years) for its formation.
Coal is extracted by the process of mining and involves accidents due to mine collapse,
ground water pollution, accumulation of poisonous material, explosive gases etc cause
diseases. CO2 pollution leads to green house effect (global warming).

29
b) Crude oil: It is obtained in the form of liquid . The crude oil is heated up to 600oC in
the oil refinery and condense the vapours of hydro – carbons. Petrol another petroleum
products are refined fuels from crude oil. Petroleum products are used in large
quantities in the manufacture of detergents, plastics, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals,
synthetic rubber etc.. The transport sector consumes about 40% of diesel; 25%
industries and 19%household and rest 16% agriculture and other sectors. .

c) Natural Gas: Gas deposits are trapped from the sedimentary formations by means
drilling holes into the rock formations. While burning of naturalgas, the emission of CO2
is less andthus reduces green house effect and global warming. A total of 734 billion
cubic mts of gas is estimated as proven reserves.

B. Renewable energy resources: Renewable energy systems use resources that are
constantly replaced and are usually less polluting. Examples include hydropower, solar,
wind, and geothermal (energy from the heat inside the earth).
1. Solar energy: The energy which is derived from the sun is known as solar energy. It
can be used for direct heating or sun’s heat is converted into electricity. Photo voltaic
cells convert direct solar energy into electricity.
A number of solar equipments have been developed to utilize sun rays to heat water, to
cook food, to pump water and to run certain machines and used for street lighting,
railway signals etc. But the major problem with solar energy is that during cloudy
weather it is available in less quantity than on sunny days.

How Solar Power Works

Thesun's energy can be captured to generate electricity or heat through a system of
panels or mirrors.
●​ Solar, or photo voltaic, cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. Most
photovoltaic cells are made primarily of silicon, the material used in computer
semiconductor chips, and arranged on rectangular panels. When sunlight its a
cell, the energy knocks electrons free of their atoms, allowing them to flow
through the material. The resulting DC (direct current) electricity is then sent to a
power inverter for conversion to AC (alternating current).
●​ Solar thermal collectors use heat-absorbing panels and a series of attached
circulation tubes to heat water or buildings.
●​ Solar concentration systems use mirrors -- usually arranged in a series of long,
parabolic troughs, a large round dish, or a circle surrounding a "power tower" --
to focus the sun's reflected rays on a heat-collecting element. The concentrated
sunlight heats water or a heat- transferring fluid such as molten salt to generate

30
 steam, which is then used conventionally to spin turbines and generate
electricity.
●​ Passive solar designisthe creativeuse of windows, sky lights and sun
rooms,building site and orientation, and thermal construction materials to heat
and light buildings, or to heat water, the natural way.

2. Hydro-Power energy: Electrical power is generated by hydro-electric projects

inwhich dams are constructed across the river. The kinetic energy of water is converted
into mechanical energy by means of turbines and in turn, the mechanical energy is
transferred into electrical energy by generators. Hydro power projects lead to several
environmental problems like destruction of animal habitats, deforestation, migration of
people etc..

3. Geothermal energy: Geothermal energy found within rock formations. Inside the
earth the temperature rises with depth .The temperature in earth’s crust is around
4000o C. Geysers ( a natural spring that emits hot water ) and hot springs are examples
for geothermal energy where the steam and hot water come to the surface, in areas
where the steam is tapped by drilling. The obtained steam is thenused togenerate
power. Airpollutionresults incase ofgeothermalenergy where the gases like H2S, NH3,
CO2present in the steam coming out of the geothermal sources. The overall efficiency
for power production is low (15%) as compared to fossil fuels (40%).

4. Wind energy: Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of
atmospheric air. Wind mills convert the wind energy into electrical energy. On an
average wind mills can convert 30 – 40 % of available wind energy into electrical energy
at a steady wind speed of 8.5mts / sec. The efficiency of wind millis increased with the
speed of wind andlength of rotor blade.
The total wind energy potential in India’s estimate is 25,000 MW of this about6000 MW
is located in Tamil Nadu; 5000 MW in Gujarat and contribute thestates of Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan forbalance quantity.

Merits & demerits of wind energy:

1. Itisanon–polluting and environment friendly source of energy.
2. It is a renewable energy available at free of cost

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3. Power generation is cheaper with nil recurring expenses.
4. Wind mills are suitable to erectatonshore, remote and rural areas where wind blows
with required intensity.
5. Favor ableing eographicl ocations which area way from cities.
6. Wind turbine design,manufacturing,installation is complex due to varying atmospheric
conditions.
7. Windpower doesn’t suitable for large scale generation.

5. Ocean energy: Seas and oceans are large water bodies . Seas absorb solar
radiation and large amounts of solar energy are stored in the tides and waves of the
ocean. Ocean energy is non – pollutinginnatureandsuitableata fewplacesonly.
Energyfromseasor oceansisobtainedfrom the following:
(1) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion: The oceans collect and store huge quantities of
solar on the surface of the water while the temperature of deepwater is very low. Using
this temperature difference it is possible to convert heat into electricity.
(2) Tidal energy: Tidal waves of the sea can be used to turn turbine and generate
electricity. Asia’s first tidal power plant of 800 - 1000 MW capacity is proposed to be set
up at Kandla in Gulf of Kutch.
6. Bio mass energy: Bio-mass is an organic material from living beings or its residues.
It is a renewable source of energy derived from the waste of various human and natural
activities. The bio-mass energy sources include Wood, animal manure, sugarcane
waste, agriculture crops, house hold waste, roots of plants, garbage etc. The simplest
way of using bio-mass energy sources is to allow them to dry out in the sun and burn
them.

7. Bio-gas: Bio-gas is a sustainable source of energy by virtue of its production from

available natural organic wastes of cattle dung, human excreta, poultry waste, plant
leaves, paddy husk etc…. Bio-gas is amixture of methane (68%), CO2(31%) and
N2(1%). Methane gas (CH4) is produced by bio-gas plants and this gas is utilized as
cooking gas whose calorific value varies from 4400–6200KiloCalories/cum. Heat value
of biogas can be improved by reducing its CO2 content. Bio-gas production is carried
out in an enclosed bio-gas plant made of bricks or steel. A slurry of waste organic
matter is fed into the plant through an inlet and gas formed is tapped by an inverted
drum. As gas is produced the drum rises and the gas may be drawn through
an outlet.Bio-gas is commonly produced from cattle dung in a bio gas plant known as
Gobar Gas plant. Bio-gas is a clean, cheap fuel that can be used for lighting purpose,
liftingwater through small pumps.

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C. Nuclear Energy or Atomic power: It is the energy which is trapped inside the atom.
It is non–renewable source of energy which is released during fission or fusion of
certain radioactive elements. The most important advantage of atomic power is the
production of an enormous amount of energy from a small quantity of radioactive
element. For eg: 1 kg of Uranium Liberates energy equivalent to 30000kgs of coal.
Energy released during nuclear reaction (mass – energy equation as per Albert
Einstein’sformula E = mc2).
Nuclear Energy is produced by two processes namely (1) Nuclear Fission and (2)
NuclearFusion.

Nuclear Fission: Thenucleus in atoms is split byfast moving neutrons and

inturnatremendous amount of energy in the form of heat, light etc is released by a chain
of reactions. Uranium is used as fuel. The energy released slowly in this process is
utilized to generate electricity or else released suddenly all at once, results a
tremendous explosion as in the case of Atom bomb.

Nuclear Fusion: Nuclear energy can be generated by fusion process which involves
two hydrogen atoms combine to produce one helium atom. Eg: hydrogen bomb. The
disposal of nuclear wastes during mining, fuel production and reactor operation for a
long time period resulting in adverse effects on environment. Disposable of nuclear
waste is a national and global problem.

USE OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. These
alternatives are intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels.
The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy source has changed
considerably over time, as have controversies regarding energy use. Today, because of
the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates, defining some
energy types as "alternative" is highly controversial.
In a general sense, alternative energy as it is currently conceived, is that which
is produced or recovered without the undesirable consequences inherent in fossil fuel
use, particularly high carbon dioxide emissions, an important factor in global warming.
Sometimes, this less comprehensive meaning of "alternative energy" excludes nuclear
energy
●​ Solar energy is the generation of electricity from the sun. It is splitupin to two
types, thermal and electricenergy.These two subgroups mean that they heat up
homes and generate electricity respectively.
●​ Wind energy is the generation of electricity from the wind.

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 ●​ Geothermal energy is using hot water or steam from the Earth’s interior for
heating buildings or electricity generation.
●​ Biofuel and Ethanol are plant-derived substitutes of gasoline for powering
vehicles.
●​ Nuclear binding energy uses nuclear fission to create energy.
●​ Hydrogenisused as clean fuel for spaceships, and some cars

LAND RESOURCES
Land as a resource: Landforms such as hills, valleys, plains, river basins and wetlands
include different resource generating areas that the people living in them depend on.
Many traditional farming societies had ways of preserving areas from which they used
resources.If land is utilized carefully it can be considered a renewable resource. The
roots of trees and grasses bind the soil. If forests are depleted, or grasslands
overgrazed, the land becomes unproductive and wasteland is formed. Intensive
irrigation leads to water logging and salinization, on which crops cannot grow.
Land is also converted into a non-renewable resource when highly toxic industrial and
nuclear wastes are dumped on it. Land on earth is as finite as any of our other natural
resources. While mankind has learnt to adapt his lifestyle to various ecosystems world
over, he cannot live comfortably for instance on polar ice caps, on under the sea, or in
space in the foreseeable future.

LAND DEGRADATION AND CONTROL OF LAND DEGRADATION

Land degradation can be defined as any change in the land that alter its conditions or
reduces its quality. Land degradation occurs due to both natural disasters like volcanic
eruptions, earthquakes, heavy rains, fire etc or human induced activities. The other
causes of land degradation consist of wind blow, salinity of water, water logging, soil
acidity, loss of flora and fauna.
Desertification is land degradation occurring in the arid, semi-arid regions of the world.
These dry lands cover about 40% of the earth’s surface and puts at risk more than 1
billion people who are dependent on these lands for survival.

Land clearing and deforestation; Mining activity inforest areas; urban conversion;
bringing more land under cultivation; soil pollution ; loss of organic matter in the soils;
alkalinization of soils; salinity of water etc leads to land degradation. Severe land
degradation affects in decreasing the mineral wealth and economic development of
nations. The methods that are followed for the preventionof land degradationare called
soil conservation methods. Some of the popular methods are;

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(a) Contour farming: The land is prepared with alternate furrows (a long narrow cut in
the Ground) and ridges at the same level. The water is caught and held in furrows and
stores which reduces run off and erosion.

(b) Mulching: Stems of maize,cotton, tobacco etcare used as amulch(decay of

leaves)to reduce soil moisture, evaporation.

(c) Crop rotation: Growing same crop year after year depletes the nutrients and land
becomes Unproductive. This is overcome bychanging the crops and cultivating legumes
(plants like peas, beans) after a regular crop.

(d) Strip cropping:It consists of planting crops in rows or strips along cont ours to
check flow of water.

LANDSLIDES AND MANINDUCED LANDSLIDES

Landslides always exist on this planet and the term land slide is used to describe a wide
varietyof process that result a downward movement of rocks under gravitational forces.
In other words, mass movement of rocks, debris and soil down a slope of land.
Landslides are primarily associated with steep slopes. Surface run-off and changes in
drainage also cause for landslides. Landslides can also be initiated by rainfall;
earthquakes; volcanic activity, changes in groundwater movement or any combination
these factors. Debris-flows can travel down a hillside of speeds up to 200 miles per hour
(more commonly, 30 – 50 miles per hour) depending on the slope angle, water content,
and typeof earthand debris in the flow.

While landslides are a naturally occurring environmental hazard they have recently
increased in frequency in certain areas due to human activities. Building excavations
collapses in mining (e.g.: coal mine) causes landslides. However,landslides can be
triggered by the human beings by induced changes in the environment.
Simply landslidescanbe explained in three ways:
(a) Inherent of rocks(weakness in the structure of a rock)
(b) Due to heavy seismic or volcanic activity and
(c) Due to various environmental conditions.

SOIL EROSION AND CAUSES FOR SOIL EROSION

The top layer of the earth is called as soil. Soil erosion occurs due to deforestation,
overgrazing, industrialization; desertification etc.

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a. Deforestation: Mining, industrial, urban development etc causes deforestation and
leads to exposure of the land to wind and rains causing soil erosion. Cutting trees leads
to deforestation which in turn loss of organic matter in the soils.
b. Overgrazing: When sufficient amount of grass is available for the organisms usually
the entire land /area may be subjected to exhaust and the land is exposed without grass
andultimately the land expose to wind/rain causing soil erosion. .
c. Industrialization: Different processes carried out by industries and mining operations
cause soil pollution which leads to degradation of land

DESERTIFICATION:
Desertification is the process which turns productive into non- productive desert as a
result of poor land-management. Desertification occursmainly in semi-arid areas
(average annual rainfall less than 600 mm) bordering on deserts. In the Sahel, (the
semi-arid area south of the Sahara Desert), for example, the desert moved 100 km
southwards between 1950 and 1975.

CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION
* Overgrazing is the major cause of desertification worldwide. Plants of semi-arid areas
are adapted to being eaten by sparsely scattered, large, grazing mammals which move
inresponse to the patchy rainfall common to these regions. Early human pastoralists
living in semi-arid areas copied this natural system. They moved their small groups of
domestic animals in response to food and water availability. Such regular stock
movement prevented overgrazing of the fragile plant cover.

* Cultivation of marginal lands, i.e lands on which there is a high risk of crop failure and
a very low economic return, for example, some parts of South Africa where maize is
grown.
* Destruction of vegetation in a rid regions,often for fuel wood.
* Poorgrazing management after accidental burning of semi-aridvegetation.
* Incorrect irrigation practices in arid areas can cause salinization, (the buildup of salts
in the soil) which can prevent plant growth.

When the practices described above coincide with drought, the rate of desertification
increases dramatically.

Increasing human population and poverty contribute to desertification as poor people

may be forced to over use their environment in the short term, with out the ability to plan
for the long term effects of their actions. Where livestock has a social importance
beyond food, people might be reluctant to reduce their stock numbers.

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EFFECTS OF DESERTIFICATION
Desertification reduces the ability of land to support life, affecting wild species, domestic
animals, agricultural crops and people. The reduction in plant cover that accompanies
desertification leads to accelerated soil erosion by wind and water. South Africa losing
approximately 300-400 million tonnes of topsoil every year. As vegetation cover and soil
layer are reduced, rain drop impact and run-off increases. Water is lost off the land
instead of soaking into the soil to provide moisture for plants. Even long-lived plants that
would normally survive droughts die. A reduction in plant cover also results in a
reduction in the quantity of humus and plant nutrients in the soil, and plantproduction
dropsfurther. As protective plantcoverdisappears, floods become more frequent and
more severe. Desertification is self-reinforcing, i.e. once the process has started, and
conditions are set for continual deterioration.

ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Different natural resources like forests, water, soil, food, mineral and energy resources
play a vital role in the development of a nation. With our small individual efforts we can
together help in conserving our natural resources to a large extent. Following are the
ways:
a) Conserve Water:
1. Don’t keep water tap srunning while brushing,shaving,washing or bathing.
2. Inwashing machines fill the machine only to the level required for your clothes.
3. Install water saving toilets that use not more than 6 liter sperflush.
4. Check for water leak sin pipe sand toilet sand repair them promptly.
5. Reuse the soapy water of washing from clothes for gardening,drivewaysetc.
6. Water the plants and the lawn sin the evening when evaporation losses are minimum.
Never water the plants in mid-day.
7. Install a system to capture rainwater.

b) Conserve energy:
1. Turn off lights, fans and other appliances when not in use.
2. Obtain as much heat as possible from natural sources. Drytheclothesin sun instead
of direr if possible.
3. Use solar cooker for cooking which will be more nutritious and will save your LPG
Expenses.
4. Build your house with provision for sunspace which will keep your house warmer and
will provide more light.
5. Driveless,make fewer trips and use publictran sportations when everpossible.Share
a car-pool if possible.

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6. Controlthe use ofA.C.
7. Recycle and reuseglass, metals and papers.
8. Use bicycle or just walk down small distances instead of using
vehicle. Protect the Soil:
1. Grow different types of ornamental plants, herbs and trees in your garden. Growgrass
in the open areas which will bind the soil and prevent its erosion.
2. Make compost from your kitchen waste and use it for your kitchen-garden.
3. Do not irrigate the plants usinga strong flow of water as it would wash off the soil.
4. Better use sprinkling irrigation.
Promote Sustainable Agriculture:
1. Do not waste food;Take as much as you can eat.
2. Reduce the use of pesticides.
3. Fertilize your crop with organic fertilizers.
4. Use dripirrigation.
5. Eat local and seasonal vegetables.
6. Control pest

EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFE

STYLE:
There is a big divide in the world as North and South, the more developed countries
(MDC’s) and less developed countries (LDC’s),the haves and the have nots. The less
developed does not mean that they are backward as such, they are culturally very rich
or even much more developed, but economically they are less developed. The gap
between the two is mainly because of population and resources.
The MDC’s have only 22% of world’s population, but they use 88% of its natural
resources, 73% of its energy and command 85% of its income. In turn, they contribute a
very big proportion to its pollution.These countries include USA, Canada, Japan, the
CIS, Australia , New Zealand and Western European Countries. The LDC’s, on the
other hand, have very low or moderate industrial growth, have 78% of the world’s
population and use about 12% of natural resources and 27% of energy. Their income is
merely 15% of global income. The gap between The two are increasing with time due to
sharp increase in population in the LDC’s. The rich have grown richer while the poor
have stayed poor or gone even poorer.
As the rich nations are developing more, they are also leading to more pollution and
sustainability of the earth’s life support system is under threat. The poor nations, on the
other hand, are still struggling hard with their large population and poverty problems.
Their share of resources is too little leading to unsustainability.

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As the rich nations continue to grow, they will reach a limit. If they have a growth rate of
10 % every year, they will show 1024 times increase in the next 70 years. Will this much
of growth be sustainable? The answer is ‘No’ because many of our earth’s resources
are limited and even the renewable resources will become unsustainable if theiruse
exceeds their regeneration.
Thus, the solution to this problem is to have more equitable distribution of resources
and wealth. We cannot expect the poor countries to stop growth in order to check
pollution because development brings employment and the main problem of these
countries is to tackle poverty. A global consensus has to be reached for more balanced
distribution of the basic resources like safe drinking water, food, fuel etc. so that the
poor in the LDC’s are at least able to sustain their life. Unless they are provided with
such basic resource
we cannot think of rooting out the problems related to dirty, unhygienic,
polluted, disease infested settlements of these people-which contribute
to unsustainability.
Thus, the two basic causes of unsustainability are over population
in poor countries who have under consumption of resources and over
consumption of resources by the rich countries, which generate wastes.In order to
achieve sustainable life styles it is desirable to achieve a more balanced and equitable
distribution of global resources and income to meet everyone’s basic needs.
The rich countries will have to lower down their consumption levels while the bare
minimum needs of the poor have to be fulfilled by providing them resources. A fairer
sharing of resources will narrow down the gap between the rich and the poor and will
lead to sustainable development for all and not just for a privileged group.

UNIT-3

ECOSYSTEM AND BIODIVERSIY

ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem is a community of organisms that interact with each other and non living

39
components for sustainable development and adaptation to changing conditions. There
are different type of ecosystems around us which involves living organisms and non
living organisms. If we combine all the ecosystems present on earth, it is called
Biosphere. The term ecosystem was first proposed by A.G.Tansley (1935) who defined
ecosystem as follows: “Ecosystem is defined as a self-sustained community of plants
and animals existing in its own environment.”Odum (1971) defined ecosystem as any
unit that includes all the organisms in a given area interacting with the physical
environment, so that a flow of energy give rise to a clearly defined tropic structure, biotic
diversity and material cycles within the system ”Michael Allaby (1983) defined
ecosystem as a community of interdependent organisms together with the
environment

CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM:
In an ecosystem, the interaction of life with its environment takes place at many levels.
A single bacteria in the soil interacts with water, air around it within a small space while
a fish in a river interacts with water and other animals, rivals in a large space. .
Considering the operational point of view; the biotic and abiotic components of an
ecosystem are so interlinked such that their separation from each other is practically
difficult. So, in an ecosystem both organisms (biotic communities) and abiotic
environment (rainfall, temperature, humidity) each influence the properties with other for
maintenance of life.

STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM
A structure of Ecosystem comprise of
• The Composition of biological community including, species number, biomass,
lifehistory,and distribution in space.
• The quantity and distribution of non-living material,such as nutrient water, etc.
• Ther age of condition of existence such as temperature, light.

FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM:
• The rate of biological energy flow i.e.production & respiration rates of the community.
• The rate of material or nutrient cycles
• Biological or ecological regulation including both regulation of organism by
environment and regulation of environment by the organisms.

COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
There are two component so fan ecosystem; Living components and non living
components.

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Non Living Components: (Abiotic) Non living components are the physical and
chemical factors that directly or indirectly affect the living components e.g. air, water,
land, rock etc. Non living components are also called Abiotic components.
Physical factors includes unlight,water,fire,soil,air, temperatureetc. Chemical factors
include moisture, salinity of water, soil nutrients, oxygen dissolved in wateretc.

Living Components: Living components in an ecosystem are either producers or

consumers. They are also called biotic components. Producers can produce organic
components e.g. plants can produce starch, carbohydrates, cellulose from a process
called photosynthesis. Consumers are the components that are dependent on
producers for their food e.g. human beings and animals
• Biotic Components are further classified into 3 main groups
• Producers •Consumers •Decomposers or Reducers

1. Producer (Autotrophs): The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which
they trap solar energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple
inorganic compound namely,water and carbon dioxide.This process is known as
photosynthesis.The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilized partly by the
producers for their own growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plants for
their future use. They are classified into two categories based on their source of food.
a)Photoautotrophs: An organism capable of synthesizing its own food from inorganic
substances using light as an energy source. Green plants and photosynthetic bacteria
are photoautotrophs.
b)Chemotrophs: Organisms that obtain energy by the oxidation of electron donors in
their environments. These molecules can be organic (chemoorganotrophs) or
inorganic(chemolithotrophs).

2. Consumers (Heterotrophs): The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to

synthesis their own food there for they depend on the producers for their food.•They are
known as heterotrophs (i.e. heteros= others, trophs= feeder).The Consumers are of 4
types:
(a) PrimaryConsumer:(Herbivores)i.e.Animal feeding on plants,e.g.Rabbit,deer,
goat etc.
(b) SecondaryConsumers: The animal feeding on Herbivores are called as
secondary Consumer or primary carnivores. e.g. Cats, foxes, snakes.
(c) TertiaryConsumers:These are large carnivores which feed on secondary
consumers. e.g. Wolves

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 (d) QuaternaryConsumers: They are also called omnivores these are largest
carnivores Which feed on tertiary consumers and are not eat enup by any other
animals. e.g. lion and Tiger.

3. Decomposers or Detrivores:Bacteria & fungi belong to this category. They break

down the dead organic matter of producers & consumers for their food and release to
the environment the simple inorganic and organic substance. These simple substances
are reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic exchange of material between biotic &
abiotic environment. Eg:Bacteria,Earthworms, Beetlesetc

ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

• Biological activities require energy which ultimately comes from the sun. Solar energy
is transformed into chemical energy by a process of photosynthesis this energy is
stored in plant tissue and then transformed into heat energy during metabolic activities.
• Thus in biological world the energy flows from the sun to plants and then to all
heterotrophic organisms. The flow of energy is unidirectional and non-cyclic. This one
way flow of energy is governed by laws of thermodynamics which states that:
(a) Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but may be transformed from one
form to another
(b) During the energy transfer there is degradation of energy from a concentrated form
(mechanical, chemical, or electrical etc.) to a dispersed form (heat).
No energy transformation is 100 % efficient; it is always accompanied by some
dispersion or loss of energy in the form heat. Therefore, biological systems including
ecosystems must be supplied with energy on a continuous Basis.

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MODELSOFENERGYFLOWINECOSYSTEM
1. Single Channel Energy Flow Model: The flow of energy takes place in a
unidirectional manner through a single channel of producers to herbivores and
carnivores. The energy captured by autotrophs does not revert back to solar input but
passes to herbivores; and that which passes to herbivores does not go back to
autotrophs but passes to consumers. Due to one way flow of energy, the entire system
would collapse if primary sources of energy were cut off. At each tropic level there
occurs progressive decrease in energy which is mainly due to loss of energy as heat in
metabolic reactions and also some of the energy is utilized at each tropic level

2. Y- shaped model: shows a common boundary, light and heat flow as well as import,
export and storage of organic matter . Decomposers are placed in separate box to
partially separate the grazing and detritus food chains. In terms of energy levels
decomposers are in fact a mixed group. •Y-shaped energy flow ismorerealisticand
practical thanthesingle channel energy flow model because: •It conforms to the basic
stratified structure of ecosystems •It separates the two chains i.e. grazing & detritus
food chain in both time and space. •Micro consumers (bacteria & fungi) and the macro
consumers (animals) differ greatly in size- metabolism relations in two models.

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3. Universal energy flow model :As the flow of energy takes place, there is gradual
loss of energy at each level there by resulting in less energy available at the next tropic
level as indicated by narrower pipes (energy flow) and smaller boxes (stored energy in
biomass). The loss of energy is mainly the energy which is not utilized (U). This is the
energy loss in locomotion, excretion etc. or it the energy lost in respiration (CR) which is
for maintenance. The remaining energy is used for production (P).

ECOLOGICALSUCCESSION
Ecological Succession is the phenomenon or process by which a community
progressively transforms itself until a stable community is formed. It is a fundamental
concept in ecology, refers to more or less predictable and orderly changes in the
composition or structure of an ecological community. Succession may be initiated either
by formation of new, unoccupied habitat (e.g., a lava flow or a severe landslide) or by
some form of disturbance (e.g. fire, severe wind throw, logging) of an existing
community. Succession that begins in areas where no soil is
initially present is called primary succession, whereas succession that begins in areas
where soil is already present is called secondary succession.

Clement's theory of succession/Mechanisms of succession

F.E. Clement(1916)developedadescriptivetheoryofsuccessionandadvanceditasageneral
ecological concept. His theory of succession had a powerful influence on ecological
thought. Clement's concept is usually termed classical ecological theory. According to
Clement, succession is a process involving several phases:

1. Nudation:Succession begins with the development of abaresite,called Nudation

(disturbance).
2. Migration: It refers to arrival of propagules.
3. Ecesis:It involves establishment and initial growth of vegetation.

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4. Competition:As vegetation became well established,grew,and spread,various
species began to compete for space, light and nutrients. This phase is called
competition.
5. Reaction:During this phase auto genic changes affect hehabit at resulting in
replacement of one plant community by another.
6. Stabilization:Reaction phase leads to development of a climax community.
Seral communities:
A seral community is an intermediate stage found in an ecosystem advancing towards
its climax community. In many cases more than one seral stage evolves until climax
conditions are attained. A prisere is a collection of seres making up the development of
an area from non-vegetated surfaces to a climax community. Depending on the
substratum and climate, a seral community can be one of the following:

Hydrosere :Community in fresh water

Lithosere : Community on rock
Psammosere : Community on sand
Xerosere : Community in dry area
Halosere :Community in saline body(e.g.amarsh)

Climax community
The final or stable community in asereisthe climax community or climatic vegetation. It
is self-perpetuating and in equilibrium with the physical habitat. There is no net annual
accumulation of organic matter in a climax community mostly. The annual production
and use of energy is balanced in such a community.

FOODCHAIN, FOODWEB & ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:

FOOD CHAIN:
In food chain each organism eats thesmaller organisms and is eaten by the larger one.
All those organisms which are interlinked with each other through food together
constitute the ecosystem.
• The different levels in a food chain are called tropic levels, Each food chain has three
main tropic levels:-Producer level, Consumer level,and decomposer level.If any of the
intermediate stage of the food chain is removed, the succeeding links of the food chain
will be affected.

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Types of Food Chains:
a) Grazing Food Chain:This type of food chain starts from living green plants goes to
grazing herbivores and on to carnivores. Ecosystem with such type of food chain
directly dependsuponthesolarenergyfortheirfoodrequirements.Mostoftheecosystemin
nature follows this type of food chain.

b) Detritus food Chain: This type of food chain goes from dead organic matter onto
microorganisms and then to the organisms feeding on detritus and their predators. Such
ecosystems are less dependent on direct solar energy.

c) Parasitic Food Chain: This type of food chain starts from big hosts and ends with
parasitic organisms

FOOD WEB:
The interconnected, interlocking pattern of food chain is known as food web. •Under
natural condition of the linear arrangement of food chain hardly occurs and they remain
interconnected with each other through different types of organisms at different levels
Such an interconnected and interlocking pattern of food chain is known as food web.

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ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
The different species in a food chain are called tropic levels. Each food chain has 3
main trophic level, producer, consumer, and decomposers. •Thus Graphical
representation of these trophic levelsiscalledasEcological Pyramids.It was devised by
anecologist “CharlesElton”therefore this pyramid are also called Ecological pyramid or
Eltonian pyramids.

Types of Ecological Pyramids:

Ecological pyramids are of three types:I
I) Pyramid of Number
II)Pyramid of biomass
III)Pyramid of Energy
I) Pyramidof Number:
• They show the relationship between producers, herbivores, and carnivores at
successive tropic levels in terms of their number.
• In case of pondecosystem the producers are mainly phytoplankton and are always
maximum in number this number then shows a decrease towards apex as primary
consumers are zooplanktons are lesser in number than phytoplankton, the secondary
consumers are large fishare even lesser in number than the phytoplankton. Thus the
shape of pyramid is upright. But in case of forest ecosystem the pyramids is always
inverted because the producers are mainly large trees, are lesser in numbers, the
herbivores fruit eating birds are more in number than the producers, then there is
gradual decrease in number of secondary consumers thus making pyramidup right
again.Thusthepyramidof number doesnotgiveatruepictureof thefoodchain and are
not very functional.

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 II) Pyramidof Biomass:
• The pyramid of biomass represents the relationship between different tropic levels in
terms of biomass.
•There is generally gradual decrease in biomass of organisms at successive levels from
the producers to the top carnivores. Thus pyramidof biomass is upright for grassland
ecosystem.
• However in case of a pond as the producers are algae, are least in number and this
value gradually shows an increase towards the apex of pyramid thus making the
pyramid inverted in shape.

III) Pyramid of energy:

• Of the 3 types of ecological pyramid the energy pyramid gives the best picture of
overall nature of the ecosystem. In this type of pyramid the tropic level is decided
depending upon the rate at which food is being produced.
• In shape it is always upright as in most of the cases there is always gradual decrease
in the energy content at successive trophic level from producers to various consumers.

2.1.4CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEMS

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Due to the abiotic factors, different eco systems develop in different ways. These factors
and their interaction between each other and with biotic components have resulted in
formation of different types of ecosystems as explained below.
Ecosystem may be natural or artificial.
Artificial Ecosystem: These are maintained or created artificially by man. The man
tries to control biotic community as well as physico-chemical environment.
Eg:Artificial pond, urban area development.
Natural Ecosystem: It consists of Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems which are
maintained naturally.

Different types of ecosystem of biosphere artificially categorized as follows:

I) Natural Ecosystems: These ecosystems operate by themselves under natural
conditions without any major interference by man. Based upon the particular kind of
habitat, these are further divided as:
•Terrestrial as forest, grassland, desert etc.
• Aquatic which maybe further distinguished as
• Fresh water which maybe lotic(running water as springs,stream,river)or
lentic(standingwater as lake, pond, pools,ditch,swamps,etc.)
• Marine Ecosystems:as an ocean or shallow ones like sea or estuary etc.
II) Artificial Ecosystems: These are maintained by man where, by addition of energy &
planned manipulations natural balance is disturbed regularly. For eg:crop lands like
maize,wheat,rice-fieldsetc.,where man tries to control the biotic community
as well as physico-chemical environment are artificial ecosystems

Pond Ecosystem: APond as a whole serves a good example of fresh water ecosystem
• Abiotic Components:The chief components are heat,light,pHofwater,CO2,oxygen,
calcium, nitrogen, phosphates, etc.
• Biotic Components:The various organization that constitute the biotic component are
as follows,
• Producers: These are green plants, and some photosynthetic bacteria. The producer
fix radiant energy and convert it into organic substances as carbohydrates, protein etc
• Macrophytes: these are large rooted plants, which include partly or completely

49
submerged hydrophytes, egHydrilla, Trapha, Typha.
• Phytoplankton:These are minute floating or sub merged lowerplants egalgae.
• Consumers: They are heterotrophs which depend for their nutrition on the organic
food manufactured by producers.
•Primary Consumers: – Benthos: These are animals associated with
livingplants,detrivoresand someother microorganisms –

Zooplanktons:These are chiefly rotifers, protozoans, they feed on phytoplankton

•Secondary Consumers: They are the Carnivores which feed on herbivores, these are
chiefly insect and fish, most insects & water beetles, they feed on zooplanktons.
•Tertiary Consumers: These are some large fish as game fish, turtles, which feed on
small fish and thus become tertiary consumers.
•Decomposers: They are also known as micro- consumers. They decompose dead
organic matter of both producers and animal to simple form. Thus they play an
important role in the return of minerals again to the pond ecosystem, they are chiefly
bacteria, & fungi.

Ocean Ecosystem
Are more stable than pond ecosystem,they occupy70% of the earthsurface.
• Abiotic Components:Dissolved oxygen,light,temperature, minerals.•BioticComponents:
• Producers: These are autotrophs and are also known Primary producers.They are
mainly,some microscopic algae (phyto-planlanktons) besides them there are mainly,
seaweeds, as brown and red algae also contribute to primary production. •Consumers:
They are all heterotrophic macro consumers •Primary Consumer: The herbivores, that
feed on producers are shrimps, Molluscs, fish, etc.•SecondaryConsumers: These are
carnivores fish as Herring, Shad, Mackerel, feeding on herbivores. •Tertiary Consumers:
These includes, other carnivores fishes like, COD, Halibut, Sea Turtle, Sharks etc.
• Decomposers: The microbes active in the decay of dead organic matter of producers,
and animals are chiefly, bacteria and some fungi.

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Estuarine Ecosystem
• An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water along the coast where fresh water
from river
and streams meet and mix with salt water from oceans. These Ecosystems are
considered as most fertile ecosystem.

•Abiotic Components: Nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen, temperature, light,

salinity, pH. This ecosystem experience wide daily and seasonal fluctuations in
temperature and Salinity level because of
variation in freshwater in flow.

•Biotic Components:
•Producers: Phyplanktons- these micro-organisms manufacture food by
photosynthesisandabsorbnutrientssuchasphosphorousandnitrogen, besidesthem,
mangroves, sea grass, weeds, and salt marshes.

•Consumers: Primary consumers, Zooplanktons that feed on Phytoplankton, besides

them some small microorganisms that feed on producers.

Secondary Consumer: Include worms, shellfish, small fish, feeding on Zooplanktons

Tertiary Consumer: Fishes, turtles, crabs, starfishes feeding on secondary consumers.
•Decomposers: Fungi & Bacteria are the chief microbes active in decay of dead
organic matter.

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River Ecosystem
• As Compared with lentic freshwater (Ponds & lakes), lotic waters such as streams,
and river have been less studied. However, the various components of an riverine and
stream ecosystem can be arranged as follows. •Producers: The chief producers that
remain permanently attachedto a firm substratum are green algae as Cladophora, and
aquatic mosses.
•Consumers: The consumers show certain features as permanent attachment
tofirmsubstrata, presence of hooks & suckers, sticky undersurface, streamline bodies,
flattened bodies.. Thus a variety of animal are found, which are fresh spongy and
caddis-fly larvae, snails, flat worms etc.
•Decomposers: Various bacteria and fungi like actinomycetes are present which acts as
decompose

BIODIVERSITY
The word biodiversity is a combination of two words: “biological and diversity” and refers
to the variety of life on the Earth. Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms
within a given species,ecosystem,biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure
of the health ofecosystems. The term biological diversity was used first by wild life
scientist and conservation is Raymond F.Dasmann inthe 1968. The term's contracted
form biodiversity may have been coined by W.G.Rosenin1985

Biodiversity is usually considered at three different levels:

The following are different types of biodiversity
1. Genetic diversity:variety in the genetic make up among individuals with in a species
2. Species diversity:variety among the species or distinct types of living organisms foun
in different habitats of the planet
3. Ecosystem or ecological diversity:variety of forests,deserts,grasslands,streams,lakes,
oceans, coral reefs, wetlands and other biological communities

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4. Functional diversity:biological and chemical processes of functions such as energy
flow an matter cycling needed for the survival of species and biological communities

1. GENETIC DIVERSITY: Genetic diversity is the “raw material” that permits species to
adjust to a changing world whether these changes are due to natural factors or are
caused by human factors. It refers to the variation at the level of individual genes and
provides a mechanism for populations to adapt to their ever-changing environment.
Eg:Humanbeings

2. SPECIES DIVERSITY: Species diversity refers to the different types of living

organisms on Earth. This includesthe manytypesofbirds,insects, plants,
bacteria,fungi,mammals, andmore.Many differing species often live together in
communities depending on each other to provide their needs. A species can be defined
as a group or population of similar organisms that reproduce by interbreeding within the
group. Members of a species do not normally reproduce with members of any other
species. Members of a specific species possess common characteristics that
distinguish them from other species and this remains constant regardless of geographic
location.

3. ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY: Ecological diversity or ecosystem diversity is the variety

of biological communities, such as forests, deserts, grasslands and streams that interact
with one another and with theirphysicalandchemical (nonliving) environments. Itrelates
tothedifferentforms of life which are present in any one particular area or site, in more
precise terms, it concerns the different species of a particular genus which are present
in an ecological community.

BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA

India has different types of climate and topography in different partsof the country and
these variations have induced enormous variability in flora and fauna. India has a rich
heritage of biological diversity and occupies the tenth position among the plant rich
nations of the world.It is very important to study the distribution, evolution, dispersal and
environmental relationship of plants and animals in time and space. Biogeography
comprising of phytogeography and zoogeography deals
with these aspects of plants and animals. In order to gain insight about the distribution
and environmental interactions of flora and fauna of our country, it has been classified
into ten biogeographic zones (Table 4.1). Each of these zones has its own characteristic
climate, soil, topography and biodiversity.

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S.NO BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONE BIOTIC PROVINCE TOTAL(SQ.KM.)

01 Trans-Himalayan Upper Regions 186200

02 Himalayan North-West Himalayas 6900

West Himalayas 720000
Central Himalayas 123000
East Himalayas 83000

03 Desert Kutch 45000

Thar 180000
Ladakh NA

04 Semi-Arid Central India 107600

Gujarat-Rajwara 400400

05 Western Ghats Malabar Coast 59700

Western Ghat Mountains 99300

06 Deccan Peninsula Deccan Plateau South 378000

Central Plateau 341000
Eastern Plateau 198000
Chhota Nagpur 217000
Central Highlands 287000

07 Gangetic Plain Upper Gangetic Plain 206400

Lower Gangetic Plain 153000

08 North-East India Brahmaputra Valley 65200 65200

North-Eastern Hills 106200

09 Islands Andaman Islands 6397

Nicobar Islands 1930
Lakshadweep Islands 180

10 Coasts West coast 6500

East Coast 6500

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VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
The value of biodiversity (in terms of its commercial utility, ecological services, social
and aesthetic values) is enormous. There are several ways that biodiversity and its
various forms are Valuable to humans. The biodiversity value may be classified as
follows:

1. CONSUMPTIVE VALUE: Biodiversity is an essential requirement for the

maintenance of global food supply. The main sources of human food include animals,
fish and plant produces. A large number of plants are consumed by human beings as
food. A few animal species are consumed by people which come from cattle, pigs,
sheep, goats, buffaloes, chickens, ducks, geese and turkey species.
Fish: Many fresh water fish can be grown in ponds. Israel and China already get about
half of their fish from aqua culture.
Drugs & medicines: About 75% of the world’s population depends upon plants or plant
extracts for medicines. The drug Penicillin used as an antibiotic is derived from a fungus
called
Penicillium. Likewise, Tetracycline frombacteriawhich is usedtocuremalariais
obtainedfrom the bark of cinchona tree. .
Fuel: The fossil fuels like coal, petroleum products and natural gas are the products of
biodiversity.

2. PRODUCTIVE VALUE: Some ofthe organisms are commercially usable where the
product is marketed and sold. The animal products like tusks of elephants; musk from
deer; silk from silkworm; wool from sheep or goats; fur of many animals etc all of which
are traded in the market.

Eg:Calabar bean wast radionally used as a poison in WestAfrica. Daisy plants were first
used as a lice remedy in the Middle East and this led to the Discovery of Pyrethrum.
Mosquito coils made from Pyrethrum are sold in the market. The bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis produces toxic proteins that kill certain insects.

3. SOCIAL VALUE: These are the values associated with the social life, religion and
spiritual aspects of the people. Many of the plants are considered to be sacred in our
country like Tulasi, Mango leaves, Banana leaves . The leaves, fruits, flowers of some
of the plants are used in worship. Many animals like cow, snake, bull, peacock also
have significantplace inspiritual and thus hold special importance. Thus, biodiversity has
distinct social value, attached with different societies.

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4. ETHICAL VALUE:The ethical value means that human beings may or may not use a
certain species but knowing the very fact that this species exists in nature gives
pleasure. For eg: A peculiar species of Pigeon, grey / white bird with short legs is no
more on this earth. Similarly, Dodo species is also no more. Human beings are not
deriving anything direct from Kangaroo, giraffe but strongly feel that these species
should exist in nature.

5. AESTHETIC VALUE:Every one of us would like to visit vast stretches of lands to

enjoy the visible life. People from farther areas, spend a lot of time and money to visit
wild life areaswhere they can enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this type of
tourismis known as eco tourism. Eco-tourism is estimated togenerate 12 billion dollars
of revenue annually that roughly gives the aesthetic value of biodiversity.
A study of the impact of environment on the psyche was undertaken by Kaplan and
Kaplan (1989) in which they found that being near nature relieved working stresses
while people who worked in closed environment or human made structures experienced
much more job stressesand illnesses.

6.OPTION VALUES: These values include the potentials of biodiversity that are
presently unknown and need to be explored. Thereis a possibility that we may have
some potential cure for AIDS or can-
cer existing within the depths of a marine ecosystem, or a tropical rainforest.
Thus option value is the value of knowing that there are biological resources existing
on this biosphere that may one day prove to bean effective option for something
important in the future. Thus, the option value of biodiversity suggests that any species
may prove to be a miracle species someday. The biodiversity is like precious gifts of
nature presented to us. We should not commit the folly of losing these
gifts even before unwrapping them.
The option value also includes the values, in terms of the option to visit areas where
a variety of flora and fauna, or specifically some endemic, rare or endangered species
exist.

BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVEL

The enormous diversity of life forms in the biosphere has evolved essentially through
the process of trial and error during course of organic evolution. The changes in
character of living organism which confer some advantage to the species are retained.

The changes in climatic conditions are reflected in the distribution of living organism and
the pattern of bio diversity on our planet.The number of species present perunit area
decreases as we move from mild tropics to the tundra's.

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The Indian region (8° to 30° N and 60° to 97.5°) with total area of 329 million hectares is
very rich in biodiversity. It is estimated that about 4500 species of plants occur in this
country. The position of Indian sub-continent at the confluence of there biogeography
reels is also an important contributing factor and explain the preserve of African,
European, Sind, Japanese and Indo-Malayan elements in the flora and fauna in India.It
is the sum total of such remarkable

diversity that has madeIndia a "gene bank" for anumber of foodcrops, forest trees,
medical and aromatic plants and domesticated animal.

Forests are important bioreserves; most of the 1700 million hectares of tropical forests
are located in poor countries.The forests surrounding Reode An eroidare part of
vegetation which is rich in species of plants and animals that are endemic. There are
about 53.5% of trees species found only in these forests and studies of birds, reptiles,
primates and butter flies have revealed equally high or higher endemics.

INDIA AS A MEGA DIVERSITY NATION

India contains a great wealth of biodiversity in the forests, wet lands and marine areas.
Hence biodiversity can be observed at all levels ie locally, nationally and globally . India,
as a subcontinent representing a major part of South Asia is rich in flora and fauna and
hence it is one of the world’s “MEGA DIVERSITY NATIONS” .
It is estimated that over 75000 species of animals and over 45000 species of plants are
found in India

Bio geo graphic regions of India: According to wild lifeInstitute of India,the country
has10 distinct biogeographic zones or regions. They are:
1. Trans– Himalayan Zone
2. Himalayan Zone
3. Desert Zone
4. Semi– arid Zone
5. Western Ghats
6. Deccan Zone
7. Gangeticplain Zone
8. NEIndian Zone
9. Coastal Zone
10. Islands around the country

HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY

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Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are termed
as hot spots of biodiversity. Species which are restrictedonly to particular areas are
known as endemic. India shows a good number of endemic species. About 62% of
amphibians and 50% of lizardsare endemic to India. Western Ghats are the site of
maximum endemism. The term “Hot spots” was introduced by Myers (1988). There are
25 such hot spots of biodiversity on a global level out of which two are present in India,
namely the Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. These hotspots covering less than
2% of the world’s land area are found to have about 50% of the terrestrial biodiversity.
According to Myers anarea is designated as a hotspot when it contains at least 0.5% of
the plant species as endemics.

a) Eastern Himalayas: They display an ultra-varies topography that fosters species

diversity and endemism. Recent studies have shown that North East India along with its
contiguous regions of Burma and Chinese provinces of Yunnan and Schezwan is an
active center of organic evolution and is considered to be the cradle of flowering plants.
Out of the world’s recorded flora 30% are endemic to India of which 35000 are in the
Himalayas.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Extinction or elimination of a species is a natural process of evolution.In the geologic
period the earth has experienced mass extinctions. During evolution, species have died
out and have been replaced by others. However, therate of loss of species in geologic
past has been aslow process, keeping in view the vast span of time going back to 444
million years. The process of extinction has become particularly fast in the recent years
of civilization. Edward O. Wilson prefers the acronym HIPPO, standing for habitat
destruction, invasive species, pollution, human overpopulation, and over-harvesting
Following are the major causes and issues related to threats to biodiversity:

1. Habitat destruction: Habitat destruction has played a key role in extinctions,

especially related to tropical forest destruction. Factors contributing to habitat loss are:
overpopulation,deforestation,pollution(airpollution,waterpollution,soilcontamination)andg
lobalwarmingor climate change. Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically
related. Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or
oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area.Conversionto"trivial"standardized
ecosystems(e.g., mono culture following deforestation) effectively destroys habitat for
the more diverse species that preceded the conversion. In some countries lack of
property rights or lax law/regulatory enforcement necessarily leads to
biodiversity loss (degradation costs having to be supported by the community)

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 2. Poaching: Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals
i.e. poaching is another threat to wildlife. Despite international ban on trade in products
from endangered species, smuggling of wild life items like furs, hides, horns, tusks, live
speci mensand herbal products worth millions of dollars per year continues, the
developing nations in Asia, Latin America and Africa are the richest source of
biodiversity and have enormous wealth of
wildlife. The rich countries in Europe and North America and some affluent countries in
Asia like Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong are the major importers of the wildlife products
or wildlife itself. The trading of such wild life products is highly profit making for the
poachers who just hunt these prohibited wild lives and smuggle it to other countries
mediated through mafia. The worst part is that for every live animal that actually gets
into the market about 50 additional animals are caught and killed

If you are fond of rare plants, fish or birds, please make sure that you are not going to
the endangered species or wild-caught species. Doing so will help in checking further
decline of these species. Also do not purchase fur coat, purse or bag, or items made of
crocodile skin or python skin. You will certainly help in preserving biodiversity by doing
So

3. Man-Wildlife Conflicts:We have discussed about the need to preserve and protect
wildlife. However,sometimes wecome across conflicting situations when wildlife starts
causing immense damage and danger to man and under such conditions it becomes
very difficult for the forest department to pacify the affected villages and gain local
support for wildlife conservation. Instances of man animal conflicts keep on coming to
lime light from several states in ourcountry. In Sambalpur, Orissa 195 humans were
killed in the last 5years by elephants. In retaliation the villagers killed 95 elephants in the
border region of Kote-Chamarajanagar belt in Mysore have been reported recently. The
man-elephant conflict in this region has arisen because of massive damaged one by the
elephants to the farmer’s cotton and sugarcane crops. The agonized villagers
electrocute the elephants and sometimes hide explosives in the sugarcane fields, which
explode as the elephants intrude into their fields. In fact, more killings are done by locals
than by poachers.
Causes of Man-animal conflicts:
Dwindling habitats of tigers, elephants, rhinos and bears due to shrinking forests cover
are compelled to move outside the forests and attack the field or sometimes even
humans. Human encroachment into the forest areas has rendered all forest living
animals to trespass the bordersof human civilizations.This is because the conflicts
between man and the wildlife have increased since it is an issue of survival of both

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Invasive Non-Native Species: Species that are non-native to aparticular area can
sometimes spread very quickly, for example the zebramusseland Japanese knotweed
have spreadrapidlyin Ireland in the past two decades. As a result, these species can
destabilize an ecosystem by altering habitats affecting food webs.

Pollution/Litter:As you will remember from the Litter and Waste theme, pollution is
always caused by humans. Pollution can have a huge impact, altering the balance with
in ecosystems,and is the cause of death for millions of animals and plants around the
world every year.

Land Use Change/Increased Infrastructure Development: This is the alteration of

natural areas by humans, for example, the clearing of huge areas of rainforest in South
America for farming. In Ireland, upland open habitats, such as rough grassland, scrub
and heath, have been changed by agriculture and afforestation.

Intensive Farming Practices: Extensive use and concentrations of chemical and/or

biological pesticides and the removal of hedgerows are typical practices inmodern-day
intensive farming. Often large areas of land are planted with a single crop
(monocultures) which greatly reduces the level of biodiversity in that area.

Climate Change: It is now widely accepted that the current global rate of change in
climate is as a result of human activity. As global air or sea temperature changes, even
by just 1 or 2 degrees, the habitats in which species live will also change and may even
become uninhabitable to some species.

ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES

Endangered species A species whose numbers are reduced to the point. That means
endangered species are in immediate danger of extinction.
The International Union Conservation of Nature(IUCN)classified the species of plants
and animals as:
(a) Endangered species
(b) Threatened species: Species ( including animals, plants, fungi, etc.) which are
vulnerable to endangerment in the near future)
(c) Rare species: Among the important endangered animal species, Indian wild ass; the
Kashmir stag, the Golden Langur etc .. are considered highly endangered. There are
also endangered bird species likeSiberiancrane; the great Indian Bustard; the florican
etc.. The IUCN published the data on endangered species of both plants and animals of
India. The data symbolizes the working signal for those species which are endangered
and if not protected are likely to become extinct in near future

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A species is said to be extinct when it is not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch
e.g. Dodo, Passenger Pigeon.
A species is said to been dangered when its number has been reduced to a critic all
evelor whose habitat, have been drastically reduced and if such species is not protected
and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction.
Endangered species of India
The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources(IUCN)
publishes the Red Data Book which include thelist of endangered species of plants and
animals. Thered data symbolizes the warning signal for those species which are
endangered and if not protected are likely to become extinct in near future
The animals that are listed under the critically endangered category are as under:
1)MalabarLargeSpottedCivet
2) NamdaphaFlyingSquirrel
3)SalimAli'sFruitBat
4)SumatranRhinoceros
Endangered Species areas under:
1)AsiaticLion
2)AsiaticBlackBear
3) DesertCat
4)GreatIndianRhinoceros
5)IndianElephant(or)AsianElephant
Threatened Speciesareasunder:
1) IndianWildAss
2)Leopard
Endemic species of India
India has two biodiversity hot-spotsand thus possesses a large number of endemic
species.
The endemic species are those taxa whose distribution is confined to a restricted area
due totheir specific ecological niches and edaphic gradients. Therefore, the habitats of
endemic species are far more vulnerable than other species. Endemic species once
lost, it is a loss of biodiversity of these species forever.
In India there are about 5725 endemic taxa of angiosperms (33.5% of Indian flora)
which are located in 25 hot spots. The major hotspots in India which contain largest
number of endemic plant species are the Southern Western Ghats and Eastern
Himalayas with 1286 and 1808 endemic species respectively. There are about 1272
species of endemic angiosperms out of 3800 species occurring in Kerala (33.5% of
Kerala flora) which represent 22.6% of Indian endemics. Seventy percent of the 1272
species of endemics have the major areas of distribution in Kerala

61
with spill over in adjacent regions. On the basis of the study of the distributional range,
about102 endemic species occur exclusively in Kerala.
A large number out of a total of 81,000 of animals in our country is endemic. The
Western Ghats are particularly rich in amphibians (frogs, toads etc) and reptiles (lizards,
crocodiles etc) about 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats

2)CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
In order to maintain and conserve biodiversity, the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
government of India has already taken several steps to manage wildlife, the objectives
of which are:
1. Maintenance of a number of species in protected areas such as National
Parks,Sanctuaries..
2. To improve the biosphere reserves
3. Implement strict restrictions of export of rare plants and animals
4. Educate the public on these through the government agencies and NGO’s.

A) IN-SITU CONSERVATION: The preservation of species in its natural ecosystem is

called in-situ conservation. As a consequence, protected areas are being identified and
maintained for natural conservation of species by individual countries. For the
conservation and management of endangered species several projects have been
established.Theseare:
Tiger Projects: Corbett National Park which is 300 km from New Delhi is the oldest
National Park of India having 1318.54 sq km. It was one of the nine Tiger Reserves
created at the launch of the Project Tiger in 1973.
Gir Lion Projects: The Gir Forest of Gujarat where lions arefound. This has an area of
1412sq kms and declared as a National Park.
Elephant Projects:The objective ensure long-term survival of population of elephants

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( not come into operations). Project Elephant (PE), a centrally sponsored scheme, was
launched in February 1992 to provide financial and technical support to major elephant
bearing States in the country for protection of elephants and their habitats. The Project
is being implemented in 13 States/UTs,viz..AndhraPradesh, ArunachalPradesh, Assam,
Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal,
Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.There are about 7000 protected areas in the world
which include a variety of National parks, Sanctuaries etc which vary in size (between
100 to 500 sq km), purpose (protection of one or more species and their habitats).. In
India, there are 39 National Parks and 492 wildlife sanctuaries.

National Parks: These are protected areas exclusively for wild life. Human activities
like hunting, Firewood collection, timber harvesting etc… are restricted in these areas to
that wild plants and animals could grow in a protected environment
The following measures should be adopted for the conservation of biodiversity:
1. Overgrazing in the forest and areas of vegetation should be controlled because it
may Destroy the useful rare plants.
2. The habitat of plants and animals should be conserved.
3. The natural condition of ecosystem should be studied and researched in time and
again,then Specific programs for conservation should be conducted.
4. Human activitiesshould be done without destroying natural environment.
5. Illegal hunting and smuggling of animals and plants should be strictly avoided.
6. Effective laws and rules should be adopted for the conservation of rare animals and
plants.
7. Industries are established from the raw materials.During the process of collecting raw
materials, care should be taken not to destroy useful plants and habitats of animals.
8. Public awareness should be created about the importance of rare animals and
plants,causes of rareness and measures for their preservation.

B) EX-SITU CONSERVATION:The conservation of elements of biodiversity out of the

context of their natural habitats is referred to as ex-situ conservation. Zoos, botanical
gardens andseed banks are all example of ex-situ conservation. In India we have the
following important gene and seedbank facilities.
i) National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources(NBPGR) is located in New Delhi. Here
agricultural and horticultural crops are stored by cryop reservation of seeds, pollens
etc. by using liquid nitrogen at a low temperature as low as -1960C.
ii) National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources(NBAGR)located at karnal,Haryana.
It preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.

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 UNIT-4
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION,
INTRODUCTION:
According to ODUM(1971), Pollutionis“an undesirable change in thecharacteristics of
air, water and land that harmfully affect the life and also create health hazards for all
living organisms on the globe”. According to SOUTHWICK (1976), Pollution can be
defined as “the unfavorable (or) alteration of environment caused by human activities
and causing harm to human beings”.

TYPES OF POLLUTION:
Basically the Pollution is of two types viz.,
(1) Natural Pollution:This type of pollution is limited in its occurrence generally from
natural hazards like volcanic eruptions, emissions of natural gas, soil erosion, ultraviolet
rays, cosmic rays etc and
(2) ManmadePollution:Most of the pollution is manmade only. However,
Pollutionisusually categorized as Air Pollution; Water Pollution; Thermal Pollution; Noise
Pollution; Land & soil Pollution; Radio Active Pollution and Marine Pollution

A)AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution may be described as “the imbalance in quality of air so as to cause adverse
effects on the living organisms existing on earth”. Pollution is due to the presence of
undesirable substance of sufficient quantity which exists in environment.
The substance or energy which causes pollution iscalled pollutant.
Types of air pollutants:
Pollutants may be classified according to origin and state of matter.
a) According to Origin: Airpollutants are divided into two categories as primary &
secondary.
1) Primary air pollutants are those which are emitted directly into the atmosphere.
Eg: C; CO; CO2; SOx ; N; S; H; NOx; CFC’s etc .
2) Secondary air pollutants are those which are produced in the air by the
interaction Among the primary air pollutants or by reaction with atmospheric
constituents. Eg:Ozone(O3); Smog;ParaAcetylNitrate(PAN);AcidRain;Aerosols.
b) According to State of Matter: Airpollutants include fine solids; liquids and gases.
Dust, Smoke, Fume set care examples for solid particles where as fog is an example for
liquid particles.

PRIMARY POLLUTANTS

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1. Carbon Monoxide: It is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas that is produced by the
incomplete burning of carbon based fuels (coal, petrol, diesel and wood) which comes
from the automobile industries, exhaust devices, About 70% of CO emissions are from
the transport sector. When the air is polluted with CO, human blood is likely to be
deprived of oxygen and leads to coma and death. In mild dosages, it leads to headache.

2. Oxides of Sulphur: SO2is a gas produced from burning of coal, mainly in thermal
power plants. Some industries such as paper mills produce SO2. It is injurious not only
to men and plants, but it also attacks rapidly a few rocks such as limestone, marbles,
electric contacts etc. It can even dissolve nylon. Paper absorbs SO2causing the paper
to become brittle and fragile. SO2polluted air leads to
corrosion of metals such as Fe, Zn, Cu, steel etc… SO2is a major contributor to Smog
and acid rain.
Sulphur trioxideis more irritant than SO2because it combines immediately with water to
form sulphuric acid.

3. OxidesofNitrogen:Combustionofcoal, oil,natural gas and gas oline which produces

upto50 ppm of Nitrogen. NOx are also produced when fossil fuels are burned especially
in power plants and motor vehicles. NO2poisoning results SILOFILTER disease. High
levels of NO2exposure causes cough and make the human beings feel short of breath.
People who are exposed to NO2for a long time have a higher chance of getting
respiratory infections. NOx compounds contribute for the formation of Ozone. Similarly,
when nitrogen oxide when combine with SOx to form acid rain.

4. Chloro Fluoro Carbons: CFC’s (also known as Freon) are non- toxic. They contain
Carbon, Fluorine and Chlorine atoms.The five main CFCs are the following:
●​ CFC – 11( Trichloro Fluoro Methane CFCl3 )
●​ CFC– 12(DichloroFluoro MethaneCF2Cl2)
The major uses of CFCs are as coolants in refrigerators and in air conditioners; as
solvents in cleaners particularly for electronic circuit boards etc.. CFCs are the main
cause of ozone depletion. CFCs have a lifetime in the atmosphere of about 20 to 100
years, and as a result one free chlorine atom from a CFC molecule can do a lot of
damage.

SECONDARY POLLUTANTS:
1) Ozone (O3) / Ozone layer Depletion: Ozone consists of oxygen molecules which
contain three oxygen atoms. It is not emitted directly into the air but produced in the

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atmosphere when oxygen combines with oxygen radical (O.) in the presence of
sunlight. Ozone protects us from ultra violet radiation and other harmful rays.

It is observed that over the last few years, many manmade processes release gases
into atmosphere causing drastic depletion of ozone layer. The chlorine atoms cause
depletion ofozone slowly and holes are formed in the ozone layer.
Ozone reacts with tissues and cause for breathing and decrease the working ability of
the lungs, chest pains and coughing. It lowers the human body resistance power and
leads to cold; pneumonia also.
Antarctic Ozone depletion: According to NIMBUS-7 satellite picture which was taken
on 5th October, 1987 the protective ozone layer showed a hole over 50% of the area of
the Antarctica continent covering 7 million sq km. On Jan 1st 1989, the country Montreal
(Canada) proposed redesigning refrigeration, air conditioning technology replacing the
use of CFCs by ozone friendly substitutes.

2) Smog: Smog is acombination of smoke and fog or various gases when react in the
presence of sunlight. The effects of smog on human health cause for respiratory,
irritation to the eyes, diseases related to nose, throat, bronchitis, pneumonia, headache,
nerves, liver, and kidneys. The first smog related deaths were recorded in London in
1873, when it killed 500 people. In 1892, December, London had worst experiences
causing 1000 deaths. In 1940’s severe smog began covering the cities of Los Angeles
in USA.

3) Acid rain:Acid rain has become one of the most important global environmental
problems and poses significant adverse impact on soils, rivers, lakes, forests and
monuments. The phenomenon occurs when SOx and NOx from the burning of fossil
fuels such as Petrol, Diesel, Coat etc combine with water vapour in atmosphere and fall
as rain or snow or fog. Natural sources like volcanoes, forest fires, etc also contribute
SOx and NOx. Increased urban andindustrial activities cause air pollutionresulting in
therise ofconcentration ofSO2 and NOx. Sulphur dioxide and NO2 combines with water
vapour in the atmosphere produce sulphuric acid and Nitric acid respectively and results
acid rain. Some of the examples are: Europe and parts of W Asia have experienced rain
with water pH range of 4.5 to 5.0 (acidic) in 1958.

AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS, PREVENTION AND CONTROL MEASURES:

Human beings breathe 22000 times a day on the average, inhaling 16 kg of air.
Atmosphere constitutes a protective cover of gases surrounding the earth which
Sustains life and saves it from unfriendly environment. The atmosphere consists of
several layers viz. Troposphere, Stratosphere; Mesosphere; Thermosphere &

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Exosphere. The lower atmosphere i.e., thetroposphere contains 70% of gaseous
components of major, minor and traces. Ultra violet radiation from the sun is absorbed
by ozone in the stratosphere which is so called ozone layer located between 17 - 26
kms above sea level.

Effects of Air pollution: The effects of pollution may be direct and affect certain
organisms.The effects of pollution may possess a hazard or nuisance. Long continued
pollution evenaffects the evolution of a species and eliminates organisms that cannot
tolerate certain pollutants and favor others who can eat. Air pollution causes deaths,
Impair health, reduce visibility and brings vast economic losses. It can also cause
intangible losses to historic monuments such as Taj Mahal. Finally,Air
pollutioncanaffecttheenvironmentonaglobal scale.

Preventionand control ofAir Pollution:

●​ Inputs that do not contain the pollutants.
●​ Operating process to minimize generation of the pollutants.
●​ Replacing the process with one does not generate the pollutant.
●​ Removing the pollutants from the process.
●​ Substitution of raw materials.
Eg:The substitution of high sulphur coal with low sulphur coal in powerplants.
Eg: Changing a fossil fuel with nuclear energy can eliminate sulphur emission.
●​ By involving theProcess Modification:
Eg: Chemical and petroleum industries have changed by implementing
Automated operations, computerized process control by reducing the Oxidation
of SO2 to SO3 by reducing excess air.
●​ By involving the control technologies: Control equipment viz., Wet Collector
(scrubber), Gravity Settling chamber; Cyclone Collectors, Dry Scrubbers, filters,
electrostatic precipitators etc. are to be used to minimize the air pollution.

B) WATER POLLUTION
Hydrosphere in the universe contains water in the form of oceans, rivers, lakes, tanks
and many other water sources. Water sources in the world areoftwotypes.
They are 1)Marine water bodies and (2)Fresh Water bodies. Water is a good solvent for
many substances. Because of this property water cannot exist in its
pureform at many parts of the world.Water pollution is mainly because of sewage,
industrial disposals i.e., effluents.

PARAMETERS OF WATER POLLUTION:

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Chemical examination of water(tests):pH; BiologicalOxygenDemand(BOD), Dissolved
Oxygen (DO), etc are some of the chemical tests to find the stage of pollution of water.
1. pH:The valueof pHgives the degree of acidityor alkalinityof polluted water.
Determination of pH is important in calculating the coagulant (thick or thin) dose.
2. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): It is defined as the quantity of oxygen utilized by
micro organisms at a temperature of 20oC, generally measured for 5 days. When water
is polluted by unwanted materials, naturally the O2content gets reduced and that water
become not fit for consumption either by human beings or animals or plants.
Living organisms require water with some quantity of sustainable oxygen in it. That
oxygen is necessary for living organisms is generally called BOD. If there is reduction in
oxygen content of water, it becomes unfit for biological consumption because there is
change in BOD.

COMMON TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS:

A) Based on sources B)Based on natures

A) Based on sources:
a) Disease causing agents: Bacteria, viruses, protozoan that enter water from
domestic sewage and animal wastes.
b) Water soluble inorganic chemicals: Acids, salts and compounds of toxic metals
such as Lead, Mercury can make water unfit to drink, harm fishes and other aquatic life.
Also Nitrate, Phosphate compounds dissolve in water that can cause excessive growth
of algae, which then die and decay, depleting dissolved O2in water and killing fish.
c) Water Soluble Organic chemicals: Oil, gasoline (a type of oil is obtained from
petroleum), pesticides, detergents and many other water soluble chemicals that
threaten human health and harm fish.
d) Heat: Large quantity of water is heated when it is used in the cooling towers of
thermal power plants. When this hot water is discharged into the near bywater bodies, it
causes an increase in its temperature.
e) Sewage: sewage is waste water from municipalarea where there is human
habitation. Sewage
which comes from homes is called domestic sewage

B) Based on natures:
In nature waterpollution is classified into three types by Kimball(1975).Theyare:
1. Domestic water pollution: Sewage is a part of domestic water pollution. Domestic
sewage not only contains unwanted waste materials, but it is also infested with harmful
bacteria, virus etc. These are responsible for causing diseases in animals and human

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beings, if they drink this polluted water and even plants may die if polluted water is
provided. Domestic water pollution leads to Diarrhea, Cholera and Typhoid in human
beings.

2. Agricultural Water Pollution: Water require for plants for its growth. Major irrigation,
minor irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation, lift irrigation carry waste substances
and causing water pollution in addition to the utilization of fertilizer and pesticides.
Agricultural water pollution leads to Eutrophication & Water Bloom.

Ecological effects:The important troubling ecological impactsare:

1. Excessivenutrients in waterbodies promote plantgrowth which leads to a drop in
water quality;
2. Disruption of the natural ecosystem E.g.lack of oxygen for shelf marine life(causing a
drop in their population).
3. Decrease in the recreational and aesthetic value of waterbodies
4. Health problems when it occurs in drinking water reserves
5. Coral reef decline
6. Decreased biodiversity,
7. Changes inspecies composition and dominance, and
8. Toxicity effects.
9. Toxicphy to plankt on species
10. Decreases in water transparency (increased turbidity)
11. Color, smell, and water treatment problems
12. Dissolved oxygen depletion
13. Increased incidences of fish kills
14. Loss of desirable fish species

3. Industrial water pollution: Many industries discharge waste materials containing

harmful chemicals. Such Industrial wastes are called effluents. The river Godavari is
polluted because of effluents released by the paper industry. It affects the entire water
ecosystem causing enormous damage to fishes, prawns and fresh water animals.
Eg:Minamata disease & Fluorosis.
Minamata disease is an eurological syndromecaused by severe mercury poisoning.
Symptoms include ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet,general muscle
weakness,narrowing of the field Of vision and damage to hearing and speech. In
extreme cases, insanity,paralysis,coma,and death follow within weeks of the onset of
symptoms. Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamatacity in Japanin 1956. It
was caused by the release of methyl mercury from, the Chisso Corporation's chemical
factory, which continued from 1932 to 1968. This highly toxic chemical bio- accumulated

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in shellfish and fish in Minamata Bay which when eaten by the local people resulted in
mercury poisoning. While cat, dog, pig, and human deaths continued over more than
30years, the government and company did little to prevent the pollution.
Fluorosis: People suffer from a disease called fluorosis after consuming water
containing fluorine for sufficiently along time.Quantity of fluoride in water is only 1ppm.
Diseases caused by fluorosis are:

●​ Back pain and cannot easily bend.

●​ Joints gets tiffened as so movemen to joints is impaired.
●​ Teeth are the worst effected and a brown coating appears on the enamel of teeth
giving bad appearance.
●​ Persons with fluoros is cannot erect freely.

CONTROL MEASURES OF WATER POLLUTION:

1. Drinking water should be boiled, cooled and then used.
2. Disinfection of drinking water should be done by using chemicals like bleaching
powder.
3. Pesticide sand insecticides should be prevented from near by use of water lakes,
pondsand pools.
4. Drainage water should not be allowed to mix with drinking water.
5. Drainage system should be maintained properly.
6. Chlorination process is to beadopted for drinking water. For 1litre of water 30 -40mg
of chlorine is to be added to get perfect disinfection. It kills bacteria, fungi, fungal spores
and other microbes also.

C)SOIL POLLUTION
Definition:
Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds,
chemicals, salts, Radioactive materials, ordisease causing agents,which have adverse
effects on plant growth and animal health. Soil is the thin layer of organic and inorganic
materials that covers the Earth's rocky surface.The organic portion, which is derived
from the decaye dremains of plants and animals,is concentrated in the dark upper most
top soil.The inorganic portion made upon frock fragments, was formed over thousands
of yearsbyphysical and chemicalweathering of bedrock. Productive soils are necessary
for agriculture to supply the world with sufficient food.

There are many different ways that soil can be come polluted,such as:
• See page from a landfill
• Discharge of industrial waste in to the soil

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• Percolation of contaminated water into the soil
• Rupture of underground storage tanks
• Excess application of pesticides ,herbicides or fertilizer
• Solid waste see page

The most common chemicals involved in causing soilpollution are:

• Petroleum hydrocarbons
• Heavy metals
• Pesticides
• Solvents

Types of Soil Pollution

• Agricultural Soil Pollution and pollution due to urban activities
i) Pollution of surface soil
ii) Pollution of underground soil

• Soil pollution by industrial effluents and solid wastes

i) Pollution of surface soil
ii) Disturbances in soil profile

CAUSES OF SOILPOLLUTION:
Soil pollution is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in
the natural soil environment. This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture
of underground storage links, application of pesticides, and percolation of contaminated
surface water to subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from
landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals
involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy
metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of
industrialization and intensities of chemical usage. A soil pollutant is any factor which
deteriorates the quality, texture and mineral content of the Soil or which disturbs the
biological balance of the organisms in the soil. Pollution in soil has
adverse effect on plant growth.

Pollutionin soil isassociated with

• Indiscriminate use of fertilizers
• Indiscriminateuse of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides
• Dumpingof large quantities of solidwaste
• Deforestation and soil erosion

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1. Indiscriminate use of fertilizers:
Soil nutrients are important for plant growth and development. Plants obtain carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen from air and water. But other necessary nutrients like nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur and more must be obtained from
the soil. Farmers generally use fertilizers to correct soil deficiencies. Fertilizers
contaminate the soil with impurities, which come from the raw materials used for their
manufacture. Mixed fertilizersoften contain ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), phosphorus
as P2O5, and potassium as K2O.For instance, arsenic,lead and cadmium present in
tracesin rock phosphatemineral get transferred to super phosphate fertilizer. Since the
metals are not degradable, their accumulation in the soil above their toxic levels due to
excessive use of phosphate fertilizers becomes an indestructible poison for crops. The
over use of NPK fertilizers reduce quantity of vegetables and crops grown on soil over
the years. It also reduces the protein content of wheat, maize, grams, etc., grown on
that soil. The carbohydrate quality of such crops also gets degraded. Excess potassium
content in soildecreases Vitamin C and carotene content in vegetables and fruits. The
vegetables and fruits grown on over fertilized soil are more prone to attacks by insects
and disease.

2. Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides:

The first widespread insecticide use began at the end of World War II and included DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and gammaxene. Insects soon became resistant to
DDTand as the chemical did not decompose readily, it persisted in the environment.
Since it was soluble in fat rather than water, it biomagnified up the food chain and
disrupted calcium metabolism in birds, causing egg shells to be thin and fragile. As a
result, large birds of preysuch as the brown pelican, ospreys, falcons and eagles
became endangered. DDT has been now been banned in most western countries.
Ironically many of them including USA still produce DDT for export to other developing
nations whose needs outweigh the problems caused by it. The most important
pesticides are DDT, BHC, chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, aldrin,
malathion, dieldrin, furodan, etc. The remnants of such pesticides used on pests may
get adsorbed by the soil particles, which then contaminate root crops grown in that soil.
The consumption of such crops causes the pesticides remnants to enter
humanbiological systems, affecting them adversely. An infamous herbicide used as a
defoliant in the Vietnam War called Agent Orange (dioxin), exposure to Agent Orange.
Pesticides not only bring toxic effect on human and animals but also decrease the
fertility of the soil. Some of the pesticides are quite stable and their bio- degradation
may take weeks and even months. Pesticide problems such as resistance, resurgence,
and health effects have caused scientists to seek alternatives. Pheromones and

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hormones to attract orrepel insects and using natural enemies or sterilization by
radiation have been suggested

3. Dumping oflargequantitiesofsolidwaste:
In general, solid waste includes garbage, domestic refuse and discarded solid materials
such as Those from commercial, industrial and agricultural operations. They contain
increasing amounts of paper, cardboards, plastics, glass, old construction material,
packaging material and toxic or otherwise hazardous substances. Since a significant
amount of urban solid waste tends to be paper and food waste, the majority is
recyclable or biodegradable in landfills. Similarly, most agricultural waste is recycled and
mining waste is left on site. The portion of solid waste that is hazardous such as oils,
battery metals, heavy metals from smelting industries and organic solvents are the ones
we have to pay particular attention to.These can in the long run, get deposited to the
soils of the surrounding area and pollute them by altering their chemical and biological
properties. They also contaminate drinking water aquifer sources. More than 90% of
hazardous waste is produced by chemical, petroleum and metal-related industries and
small businesses such as dry cleaners and gas stations contribute as well.

4. Deforestation and soil erosion:

Soil Erosion occurs when the weathered soil particles are dislodged and carried away
by wind or water. Deforestation, agricultural development, temperature extremes,
precipitation including acid rain, and human activities contribute to this erosion. Humans
speed up this process by construction, mining, cutting of timber, over cropping and
overgrazing. It results in floods and cause soil erosion.

EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION

1. Agricultural
• Reduced soil fertility
• Reduced nitrogen fixation
• Increasederosion
• Larger loss of soil and nutrients
• Depositionof silt in tanks and reservoirs
• Reduced crop yield
• Imbalance in soil fauna and flora

2. Industrial
• Dangerous chemicals entering under ground water
• Ecological imbalance
• Release of pollutantgases

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• Release of radio active ray scausing health problems
• Increased salinity
• Reduced vegetation

3. Urban
Clogging of drains
• Inundation of areas
• Public health problems
• Pollution of drinking water sources
• Foul smell and release of gases
• Waste management problems

CONTROL MEASURES OF SOIL POLLUTION

The following steps have been suggested to control soil pollution. To help prevent soil
erosion,wecanlimitconstructioninsensitivearea.Ingeneralwewouldneedlessfertilizerandfe
wer pesticides ifwe could alladopt the three R's: Reduce,Reuse,and Recycle.This would
give us less solid waste.
1. Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use Applying bio-fertilizers and
manures can reduce chemical fertilizer and pesticide use. Biological methods of pest
control can also reduce the use of pesticides and thereby minimize soil pollution.
2. Reusing of materials Materials such as glass containers, plastic bags, paper,
clothetc. can bereused at domestic levels rather than being disposed, reducing solid
waste pollution.
3. Recycling and recovery of materials
This is a reasonable solution for reducing soil pollution. Materials such as paper, some
kinds of plastics and glass can and are being recycled. This decreases the volume of
refuse and helps in the conservation of natural resources. For example, recovery of one
tonne of paper can save 17 trees.
4. Reforesting
Control of land loss and soil erosioncan beattemptedthroughrestoringforest and grass
cover to check wastelands, soil erosion and floods. Crop rotation or mixed cropping can
improve the fertility of the land.
5. Solid waste treatment
Proper methods should bead opted formanagement of solid waste disposal. Industrial
wastes can be treated physically, chemically and biologically until they are less
hazardous. Acidic and alkaline wastes should be first neutralized; the insoluble material
if biodegradable should be allowed to degrade under controlled conditions before being
disposed.

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D)MARINE POLLUTION
Pollution of oceans is damaging the marine environment and is becoming a major
problem. Marine environment is interesting for various reasons such as Sea food;
Navigation; Adventure; Tourism etc,, Marine Pollution is harmful and its danger can be
identified in a variety of ways.

Sources & causes of marine pollution:

Marine pollution originates from one of two sources --- the land or the sea which are
explained below:
Marine Oil Pollution: Oil is basically an important pollutant which destroys marine
environment. The various sources of oil pollution are:
Run-off oil from streets; disposal of lubricants from machines; Off shore oil and gas
exploitation from off-shore drilling; blow outs atoff-shore drilling rigs; oil escaping under
high pressure from abore hole in the ocean floor. Waste chemicals, mud and
accumulation of toxic substances in the ocean in the form of mercury, dioxin, PCBs,
PAHs (Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons) Radioactivity. benzene; xylene ( colorless,
flammable liquids ) and heavy metals such as lead; copper; nickel, mercury also cause
for marine pollution during the off shore drilling activities. Both dumping and exploitation
of ocean resources cause ocean pollution also. PAHs: It is a chemical compound and
organic pollutant. These occur in oil, coal and tar deposits and are produced as by
products of fuel burning. PAHsare lipophilic meaning they mixmoreeasilyinoilthanwater.
Eg for PAHsare: Acenaphthene; Anthracene; Benzopyrene; Chrysene; Coronene;
Fluorene; Pyrene.

Other sources from land: The major sources of marine pollution originating from
theland vary from country to country. Effluents are discharged either directly into the sea
or enters the coastal waters through rivers. Thousands of barrels of oil burn when oil
wells were set on fire. Tanker accidents on land carry oil to the nearby streams / canals
and cause for marine Pollution. Due to burning of oil, smoke, SO2, NO2, CO is added
towards atmospheric contamination.

The effects of oil pollution depend mainly on thefollowing factors:

Type of oil and its viscosity, amount/quantity released,distance covered, time,average
water temp etc..
EffectsofMarinePollution:
SNo Source Effect
1 Sewage & run-off from forestry; Depletes oxygen in water causes killing of fishes.
2 Sediments frommining Sedimentsc login the gills offishes

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3 Sewage from municipalities, Contaminatese a food
towns;cities etc…
4 Industrial discharge; pesticides Cause disease in coastal marine life
From farms
5 Oil from off shore drilling; Low level contamination killlarvaewhereashigh
Industries / automobiles Level contamination causes death forsea fishes
6 Litter(rubbish),waste,plastics Marine life disturbs
7 Hot water from power plants Kills corals.

Marine Pollution Abatement/Prevention & control measures of Marine pollution:

The following are the some of the control measures for marine pollution:
1. Improving existing sewage disposal facilities
2. Ensuring individual houses have sewagedisposal systems(such asseptic tanks).
3. Largere sorts should use and manage their own packaged treatment plants.
4. Marine planning and management should be considered as processes such as land –
sea interaction; inter disciplinary co-operation; participation of public & private sector
organizations; balance between protection and development public participation
5. Oil tankers are double hulled(two layered bottom)to reduce the chance of oil leakage
6. Recycling facilities for used oil.

E)NOISE POLLUTION
INTRODUCTION:
Everyone knows that sound is a form of energy that is capable of causing disturbances
in human beings. Ears are the hearing organs in human beings. Athin membrane is
called Tympanum (or) eardrum receives the vibrations produced by sound to a limited
extent. Human ear is capable of perceiving about 85 decibels of sound.
Beyond the limit, the ear drum cannot bear sound. In nature, we hear different types of
sounds. Sound is a kind of vibration which travel throughair, water, and are sensed by
the ear. This is from music, speech, etc from radio / television / computers etc., one
thing in this matter is that we can increase the volume of sound or decrease
as per our taste where as, a noise is a sound which cannot be heard clearly and only
mixed sounds will be heard.
For eg: in an office one is talking on mobile, phone ringing another side, ring tones in
some person's hands, loud conversations with one and another etc., this is called noise.
One cannot increase or decrease the volume of noise. In general, a sound is a vibration
from a particular machine, place or material which can be heard clearly whereas a noise
a mixed vibrations that will come to us from all directions. A sound can be clear and can
be able to hear, where as a noise will not be clear and cannot be heard.

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SOURCES OF NOISE:
Noise is an unwanted sound and noise pollution occurs through different sources:
1. Vehicles produce noise that leads to noise pollution.
2. Automobile industry is an other source of noise pollution.
3. Noise pollution is very common in industrial areas where machines are working for
factories making more noise.
The sources of noise are more in urban and industrial areas, than in rural areas. The
sources of noise may be stationary or mobile. The stationary sources include industries,
loud speakers, mining operations, use of machineries, TV, Radio and Grinders etc. The
mobile sources include Road Traffic, Highway Noise, Railway Traffic and Air Traffic.

(1) Stationary sources:

a) Industrial noise: The main categories of industrial activity that are particularly
relevant to the study of noise are the following: Product fabrication, Product assembly,
Power generation by means of generators, Combusting process in furnaces (burning of
gases)

b) Noise from construction works: Construction noise, a major source of noise

pollution is emittedby constructionequipment. The sources of noise are dozers
excavators, front end loaders, soil compactors, cranes, air compressors, concrete
vibrators, riveting steel structure during the casting, dismantling of construction
materials etc...

c) Noise from other sources: These include sources such as sirens, barking dogs,
ambulances, Police vehicles, Fire engines etc.

(2) Mobile sources:

Road traffic: Of all sources of noise pollution, road traffic is the most prevalent and
perhaps the most source of noise pollution. More people are exposed to noise from
motor vehicles and the noise depends on various factors such as Road location,Road
design,Vehicle standards, Driver behaviors, Horns, Traffic density. ,

Noise of common road vehicles

Vehicletype. Noise(db)
Medium road traffic(Main roads) 70-80
Heavy road traffic (High ways) 80-90
Buses &Trucks upto 3.5tons. 85-95

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Trucks upto 3.5-12 tons. 90-100
Motorcycles 90-105

It can be observed that motor cycles with their exposed engines and inadequate
silencing arrangements are no to rious noise producers, which produce more than 30
times sound thana small passenger car.

a) Railway traffic: Noise from railway traffic is not serious nuisance as compared to the
road traffic noise. The level of noise associated with rail traffic is related to the type of
engine, the speed of the train, track type and condition. The majority of noise emitted by
trains is produced by the engine (or) by the interaction of wheels with the tracks, horns,
warning signals atcrossings etc..,

b) Air traffic: The noise of air craft is different from that of road traffic in the sense it is
intermittent. Noise is maximum during takeoff and landing. Noise made by jet planes is
more disturbance than that of propeller driven air craft. Supersonic air craft produce
noise at high levels due to its intensity.

EFFECTS OF NOISE:
At 120 decibels the ear registers pain but hearing damage begins about 85 decibels.
Apart from hearing loss, noise can cause lack of sleep, irritation, indigestion, ulcers,
High B.P., Heart diseases , Stress etc.,.
1. Annoyance (Feeling slightly angry):One of the most important effects of noise on
human is annoyance. Due to this breathing rate affects.
2. Noise-induced hearing loss:Exposure to noise for along enough duration results
indamage To the inner ear and thus decreases one’s ability to hear. The louder the
noise the less time it takes to cause hearing loss.
3. Effects on sleep:Noise disturbs sleep. It has been found that the cases related to
various levels of noise are associated with sleep disturbances. Sleep disturbanceby
noise depends on the characteristics of the noise such as frequency, loudness and
whether the noise is continuous orintermittent.
Other effects: There are many other effects of noises such involve aggression (ready
to attack). People may turn mad and nerves may not function normally, People may be
deformed in many ways including increased stress and strain, nonfunctioning of hands,
legs etc due to noise pollution if exposed continuously.

CONTROL MEASURES:

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Noise pollution could be controlled by either reducing the noise at the source or by
preventing its transmission. The first step in the prevention of noise pollution is to
control the noise at source itself.
Foreg:Lubrication of machines reduces the noise produced, Tightening the loose nuts,
Reducing the vibrations produced by machines etc…
Failing to control the noise at its source, the second step is to prevent its transmission
for eg: keeping the noise machine covered in an enclosure so that the sound does not
escape and reach the receivers, construction of noise barriers on road sides, sound
proof the buildings by using heavy curtains on the windows, acoustical tiles on the
ceiling and walls, by sealing the cracks in the walls to reduce the noise coming from
outside. If the noise levels are not able to bring down to the desired levels in some
cases, the only alternative is to follow:

•Avoiding horns exceptin emergency situations.

• Sound proof or eco-generat or sand Turning down the volume ofstereos.
• Conducting the awareness programs

3.1.6THERMAL POLLUTION
Thermal pollution is also known as heat pollution and occurs when heat is released into
water or air that produces undesirable effects. Sudden heat release usually due to
forest fire or volcanoes or human induced activities. Thermal pollution is also the
addition of excess undesirable heat to water that makes it harmful to human, animal or
aquatic life.

Sourcesof ThermalPollution:
Various sourcesof thermal pollutioninclude
Thermal Power Plants ; Nuclear Power Plants ; Petroleum Refineries; Steel Plants;
Metallurgical industries; Paper Mills; Chemical Plants. Coal fired power plants constitute
major sources of thermal pollution. Nuclear plants discharge much heat and also traces
of toxic radioactive substances. Many industries use water for cooling purpose and thus
the heat effluents are finally discharged into water.

Temperature and its effects:Temperature plays an important role indetermining the

conditions in which living things can survive. Birds and mammals require an arrow
range of body temp for survival whereas aquaticspecies can exist at a certain range of
temperatures. Thermal pollution increases water temperature causing a change
(lowering) of dissolved oxygen levels. This disrupts and causes decay of plant and
animal species. For eg: The warmer water increases the metabolic rate of fish and other
animals in the sea; thisdecreases the life expectancy of aquatic animals.

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Management of Thermal Pollution:
Thermal Pollution is controlled by the following methods:
1. Cooling Towers are designed to control the temperature of water which transfers
some of the heat from the water to the surrounding atmosphere by evaporation. There
are two types ofcooling towers namely wet cooling towers and dry cooling towers.
2. Cooling ponds are employed for thermal discharges. Heated effluents on the surface
of water in cooling ponds maximize dissipation of heat to the atmosphere.
3. Artificial lakes are man made bodies of water which offer possible alternative. The
heating effluents are discharged into lake at one end and the water for cooling purpose
may be withdrawn from the other end

3.1.7 NUCLEAR HAZARDS

Radio activity is the phenomenon of emission of energy from radioactive isotopes (i.e.,
unstable isotopes), such as Carbon-14, Uranium-235, Uranium-238, Uranium-239,
Radium-226, etc. The emission of energy from radio active substances in the
environment is often called as 'Radioactive Pollution'.

Sources/causes of nuclear hazards

The sources of radio activity are both natura land man-made.The natural sources
include:
a) Natural sources:
1) Emissions from radio active materials from the Earth's crust.
People have been exposed to low levels of radiation from these natural sources for
several millennia. But it is the man-made sources which are posing a threat to mankind.
b) Man-Made Sources: The man-made sources of radio activity are nuclear
wastes(i.e.,waste material that contains radio active nuclei) produced during the:
1) Mining and processing of radio activeores;
2) Use of radio active materialin nuclear powerplants;
3) Use of radio active isotopesin medical, industrial and research applications; and
4) Use of radio active materials in nuclear weapons.
The greatest exposure to human beings comes from the diagnosticuse of X-rays,
radioactive isotopes used as tracers and treatment of cancer and other ailments.

Effects of nuclear hazards:

The effects of radioactive pollutants depend upon half-life, energy releasing capacity,
rate of diffusion and rate of deposition of the contaminant. Various atmospheric
conditions and climatic
Conditions such as wind,temperature and rainfall also determine their effects.

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The effects may be somatic(individual exposed is affected)orgenetic(future generations)
damage. The effects are cancer, shortening of life span and genetic effects or
mutations.
Some of the possible effects are listed as under:
1) Radiations may break chemical bonds, such as DNA in cells.This affects the genetic
make-up and control mechanisms. The effects can be instantaneous, prolonged or
delayed types. Even it could be carried to future generations.
2) Exposure at low doses of radiations(100-250rads), men do not die but begin to suffer
from fatigue, nausea, vomiting and loss of hair. But recovery is possible.
3) Exposure a thigher doses(400-500rads),the bone marrow is affected,blood cells are
reduced, natural resistance and fighting capacity against germs is reduced, blood fails
to clot, and the irradiated person soon dies of infection and bleeding.
4) Higher irradiation doses(10,000rads) kill the organisms by damaging the tissues of
heart, brain, etc.
5) Workers handling radio active wastes gets low but continuous irradiation and
incourse of time develop cancer of different types.
6) Through food chain also, radioactivity effects are experienced by man. But the most
significant effect of radio activity is that it causes long range effects, affecting the
future of man and hence the future of our civilization.

Control measures:
On one hand, the peaceful uses of radioactive materials are so wide and effective that
modern civilization cannot go without them; on the other hand, there is no cure for
radiation damage. Thus the only option against nuclear hazards is to check and prevent
radio active pollution. For this:
1) Leakages from nuclear reactors, careless handling,transport and use of radio active
fuels, fission products and radio active isotopes have to be totally stopped;
2) Safety measures should been forced strictly;
3) Waste disposal must becareful, efficientand effective;
4) There should be regular monitoring and quantitative analysis through frequents
amplingin the risk areas;
5) Preventive measures should be followed so that background radiation levels do not
exceed the permissible limits;
6) Appropriate steps should be taken against occupational exposure;and
7) Safety measures should be strength against nuclear accidents

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 UNIT -5
FIELD WORK

VISIT TO A LOCAL AREA TO DOCUMENT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSETS

Visit may be planned to any nearby river, forest, grassland, hill or mountain, depending
upon easy access and importance. Write a report based on your observations and
understanding about various aspects of the environment. The contents of this book
(Unit 1-7) provide the required information for the study and for arriving at some
important conclusions about the system
(A) STUDY OF RIVER ENVIRONMENT
1. Background data:
Note down the name of the river or tributary, itsplace of origin and its course or route.
Find out whether the river isperennial or seasonal in nature.

2. Water quality observations:

(i) Note down whether the water of the river is clear or turbid.l If it is clear, what do you
expect? Penetration of light into the water would be more, therefore green aquatic
plants will be growing better. The primary productivity will be high.If it is turbid, how
would it affect the primary productivity of the river? You know that sunlight penetration is
obstructed by turbidity.
(ii) Note the temperature of water with a thermometer or thermoprobe. Also note the
temperature of the air.l If the temperature of the river water is quite high (> 5°C thanthe
ambient water temperature), what can be the reason? Find out if any thermal pollution is
occurring in the river due to discharge of effluents from some industry.l Write down the
probable impacts of thermal pollution on aquatic life.
(iii) Do you observe any froth and foam or dark coloured or greasy substances in the
river?If yes, then what are these? Find out the likely sources of these pollutants.
(iv) Is there any point along the river stretch under study from where discharge of
wastewater (industrial/municipal sewage) is being done into the river? If yes, then look
for the visual differences in water quality at the upstream and downstream sites.
(v) Determine the pH of water using a portable pH-scan. The pHwould normally range
between 6.5 to 8.5. If the pH is quite low i.e.acidic waters, it indicates pollution by
industries. If the pH is quitehigh i.e. alkaline, it indicates contamination by municipal
sewage.Is your river water of good quality or it is polluted?

3. Observations on aquatic life

(i) Look for different types of life forms. Do you find some freefloating small plants
(phytoplanktons) or small animals (zooplanktons)?Are there some rooted plants seen

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underneath? Do you observe aquaticanimals like different fishes, tortoise/turtle,
crocodile/alligater, watersnake etc.? What are the important aquatic birds seen by you?
(ii) Draw a food-web diagram that would be present in the river.

4. Uses: How is the river water used? Prepare a list of the uses.

5. Human impacts: What are the major impacts caused by human beings in your area
on the river? Have you learnt of any majorincident e.g. massive fish death or cattle
death or skin problems to human beings consuming the water? Try to interpret the
same.

(B) STUDY OF A FOREST

(i) Background data: Note down the name of the forest. What type of a forest is it i.e. a
tropical rain forest/deciduous forest etc. ? Is the present forest, a part of some
Biosphere reserve or National park orSanctuary?If yes, then what are the special
features associated with it?

(ii) Forest structure: Note down the salient features of the forest.l What are the
dominant trees? Are there any herbaceous climbers or woody climbers? Is the forest
having a close canopy or has open spaces?l Does the forest show a thick/dense growth
or it is degraded?l Is there an understory of shrubs, herbs and grasses of lower height?
l Is there a thick or thin forest floor consisting of leaf litter(dry dead leaves), algae, fungi
etc.? What is the use ofstratified structure i.e. multi-layered structure of vegetationin the
forest?

(iii) Commercial uses: Prepare a list of the various uses of thepresent forest.

(iv) Ecological utility: Do you feel cooler in the forest? Is it morehumid? Is the air more
fresh than that in the city? How many types ofbirds, animals or insects do you see
around? Make a list of the ecological uses of the forest based on your observations.

(v) Human impacts: Do you observe any anthropogenic activities in the forest e.g.
mining, quarrying, deforestation, dam building,grazing, timber extraction etc.?What
would be their probable impacts?
(C) ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF A GRASSLAND
(i) Background information: What type of grassland is this? Isit perennial or annual? Are
there tall grasses or short grasses? Is itdominated by just a few species or is it a mixed
type of grassland? Is itprotected i.e. fenced or disturbed?

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(ii) Grassland quality observations:
●​ Try to identify the names of some of the dominant grasses orplants. Are these
dominant plants having a soft, delicate, juicynature with green colour showing
good palatability? OR thedominant plants have a coarse, hard texture with
spines/thorns?l
●​ Take out a few plants to see what type of roots do they have,Are there numerous
fibrous roots in a bunch, (adventitiousroots), runner-type, having rhizomes or
there is a single, longtap root?
●​ If the roots are adventitious, they tend to bind the soil particles firmly and help in
conserving the soil. If the root is taproot, then it cannot help in binding the soil
particles firmly.What is the condition dominant in the present grassland? Doyou
observe soil erosion?

(iii) Grazing and Overgrazing:

Find out if there is managed grazing on the grassland i.e. only a limited number of
livestock (cattle) is being allowed to graze OR there is unmanaged grazing.
Normal grazing is useful for increasing the overall productivity/yield of the grassland.
Overgrazing has several far reaching consequences. Make your own observations in
the present grasslandi.e. whether there is limited grazing or overgrazing?
■​ If you find that good quality grasses/herbs are growing thenit is
rightly grazed
■​ If you see denuded areas with little grass cover it
showsovergrazing.
■​ If you observe thorny, hard, prickly plants occupying someareas, it
indicates degradation of the grassland due toovergrazing.
(iv) Uses: Prepare a list of the utilities of the grassland.

(D) STUDY OF MOUNTAIN/HILLY AREA

(i) Background data: Note down the name of the mountain ranges or the hills. Note
down the altitude of the region. Find out the average annual rainfall and temperature in
the area.

(ii) Observations on natural vegetation: Make your observations on the forests present
on the hill slopes. Do you find dense forests on the hills or deforestation is observed in
some areas? Look for some dominant tree species and find out their names and uses
from local people.

(iii) Landslides: You will come across some regions, where landslide would have
occurred recently or in the past. Do you observe any major anthropogenic activity

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there? What is the condition of forest growth in the region? Can you establish some
links between these aspects? You can gather some information about such aspects
from the native people.

(iv) Water-sheds: Try to look for some springs, rivers and channels coming out from the
mountains. The land area from which waterdrains under gravity to a common drainage
channel is called watershed.Gather some information about the water shed in the study
area,its uses and its status i.e. whether it is well managed or degraded.

(v) Plantations/Farming: Look for the type of plantations (e.g.tea plantation) or farming
(e.g. maize, wheat) done artificially on the hill slopes.
●​ What type of farming is done? Is it shifting cultivation, traditional or modernized?
What would be their impacts?
●​ Do you observe terrace farming, contour or strip cropping?Why is such cropping
helpful in hills?
●​ Find out the water and nutrient requirements of these crops.Do you find these
crops/plantations well suited to hillenvironment OR do you think they can have
some damagingeffects later on? Discuss with local people.
(iv) How much anthropogenic activities do you observe on themountain/hill?These
activities usually include mining, quarrying, tourism,construction, hydroelectric projects
etc. What major impacts do youobserve or predict in future?
VISIT TO SOME LOCAL POLLUTED SITE
Human activities related to urbanization and industrialization have led to large scale
pollution of the environment. Agricultural practices have also led to pesticide pollution,
water logging and salinization. A visit to some industrial area or degraded land area will
be very useful to obtain first hand information about the same.

(A) STUDY OF AN INDUSTRIALLY POLLUTED AREA

(i) Background data: Note down the name of the industry, its capacity, year of
establishment, the type of product and the type of wastes/emissions produced by it.

(ii) Pollution aspects: Look at the stacks (chimneys) in the area which might be giving
certain emissions. What are the toxic gases present in them - are they obnoxious
smelling? As the wind blows, do they move in a direction that is towards the city or in
other direction?Do you observe huge heaps of sludge around/outside the factory?Do
you find any trees or other plants growing in such dumping sites?Find out if there is any
Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) withinthe industry to treat the wastes before discharging
them. You can also see the working of an ETP, with prior permission from the
industrypeople.

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(iii) Green belt: Do you observe a green belt planted around the industry? It has now
become mandatory for all big industries to plant green trees around the industry.This is
because the tree canopy (leaves) has got an excellent capacity to absorb various
pollutants and also reduce noise. They also release oxygen to make the atmosphere
pure.

(iv) Health aspects: Try to get information about any serious health impacts in the
people living in the vicinity of the industry. e.g.
●​ The water drawn from tubewells/hand pumps may be contaminated with some
toxic substances/dyes etc. which on drinking may cause health ailments.l
●​ The toxic gases and suspended particulate matter released bythe industry is
inhaled by the people living nearby which mightcause skin
irritation/allergy/respiratory problems.
●​
(B) STUDY OF A WATER-LOGGED/SALINE LAND
(i) Background information: Visit a water logged or salt-affected land in some rural
agricultural area. An area having permanently standing water on the soil is a
water-logged soil. You can observe crusts of white salts on the soil surface making it
barren-that is a saline soil.Gather information from the farmers about its historical
background i.e. how much irrigation was being done in these areas and for how long?
Was the area fertile some years ago and has gradually become water-logged and
saline? What was the crop grown earlier? Try to correlate the problem with the irrigation
practices followed there.

(ii) Salinity and crop growth:

●​ Find out the salinity level (Electrical conductivity, EC) of thesoil. For this you can
take 10 grams of soil and dissolve it in20 ml of water in a beaker. Dip an EC
probe into it which willindicate the EC of the soil. The non-saline normal soil
hasEC < 4 dS/m. If the EC exceeds 4, it is saline. The EC can beas high as
20-40 dS/m also. But then it would hardly supportany vegetation.
●​ Do such soils support any crops? Note down the names of thesalt-tolerant and
salt-sensitive crops.
(iii) Remediation: Find out what remedial measures are being taken by the farmer to
deal with the problem. What measures can you suggest.

STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS, INSECTS AND BIRDS

Biodiversity or the variability among plants, animals and microbes found on this earth is
just remarkable and has tremendous potential in terms of its consumptive, productive,

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social, ethical and ecological value.It is worthwhile to know about some common plants,
insects and birds of our locality.
(a) Plants: Study the common plants of your locality, including trees, shrubs and herbs.
You can study them mainly in relation to their value.

I)Medicinal plants:
Local people often have indigenous knowledge about the medicinal value of various
plants. Find out which ofthe plants in your locality have medicinal value ?

(ii) Timber wood trees:

Note down the important trees of yourlocality which yield timber wood.

(iii) Miscellaneous:
Note down the names of plants which haveother uses like producing gum, resins,
tannin, dye, rubber, fibre etc.

(b) Insects: Identify some common insects of your locality

(i) which may be spreading diseases.
(ii) Which are crop-pests or animal pests.
(iii) Which help in pollination of ornamental/crop flowers.

(c) Birds: Identify some common birds of your locality. Find out how some of them are
useful to us and some cause damage to our crops/fruits. Observe small birds with long
beaks pollinating flowers.Observe the birds in the ploughed fields eating insects/larvae.

Visit to a Local Polluted Site:

Urban Location: A local landfill site on the outskirts of a major city.
Observations:
* Visual: Mountains of garbage, some covered, some exposed. Foul odor emanating
from the site. Stray animals scavenging through the waste.
* Aural: The constant rumble of trucks dumping waste, the squawking of birds, and the
occasional barking of dogs.
* Tactile: The sticky, grimy feel of the soil around the landfill. The occasional sharp
object poking through the trash.
* Olfactory: The overwhelming stench of rotting food, decaying organic matter, and
industrial chemicals.
Impact on the Environment:

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 * Air pollution: Methane gas released from decomposing organic matter, contributing to
greenhouse gas emissions.
* Water pollution: Leachate from the landfill seeping into groundwater, contaminating
drinking water sources.
* Soil contamination: Toxic chemicals from industrial waste leaching into the soil,
affecting plant growth and human health.
* Habitat destruction: Loss of natural habitats for wildlife due to landfilling.
Possible Solutions:
* Reduce, Reuse, Recycle: Encourage waste reduction and recycling to minimize the
amount of waste sent to landfills.
* Waste-to-Energy: Convert organic waste into energy through anaerobic digestion or
incineration.
* Composting: Compost organic waste to create nutrient-rich soil for agriculture.
* Landfill Capping and Remediation: Implement measures to prevent leachate
contamination and rehabilitate the land after landfill closure.
Educational Value:
* Understanding the impact of human activities on the environment.
* Raising awareness about the importance of waste management and environmental
conservation.
* Promoting responsible consumption and waste disposal habits.

Visit to a Local Polluted Site - Rural Area

**Purpose:** To assess environmental pollution in a rural setting and understand its
effects on the local ecosystem and community.
#### Pre-Visit Preparation
1. **Research the Site:**
- Identify the pollution sources (e.g., agricultural runoff, waste dumping, industrial
activities).
- Understand the local flora and fauna to assess potential impacts.
- Gather information on community health issues related to pollution.

2. **Gather Necessary Equipment:**

- Water sampling kits.
- Soil testing kits.
- Air quality monitoring devices.
- Camera for documentation.
- Personal protective equipment (gloves, masks, etc.).

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3. **Inform Local Authorities:**
- Notify relevant local agencies or organizations about the visit.
- Seek permission if necessary to access certain areas.

4. **Engage with the Community:**

- Arrange discussions with local residents to get their perspectives on the pollution.

Observations During the Visit

1. **Site Conditions:**
- **Visual Inspection:** Document the visible signs of pollution (garbage, dead
vegetation, water discoloration).
- **Water Quality:** Collect samples from nearby water sources (streams, ponds) for
analysis.
- **Soil Quality:** Take soil samples from various locations, especially near potential
sources of pollution.

2. **Biodiversity Assessment:**
- Observe local wildlife and plant life. Note any signs of distress or abnormalities (e.g.,
fewer birds, stunted plant growth).

3. **Community Impact:**
- Speak to local residents about their observations and experiences.
- Note any reported health issues potentially linked to pollution (skin rashes,
respiratory illnesses).

4. **Agricultural Practices:**
- Assess farming practices in the area, including the use of fertilizers and pesticides,
which may contribute to runoff.

5. **Presence of Waste:**
- Look for illegal dumping sites or improper waste management practices. Document
the types of waste present.

Post-Visit Activities

1. **Data Analysis:**
- Analyze water and soil samples in a lab to determine contaminant levels (pH, heavy
metals, chemical pollutants).

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2. **Community Report:**
- Compile findings into a report detailing the extent of pollution, potential health risks,
and environmental impacts.

3. **Recommendations:**
- Suggest mitigation strategies for pollution (improved waste management, community
clean-up initiatives, education programs).
- Recommend further studies or continuous monitoring of the site.

4. **Follow-Up Actions:**
- Organize a community meeting to present findings and engage residents in
discussion about pollution management.
- Collaborate with local environmental groups to develop action plans.

Conclusion:
Visiting a polluted site in a rural area provides critical insights into how pollution affects
the environment and the quality of life for local residents. Ongoing efforts to monitor and
manage pollution are essential for safeguarding both natural resources and public
health. Engaging with the community fosters a collective approach to environmental
stewardship and promotes sustainable practices.

Visit to a Local Polluted Site - Industrial Area

**Purpose:** To assess the environmental impact of industrial activities on a local
polluted site and understand the measures in place for pollution control.

Pre-Visit Preparation
1. **Research the Site:**
- Identify the types of industries present (manufacturing, chemical plants, etc.).
- Review any available environmental impact assessments or reports related to the
site.
- Gather information on the potential pollutants emitted by these industries (air
pollutants, chemical waste, etc.).

2. **Gather Necessary Equipment:**

- Air quality monitoring devices.
- Water sampling kits for assessing nearby water bodies.
- Noise level meters (if applicable).
- Camera for documentation.

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 - Personal protective equipment (hard hats, gloves, masks, etc.).

3. **Coordinate with the Site:**

- Arrange a meeting with the site manager or environmental officer to discuss the visit
and gain insights into current practices.
- Ensure compliance with any health and safety protocols for visitors.

4. **Engage with Local Stakeholders:**

- Schedule discussions with nearby residents or community leaders to understand
their concerns and perceptions of the site's environmental impact.

#### Observations During the Visit

1. **Visual Inspection:**
- Document visible signs of pollution (smokestack emissions, waste disposal areas,
etc.).
- Note any signs of environmental degradation in the surrounding area (e.g., barren
landscapes, polluted waterways).

2. **Emissions and Effluents:**

- Observe the smokestacks and other emission sources. Note the color and density of
emissions.
- Inspect waste water treatment facilities, if present, and assess their effectiveness.

3. **Waste Management:**
- Evaluate the handling and storage of hazardous wastes. Check for proper labeling,
containment, and disposal practices.

4. **Noise Pollution:**
- If relevant, measure noise levels to determine compliance with local regulations.

5. **Community Impact:**
- Discuss with local residents their experiences and concerns regarding the industrial
site, focusing on health issues, property values, and environmental concerns.

#### Post-Visit Activities

1. **Data Analysis:**
- Analyze any collected air and water samples to determine pollutant levels.

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 - Compare findings with national or local standards for pollution.

2. **Report Compilation:**
- Document all observations, measurements, and discussions in a detailed report.
- Include photographs and any supporting data.

3. **Recommendations:**
- Based on findings, suggest improvements to pollution control measures, such as
more efficient scrubbers for air pollution or better waste management practices.
- Recommend regulatory compliance checks and potential penal actions if violations
are found.

4. **Follow-Up Actions:**
- Schedule a follow-up meeting with the industrial site management to present findings
and discuss implementation of recommended improvements.
- Collaborate with local environmental agencies or NGOs to monitor progress and
ensure compliance with environmental regulations.

#### Conclusion

Visiting an industrial polluted site highlights the complexities of balancing economic

development with environmental protection. It underscores the need for stringent
regulations, effective enforcement, and proactive measures by industries to minimize
their environmental footprint. Community engagement and ongoing monitoring are
crucial for ensuring that industrial activities do not compromise the health and well-being
of nearby residents or the environment. By working together, it's possible to mitigate
pollution and foster a more sustainable industrial sector.

Visit to a Local Polluted Site - Agricultural Area

**Purpose:** To assess the environmental impact of agricultural practices on a local
polluted site and understand the potential effects on the surrounding ecosystem and
human health.

#### Pre-Visit Preparation

1. **Research the Site:**

- Identify the types of crops grown and agricultural practices used (conventional,
organic, etc.).

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 - Gather information on potential sources of pollution (pesticide runoff, fertilizer
application, manure management, etc.).

2. **Gather Necessary Equipment:**

- Water sampling kits for assessing nearby water bodies.
- Soil testing kits for evaluating nutrient levels and contaminant presence.
- Air quality monitoring devices (if relevant, e.g., during pesticide application).
- Camera for documentation.
- Personal protective equipment (gloves, masks, etc.).

3. **Coordinate with Local Farmers:**

- Schedule discussions with local farmers to understand their agricultural practices
and potential concerns about environmental impact.

4. **Engage with Regulatory Agencies:**

- Contact local agricultural extension services or regulatory agencies to inquire about
any existing guidelines or regulations for sustainable agricultural practices.

#### Observations During the Visit

1. **Visual Inspection:**
- Document visual signs of pollution (e.g., dead zones in water bodies, nutrient-rich
runoff).
- Observe agricultural practices, such as crop rotation, tillage, and irrigation methods.

2. **Water Quality Assessment:**

- Collect water samples from nearby water bodies to assess nutrient and contaminant
levels.
- Observe any signs of water pollution, such as algal blooms or changes in water
turbidity.

3. **Soil Quality Evaluation:**

- Collect soil samples to evaluate nutrient levels and contaminant presence (e.g.,
heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants).

4. **Pesticide Use:**
- Observe pesticide application, if applicable, and note any signs of proper storage
and disposal practices.

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 - Evaluate air quality using a portable air quality monitor to detect potential pesticide
residue emissions.

5. **Manure Management:**
- Investigate the use of manure for fertilizer or as a potential pollution source.
Document proper storage and handling practices.

6. **Community Impact:**
- Discuss with local residents, farmers, and community leaders their concerns about
agricultural pollution and potential effects on human health.

#### Post-Visit Activities

1. **Data Analysis:**
- Analyze water and soil samples to determine nutrient and contaminant levels.
- Compare findings with local or national standards for water quality and agricultural
practices.

2. **Recommendations:**
- Based on findings, suggest best management practices for reducing pollution from
agricultural activities, such as:
- Improving water storage and management practices to prevent runoff.
- Implementing organic or conservation agriculture techniques.
- Reducing fertilizer and manure applications.

3. **Follow-Up Actions:**
- Schedule a follow-up meeting with local farmers to present findings and discuss the
implementation of recommended best management practices.
- Collaborate with local extension services, regulatory agencies, and other
stakeholders to promote sustainable agricultural practices and minimize pollution.

Conclusion
The visit to the agricultural polluted site highlights the importance of responsible
agricultural practices and the need for sustainable farming methods. Effective
management of agricultural activities can mitigate the negative impacts on the
environment and human health, promoting a healthier and more sustainable agricultural
sector.

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Study of a Simple Ecosystem: Pond
Location:
A small, freshwater pond in a local park.
Observations:
* Biotic Components:
* Producers: Phytoplankton, aquatic plants, algae.
* Consumers: Zooplankton, insects, fish, frogs, birds.
* Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi.
* Abiotic Components:
* Sunlight, water, temperature, dissolved oxygen, nutrients.
Food Web:
* Primary Producers: Phytoplankton and aquatic plants convert sunlight into energy
through photosynthesis.
* Primary Consumers: Zooplankton and insects feed on phytoplankton.
* Secondary Consumers: Small fish feed on zooplankton and insects.
* Tertiary Consumers: Larger fish and birds feed on smaller fish.
* Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi break down dead organisms and return nutrients to
the water.
Impact of Human Activities:
* Eutrophication: Excess nutrients from fertilizers and sewage runoff can lead to algal
blooms, oxygen depletion, and fish kills.
* Pollution: Industrial and agricultural pollutants can contaminate the water, harming
aquatic life.
* Habitat Destruction: Land development and pollution can destroy the habitat of
aquatic organisms.
Conservation Efforts:
* Reduce pollution: Implement measures to reduce pollution from industries,
agriculture, and households.
* Protect water bodies: Preserve natural habitats and prevent pollution from entering
water bodies.
* Sustainable practices: Promote sustainable agriculture and waste management
practices.
Educational Value:
* Understanding the interconnectedness of living and non-living components in an
ecosystem.
* Learning about the importance of biodiversity and ecosystem balance.
* Developing an appreciation for the natural world and the need to protect it.

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Study of a River Ecosystem
The purpose of this study is to investigate the structure and functions of a river
ecosystem by examining the interactions between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
components.

#### Ecosystem Components

1. **Biotic Factors:**
- **Producers:** Aquatic plants (e.g., algae, water lilies) that produce oxygen and are
foundational to the food web.
- **Consumers:**
- *Primary Consumers:* Herbivores like insect larvae and small fish.
- *Secondary Consumers:* Carnivores such as larger fish and amphibians.
- *Tertiary Consumers:* Top predators, including otters and herons.
- **Decomposers:** Microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) that recycle nutrients from
dead organic matter.

2. **Abiotic Factors:**
- Elements such as water, sediment, temperature, nutrients, and light availability that
influence the habitat and living organisms.

#### Methodology of Study

- **Site Selection:** Identify a representative study area while avoiding disturbed

locations.
- **Data Collection:**
- Conduct flora and fauna inventories.
- Assess water quality parameters (pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen).
- Analyze sediment composition.
- **Observation of Interactions:** Monitor species behaviors and ecological interactions.
- **Mapping:** Create a habitat map highlighting key features and assessing ecological
niches.

#### Analysis and Interpretation

- Construct a food web to illustrate energy flow and species interactions.

- Analyze the impact of water quality on biodiversity.
- Assess human impacts, such as pollution and habitat destruction, on ecosystem
health.

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- Propose conservation strategies like establishing buffer zones and restoring
vegetation.

Conclusion
The study reveals the complex relationships within river ecosystems, emphasizing the
importance of understanding these interactions for effective conservation and
management. Documenting biodiversity and environmental health is essential for
maintaining resilient river systems that support wildlife and human communities amid
environmental changes.

Study of Simple Ecosystem-Hill Slopes

1. **Study Purpose**: Investigate the structure and functions of a hill slope ecosystem,
focusing on the interactions between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components.
2. **Ecosystem Components**:
- **Biotic Factors**: Producers (plants), consumers (herbivores, carnivores, and apex
predators), and decomposers (fungi, bacteria, detritivores)
- **Abiotic Factors**: Soil, topography, climate, and light availability
3. **Methodology**:
- Site selection and data collection (flora, fauna, soil analysis, microclimate
assessment)
- Observation of interactions and mapping of habitat variation
- Construction of a food web and analysis of soil quality impact, human impact, and
conservation recommendations
4. **Key Outcomes**:
- Understanding the interconnectedness of biotic and abiotic components in hill slope
ecosystems
- Development of viable conservation strategies to maintain healthy hill slope
ecosystems
5. **Conclusion**: Effective management and conservation efforts are vital for
preserving the ecological integrity and resilience of hill slope environments amid
anthropogenic pressures and climate change.

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