POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN

WATER, HYGIENE

AND SANITATION

MODULE 2

WATER SAFETY AND

DISTRIBUTION
 Table of Contents

Water Safety Plans…………………………………………………………….….Pg. 4

Duties and Responsibilities of Water Utilities…………………………….…..Pg. 19

Household Water Collection, Treatment, Storage and Handling……………Pg.36

Efficient Use of Water……………………………………………………...……..Pg.54

Monitoring Water Quality………………………………………………...……...Pg.67

Financing Urban Water Services………………………………………….……..Pg.84

Water Emergencies and Emergency Water Supply…………………………...Pg. 97

Public–Private Partnership and Other Commercial Opportunities………….Pg.110

Assignment .…………………………………………………………..…………Pg. 122

 Executive Summary

Access to water and sanitation is one of the major challenges for the 21st century.
According to WHO (2004), 1.1 billion people across the world do not have access to safe
water and 2.4 billion people do not have access to basic sanitation facilities. As a
consequence every year around 4 million people, the majority of who are children, die
from water and sanitation related diseases. Water is not only important for public
health, but also for general livelihoods: crop production (70 to 80% of all water used is
for crop production), livestock production, industry, commerce and daily life depend
on access to water. Water-supply conditions therefore affect health, hunger, and
poverty and community development.

This disastrous access to water and sanitation is due partly to a lack of infrastructure
but also to poor management that creates waste, contamination and degradation of the
environment. Water shortages may lead to tensions between individuals, communities
or countries, which can evolve into conflicts. At the same time, the demand for water is
increasing due to population growth, urbanization (rural exodus) and industrialization.
Urbanization has also created extremely poor sanitary conditions.

Most of these problems can be solved through comprehensive management of water

resources and demand. Water is a finite resource that must be managed with a global
vision that works at three levels: international to define rules to protect water resources
and to avoid international conflicts; national to apply defined rules and to define
national water-access policies; and local to develop local initiatives to ensure
communities’ water access.

The Post graduate Diploma in WASH which is a eight module course which starts with
introduction of the basic concepts in WASH, Then taking the students to other topics
like Water Supply, Communicable Diseases, Sanitation and Waste Management and
finally embarking the final two modules on urban Wash since currently more than half
of world population live in urban area, and it’s in urban areas where the problem of
poor sanitation and waste management is severely felt.
 Chapter 1

WATER SAFETY PLANS

Introduction
By this stage in your study of the Module you should have a good understanding of the
reasons why safe water is important, and of the main components of a water supply
system. You have also learned about some of the ways in which the safety of a water
supply can be compromised. Water safety is the focus of this study session.

The World Health Organization (WHO) promotes the use of Water Safety Plans as a
method by which the risks in supplying safe water are assessed and controlled. In this
study session you will learn about Water Safety Plans and the steps involved in
drawing up such a plan for an urban water supply system. The study session concludes
with details of a Water Safety Plan formulated in Ethiopia.

What is a Water Safety Plan?

A Water Safety Plan is a plan to ensure the safety of drinking water through a risk
assessment and management process that considers all the points in water supply from
the catchment to the consumer. It is a means of preventing and managing threats to a
drinking water supply system, before anything goes wrong, taking into account all the
stages of the supply process from the water catchment to the consumer.

What is a water catchment?

From Study chapter 4 you know that the catchment is the area of land surrounding and
sloping towards a river.

If the water quality assessed at the tap where people collect it or use it is found to be
poor, it has the disadvantage that unsafe water may already have been consumed by
the people served by the distribution system. The WHO has published recommended
steps for drawing up a Water Safety Plan (Bartram et al., 2009) on which the following
description is based. By using Water Safety Plans, the quality of the water is proactively
managed so that poor-quality water does not reach consumers. Water Safety Plans also
help to eliminate the causes of incidents that might disrupt the delivery of safe water to
consumers. Incidents, in the context of water supply, mean emergencies such as a burst
pipe.

A Water Safety Plan considers all the stages in the supply of water, and therefore it
involves:

 management of the catchment to prevent contamination of the source water

 removal or elimination of contaminants during treatment of the water
 Prevention of contamination of the water after treatment (during distribution,
storage and handling).
Water Safety Plans put the emphasis on controlling risks where they are likely to arise,
rather than having a treatment plant deal with cases of contamination after they have
occurred. Preventing a problem from occurring is much better than having it occur and
then trying to minimise its impact.

While the primary focus in a Water Safety Plan is on the direct dangers facing safe
water quality (such as the possibility of chemical or microbial contamination), the Plan
has to be more wide-reaching, considering aspects such as potential for flood damage;
the sufficiency of the source water and alternative supplies; availability and reliability
of power supplies; the quality of treatment chemicals; the availability of trained staff;
security; and the reliability of communication systems.

The components of a Water Safety Plan

Water Safety Plans can vary in complexity depending on the scale and type of water
supply system being considered. In general, there are ten components in a Water Safety
Plan (Figure 8.1).
Figure 8.1 The steps in a Water Safety Plan.

Although the stages depicted in Figure 8.1 are sequential (i.e. you do them one after
another in a sequence), they can be undertaken by teams of people working in parallel,
looking at different aspects of water supply. For instance, there could be teams looking
separately at the catchment, treatment plant and distribution system. We will now look
at each of the steps in turn.

Assemble a team of experts

In order to draw up a Water Safety Plan, full information about the water supply
system, from the catchment to the taps of consumers, is required. This will include
details of the catchment (such as possible sources of contamination), the abstraction
point, the pipes (sizes, construction materials, etc.), the units at the treatment plant, the
distribution system (piping material, possible weak spots, etc.). To compile this
information, a team of experts is required.

The expert team (Figure 8.2) should include not just technical experts but local people
because they will be most knowledgeable about what is actually on the ground. Local
people may include farmers

And forestry workers, landowners, and representatives from industry, other utilities
and local government, and consumers. Collectively the team should have the skills
required to identify hazards and determine how the associated risks can be controlled.
The definitions of hazards and risks are given in Box 8.1, where the difference between
them is explained.

The support of senior management is crucial for the formulation and implementation of
a Water Safety Plan, because changes in working practices may be needed, as well as
new systems (costing money) for the control of risks. The finance and time
requirements for preparing the Water Safety Plan will need to be approved by senior
management who are the supervisors and decision makers responsible for
implementing any actions that may be required. Depending on the context, senior
management could be the Town Water Board or the Woreda WASH Team, for example.

Figure 8.2 The team of experts should have a range of knowledge and skills.
 Box 8.1 Hazards and risks

Identifying hazards and assessing risks are important aspects of preparing a Water
Safety Plan. A hazard is something that is known to cause harm. Bartram et al. (2009)
define a hazard as ‘a physical, biological, chemical or radiological agent that can cause
harm to public health’. Risk is the likelihood or probability of the hazard occurring and
the magnitude of the resulting effects.

Here is a simple example. If you climb a ladder, you know there is a chance you could
fall off and be injured, although it is unlikely. The ladder is the hazard and the
likelihood of your falling off and hurting yourself is the risk. Risk assessment is about
evaluating a situation to determine how likely it is that the potential harm from the
hazard will happen.

Describe the water supply system

The water supply system (Figure 8.3(a)) has to be fully described. This will allow
hazards to be identified, and risks to be assessed and managed. In many cases, this
information will be available and will only need reviewing to ensure that it is up to
date, and checked for accuracy through site visits. A flow diagram that shows all the
major elements of the water supply system (Figure 8.3(b)) should be drawn.
Figure 8.3(a) A water supply system.

Figure 8.3(b) The elements of a water supply system.

In the case of springs and wells, it is important to know where the rainfall is percolating
into the ground to replenish the groundwater. This will highlight the area where
protective measures (such as restrictions on, say, fertiliser or pesticide use) are needed
so that contaminants are not carried by the rainwater into the groundwater.

Identify the hazards and hazardous events

It is important to identify the potential hazards at each stage of the water supply
process (see Box 8.1). Hazardous events in this context are defined as events that can
introduce hazards into the water supply. A hazardous event can also be considered a
source of a hazard. Table 8.1 gives examples of hazardous events and hazards that can
affect different parts of a water supply system.

Table 8.1 Possible hazards in a water supply system. (Adapted from Bartram et al., 2009)

Hazardous event (source Associated hazard Component of water

of hazard) supply system affected

Agriculture Microbial contamination Catchment

from animal excreta,
pesticides, nitrates from
fertiliser use

Mining Chemical contamination Catchment

Interruption of power Interruption of treatment Treatment

supply

Disruption of disinfection Unsafe water goes to Treatment

due to lack of disinfectant consumers
supply

Mains burst Contaminants getting into Distribution network

 pipeline

Illegal connections Contamination of water Distribution network

supply by back-siphonage

Site visits are an effective way of ensuring all possibilities are covered (Figure 8.4). It is
important to speak to the people who work at the locations concerned as they will have
local knowledge that may not necessarily be in the paperwork related to the facility.

Figure 8.4 Testing water quality is an important part of hazard assessment.

Carry out a risk assessment and priorities the risks

Risk is the likelihood of a hazard affecting the water supply system. A risk assessment
can be carried out if the risk and the severity of the associated hazard are known. A
method of undertaking a risk assessment quantitatively is to use a risk matrix as shown
in Figure 8.5 (Bartram et al, 2009). The severity of the impact of a hazard and its
likelihood can be multiplied together to arrive at a figure that indicates its risk score.
The risk rating will be determined by this risk score, as shown at the bottom of Figure
8.5.
Figure 8.5 A risk matrix for risk assessment.

To illustrate this application of a risk matrix, suppose you wanted to carry out a risk
assessment for the case where a treatment plant runs out of chlorine disinfectant (Figure
8.6). In a properly managed plant, with a system of stock control in place, such an
occurrence may be rare (with a rating of 1). The public health impact of it, however, will
be catastrophic (with a rating of 5). Using the matrix in Figure 8.5, you can calculate a
risk score, which will be the product of 1 and 5. This risk score of 5 can then be given a
risk rating. From the scale in Figure 8.5, this would be ‘low’ (being less than 6).

By repeating the exercise for other hazards and risks and comparing the risk scores, a
prioritised list can be drawn up that ranks the risks in order of importance.
Unfortunately, budgets are often limited and because of this many of the smaller risks
are disregarded.
Figure 8.6 Drums of chlorine – essential stocks for a water treatment plant.

Identify the control measures needed for each risk

This means identifying the precautions (control measures) that need to be in place to
eliminate or minimise the risks to the water supply system. So, in the example above,
you would need to have a system of stock control that tells you when chlorine stocks
are running low. Stock control may use some form of manual record keeping in a book
or an electronic system (Figure 8.7). These have to be checked for effectiveness, as part
of the Plan, and improved if necessary.

Figure 8.7 Display from an electronic stock control unit.

Define the monitoring system for each control measure

A system of regular monitoring has to be established to check that the control measures
are working. Again, using the example above, someone will have to check that the
records of chlorine availability in the store match what is actually present.

Prepare mmanagement pprocedures

A set of clear instructions to enable the whole water supply system to be operated as
desired has to be in place. If there is an incident that disrupts the normal operation of
the system – for instance, if a control measure fails – then a number of actions need to be
followed. These should be documented in the management procedures so that they are
easy to refer to and apply. The relevant management procedure will detail the remedial
measure, what communications to undertake and the steps to follow in an investigation
of the failure.

Do you remember the usual name for the routine instructions for operating a water
treatment plant?

They are often referred to as standard operating procedures or SOPs.

Following through the example of chlorine stock, if the supply were to run out, the
management procedure might suggest contacting nearby water utilities (using names
and telephone numbers of contact persons who had previously been consulted) for a
loan of an amount of chlorine. An alternative might be to contact supply companies that
could rapidly acquire and supply the chemical (but this is likely to be at a high cost!).
The population affected by the break in supply would have to be informed of the crisis,
possibly by messages on local radio and television programmes. Lastly, an investigation
needs to be undertaken as to how the crisis came about, and how it can be prevented
from recurring.

Prepare verification programme

The verification programme is to check that all the components of the water supply
system are working properly, and that water of a suitable quality and quantity is being
supplied to the population, and therefore that the Water Safety Plan is working. There
are three activities that together provide evidence that a Water Safety Plan is working
effectively:

 compliance monitoring
  internal and external auditing of operational activities
 Assessment of customer satisfaction.
In compliance monitoring, sampling and analysis of the water is undertaken to verify
that the water quality standards are being met (complied with). For microbial
verification, indicator organisms such as E. coli or faecal coliforms are looked for at
representative points in the water supply system. In appropriate cases (say in areas with
a Cryptosporidium problem), measurement of the organisms may be necessary. For
chemical parameters, direct measurement is carried out, rather than the use of an
indicator.

In internal and external auditing, scrutiny of the operational practice is undertaken by

an auditor in person to verify that good practice is in place. As the names suggest,
internal audits are undertaken by someone from within an organisation and external
audits by an independent, objective auditor from outside an organisation. Auditors will,
for instance, identify areas where procedures are not being followed, resources are
inadequate or training is required for staff.

Assessment of customer satisfaction is the third aspect of verification and this is

undertaken by personally meeting with representative consumers to obtain their
feedback on the quality of the water delivered to them.

Develop supporting programmes

Supporting programmes are activities that support the development of people’s skills
and knowledge in relation to delivering safe water. These mainly involve training, and
research and development. To ensure that the Water Safety Plan is current, staff need to
be updated on changes in the water supply system, and the revised actions they need to
take in times of emergency. In the case of the chlorine supply running out, an
investigation of the crisis will reveal whether staff retraining has to be conducted, or if
the system for monitoring chlorine stocks needs to be modified, or indeed if both need
to be done. The Water Safety Plan will have to be reviewed as a consequence.
Supplementary programmes include sessions to educate members of the public on how
they can ensure that the water supply is kept safe (for example, by giving them
information on how back-siphonage can contaminate the water distribution system).

Document all of the above

All the sections detailed above have to be documented so that there is an audit trail, in
case any step has to be reviewed. (An audit trail is a chronological record that provides
documentary evidence of the sequence of activities that led to a given decision.)
Keeping clear and complete documentation enables the Plan to be reviewed
periodically. This is important because changes can happen anywhere along the water
supply process. New risks might arise, or more efficient and economical methods might
become available to control the different risks.

In addition to regular review and updating, it is important that the Plan is reviewed and
possibly modified following an incident or crisis. A post-incident review, where the
incident is discussed in detail, is likely to identify areas for improvement in the
operating procedures, training or communications, and these should be incorporated in
a revised Water Safety Plan.
Case Study 8.1 Water Safety Plan at community level in Ethiopia

In Hentalo Wejerat woreda, in Tigray Region, Water Safety Plans were used to improve
water supplies in small communities and ensure access to safe and clean water (Drop of
Water, 2014).

Twelve individuals were trained as Trainers in Water Safety Planning by specialists from
the World Health Organization. The training covered the principles of water safety
planning, risk management for the supply of drinking water, guidance on developing
Water Safety Plans, surveillance and control of small community water supplies, and safe
practices in household water use. Three Water Safety Planning Teams were then
established.

The three Water Safety Planning Teams were given training that focused on the impact of
unsafe water, assessing environmental contaminants, operating a hygienic water point
and the physical treatment of water at household level. They then applied Water Safety
Plans to three water points at Lemlem Queiha, May Weyni and May Yordanos.

At Lemlem Queiha, although there was a fence at the water point, there was no gate. The
area around the water point was unclean, and the water point was vulnerable to
flooding. Not all the houses in the vicinity had latrines, which meant open defecation
was taking place. The community had a poor awareness of good hygiene and sanitation.
Jerrycans used for collecting water were unclean.

At May Weyni, the fence at the water point had been damaged by flood and had not been
repaired, and there was no gate. Nearly all the residents had latrines at their homes.

At May Yordanos, the water point was found to be clean and well fenced. Water
handling was hygienic both at the water point and in the residents’ homes. The houses
 had latrines, which meant that open defecation was eliminated. The community had a
good awareness of hygiene and sanitation.

Over the one-year period of the project, with the aid of the Water Safety Planning Teams
most of the residents installed latrines, and gained a good knowledge of hygiene and
sanitation. The water points were kept clean, and good water-handling practice was
adopted at water points and in homes. Open defecation was almost totally eliminated.
Gates were installed at the water points at Lemlem Queiha and May Weyni, and the
broken fence at May Weyni was repaired, to prevent contamination by animals.

In what ways does Case Study 8.1 correspond to the ten steps of Water Safety Plans

described in this study session?

The actions taken in the case study correspond to the first few steps in a Water Safely
Plan:

 Assembling a team of experts: twelve people were trained so that they had
the expertise to undertake a Water Safety Plan.
 Description of the water supply system: details of the three water points
were recorded.
 Identification of hazards: the various hazards at two of the water points
(lack of gates, lack of a fence, unclean areas around water points, the
susceptibility to flooding, open defecation, poor awareness of good
hygiene and sanitation, unclean jerry cans) were noted.
Less well-fulfilled steps were:

 Carrying out a risk assessment: this does not appear to have been done, but it
was perhaps unnecessary in the simple situation faced by the Team.
  Identification of control measures for each risk: control measures focused on
addressing the hazards identified earlier. Hence, gates were installed, a fence
was put up, the water points were kept clean, latrines were installed (almost
totally eliminating open defecation) and information on good hygiene
(covering water handling practice) and sanitation was disseminated to the
residents. The issue of flooding did not seem to have been resolved.

 Defining a monitoring system for each control measure: since the residents
had received information on good hygiene and sanitation, it is likely that they
would endeavour to maintain good practice.

 In a small community context, preparing management procedures and a

verification programme, and developing supporting programmes, are not
needed.

The above was an example of the application of a Water Safety Plan but in a rural
context. Hence not all the ten steps necessary in an urban situation were applicable to
achieve the positive outcome.

Summary of Study chapter 8

In Study chapter 8 you have learned that:

 Water Safety Plans are a means of preventing and managing threats to the
production and delivery of safe water; they consider the water catchment, the
water treatment process, and the distribution, storage and handling of water.

 Water Safety Plans cover wider issues such as safety from flood damage, the
sufficiency of the water source, the availability of power supplies, the availability
of trained staff and the reliability of communication systems.

 There are ten steps in a Water Safety Plan:

 Assemble a team of experts.

  Describe the water supply system.

 Identify the hazards and hazardous events.

 Carry out a risk assessment and prioritise the risks.

 Identify the control measures needed for each risk.

 Define the monitoring system for each control measure.

 Prepare management procedures.

 Prepare the verification programme.

 Develop supporting programmes.

 Document all of the above.

 The support of senior management is crucial because changes in working

practices may be necessary, and the acquisition of control measures for risks will
need finance.
 A Water Safety Plan at community level was successfully implemented in
Hintalo Wejerat Woreda in Tigray Region.
 Chapter 2

DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF WATER UTILITIES

Introduction

Provision of safe and adequate drinking water to consumers requires careful planning
and management by the water utilities. As water is a basic necessity, supplying
drinking water is a continuous process and water utilities focus on the whole
management process from the catchment to the source, and finally to the consumers’
taps. Water that is unacceptable in appearance, taste and odour will undermine the
confidence of consumers, lead to complaints and, more importantly, lead to the use of
water from sources that are less safe. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the water
utilities to ensure provision of a safe and acceptable water supply to consumers.

In Study chapter 6, you learned about the organisational structure of water utilities and
their responsibilities in the operation and maintenance of water treatment and supply
systems. In Study chapter 7 you considered the particular problems associated with
leakage that water utilities face and how they deal with them. In this study session, you
will learn more about four key aspects of the duties and responsibilities of water
utilities. These are the nature of good governance; the duties of water utilities to keep
water treatment plants operational; dealing with customer concerns and complaints;
and the various tests and standards for assessing water quality that apply in Ethiopia.

Good governance

The governance of a water utility is about the processes by which it makes decisions
and implements them (UNESCAP, n.d.). Good governance can be defined by a
collection of characteristics that describe the approach of the utility, or any other
organisation, to its decisions and actions. These key characteristics are explained below.
Participation

It is important that all the people who are affected by decisions are allowed to
participate in the process of reaching those decisions. Residents’ groups and other
stakeholders or their representatives should be consulted as part of any decision-
making process (Figure 9.1). Both men and women should be involved. The number
and range of stakeholders to be consulted will depend on the project or scheme under
discussion. As an example from a wider context, farmers may wish to increase their
intake of water from a river for irrigation because they want to improve their crop
production. This could affect many other people, especially those who live downstream
of the abstraction point on the river, and they should be invited to participate in the
deliberations.

Figure 9.1 A meeting of stakeholder representatives to discuss water supply issues.

Transparency

When a decision is reached, the way it has been arrived at should be apparent to all,
with all the steps documented. So, if it was decided that a dam should be built, details
of all the consultations and meetings related to the decision should be available for
members of the public to view. Similarly, in the interests of transparency, accounts
should be available for public scrutiny, and all the financial decisions should show that
value for money was achieved.
Responsiveness

The decision-making process and implementation of decisions must take place within a
reasonable period of time. An example would be if a village wanted to have its own
water supply system using water from a river, the decision on it should be made within
a few months of the request.

Consensus

This is related to participation. As noted above, good governance requires that, for all
major projects, consultation with all the stakeholders will be undertaken. Everyone
should have the opportunity to put their view forward. The aim in the consultation
should be to obtain a consensus, so that the final decision arrived at is in the best
interests of the community as a whole. The water utility should play the role of
mediator to bring about a decision that minimises any disadvantages to stakeholder
groups.

Equity and inclusiveness

It is important that all parties are treated equally and are included in any decision
making. The views of all stakeholders should be equally valued. No group should be
marginalised, or indeed feel marginalised. It is especially important to consider the
needs of vulnerable groups such as low-income families and disabled people
(Figure 9.2).
Figure 9.2 Water taps must be placed so that they are accessible to everyone.

6 Effectiveness

The actions of the water utility should be effective in addressing the issue concerned.
This comes down to having the necessary expertise, and keeping the staff up to date
through ongoing training. Staff morale should also be kept high so that staff turnover is
kept low.

9.1.7 Efficiency

The resources available to the water utility should be used efficiently so that the greatest
benefit is achieved with minimal cost and disruption. Any action should be carried out
in consultation with interested parties, so that no duplication of effort takes place. For
instance, if a new pipeline is to be laid, this can be done when the cables (for the remote
control of water treatment equipment) are being put in, so that the roadway is dug up
only once.

For a water utility, it is important to consider sustainability in all its operations, so that
long-term viability is assured. For example, choosing a more expensive water treatment
control system may mean that the cost of maintenance is reduced (see Figure 6.5 in
Study Session 6).

What are the terms used to describe the initial cost and the recurring cost?

Capital cost and operating cost.

Accountability

The water utility has to be accountable to its customers, who are the people affected by
its decisions and actions. The water utility has a duty to report on how its funds are
used, and how decisions on major issues were arrived at, including on anything
untoward that may have happened. This is linked to transparency. Utilities can only be
accountable if their activities and processes are known to others.
Independence

The water utility has to be independent of political and commercial influence, in order
that an equitable service is provided to all who need water.

Keeping a water treatment plant operational

The primary responsibility for a water utility is to provide a safe and adequate water
supply to the users. From previous study sessions, you have learned about the need for
a source of water that is reliable and can provide a sufficient quantity of water to meet
demand. You also learned about the need to protect water sources and ensure they are
not contaminated by pollutants of any type. Where water treatment is required, the
water utility is responsible for keeping the water treatment plant running effectively
and efficiently. An important part of this is the operation and maintenance procedures
(Figure 9.3) that you learned about in Study chapter 6.

What are the two types of maintenance required in water treatment works? Why is one
better than the other?

The two types of maintenance are preventive maintenance and breakdown

maintenance. Preventive maintenance involves regular checks that everything is
working properly. Breakdown maintenance is needed if equipment breaks down.
Preventive maintenance is the better approach because it avoids any break in supply,
and is usually cheaper.

Figure 9.3 Maintenance work on a water pump.

Knowing about the costs of running a water treatment works is a very important part of
management. Like any organisation, sound financial management is a key
responsibility for the utility. Costs include initial funding to construct the plant and buy
the necessary equipment for the treatment processes. Recurring costs include the cost of
the staff, power, consumables such as chemicals, and spare parts, repairs and
replacement machinery required for maintenance of the plant. In Study Session 6 you
also read about the assets of a water supply system and the need for an asset register.

Name three items you would expect to see included in the asset register of a water
utility.

You could have answered with any of the items you would expect to see at a water
treatment plant or in other parts of the water supply system. This could include the
river intakes, surface water reservoirs, boreholes, all the associated pipework and
pumps, process units, buildings (offices, plant rooms, etc.), office equipment
(computers, office furniture, etc.), laboratories and analytical equipment, vehicles,
pumping stations, water mains, and more!

Looking after all the assets is an important responsibility for water utilities; this is
known as asset management. Asset management is the systematic process of
deploying, operating, maintaining and upgrading facilities cost-effectively, and at the
same time providing the best possible service to users. Asset management also ensures
that financial resources are available to repair and replace equipment when necessary.

Asset management consists of the following five steps:

 Preparing an asset register. Knowing what assets you have and what their
condition is.

 Prioritising your assets. In case you have a limited budget, prioritizing helps you
to allocate funds to the rehabilitation or replacement of your most important
assets.
  Developing an asset management plan. Devising a plan to ensure continuous service
delivery, and estimating the amount of money required to do this.

 Implementing your asset management plan. Working with the support of

management to carry out the plan, ensuring that the technical and financial
means to deliver safe water to your customers are available.

 Reviewing and revising your asset management plan. Your asset management plan
should be reviewed regularly because with time the assets will change (for
example, due to expansion of treatment plants, or an increase in the coverage of
water distribution systems). The plan then has to be revised as necessary.

Unfortunately, even with an excellent asset management plan in place and effective
preventive maintenance, the water utility may still find its customers are not always
happy and may make complaints. This is the subject of the next section.

Handling customer complaints

Customer complaints are inevitable and water utilities have a duty to respond to them
quickly and efficiently. Water utility offices have a specific department responsible for
handling customer complaints. In Study Session 6 this was called the Commercial and
Customer Care Department but it may have other names such as the Public Complaints
Resolution Department or similar. Complaints such as misreading of a water meter,
breakage of a supply pipe, shortage of water, long waiting times for a pipe connection
and poor-quality water are common and can be brought to this department by
customers in person, through a telephone call or in written form. Many departments
use free phone numbers so problems can be reported more easily.

When a complaint is received, the department dispatches a group of technicians to

investigate the problem at the site. These technicians are expected to resolve the
problem quickly, on the spot if possible. There are targets for repair. For instance, if the
issue is a breakage in the customer’s section of pipe (the pipework between the water
meter and the house) the pipe has to be repaired within an hour. If the breakage is in
the main water line, it should be repaired within three hours.

For people working in the public sector providing a public service such as supplying
water to people, no matter how great their services are, the old adage will eventually be
proven true: you cannot please all of the people all of the time. Whatever the type of
complaint customers have, it is important to remember the following rules when
resolving customer service issues.

 Listen to the complaint. The first thing to

do is to listen to the complaint
(Figure 9.4). Then the root cause of the
problem must be ascertained. It could be
that it is something to do with the way
the water utility operates. Conversely, it
could be due to factors outside its
control.

 2. Understand the issue. Next, given the situation, the complaint must be seen
from the complainant’s point of view.
 The question must be: ‘Why did they come here? Is their complaint justified?’ A
complete picture of their complaint cannot be obtained until it is viewed from
their perspective.
 It is important to listen, understand and then discuss possible solutions with
them in a calm and friendly manner. This comes down to tone and respect.
Policies or personnel can be calmly defended but the conversation should not
become an argument, as this will not resolve the issue but lead to anger and
aggression.
 Resolve the complaint. After the complaint has been heard and understood, a
solution has to be suggested. If it is a major complaint, it has to be taken to a
 higher level, as appropriate. Sometimes this move alone is sufficient to resolve
the customer’s concerns as it conveys a sense of importance – their complaint is
significant enough to be passed to someone higher up in the chain of command.
When referring the matter on, the person to whom the complaint has been sent
has to be fully informed of the relevant facts before he or she speaks with the
customer.
 Document the complaint and how it was resolved. After the customer’s complaint has
been resolved, the case has to be documented in writing. This allows staff to refer
back to it should a similar complaint arise in the future. Importantly, any
recommendations for the water utility to adopt should be noted, to prevent
future complaints.

 Learn from the complaint and rectify any problems. Customer complaints should be
used as a means to learn about potential flaws in any of the water utility’s
systems, and then the flaws should be rectified so that no more complaints arise.
In most situations, by following these five steps, the issue will be resolved to the
customer’s satisfaction. There are, however, some issues that simply cannot be resolved.
It could be that the customers’ requests are outside the stated policies on such matters,
or that they are simply unreasonable. There will not always be an easy solution to this
sort of problem but if all internal procedures have been exhausted, customers may have
go to an independent party for resolution such as the Town Water Board or Woreda
WASH Steering Committee.
Figure 9.4 Customers may complain and must be listened to carefully

Water quality standards

As mentioned above, customer complaints may be about water quantity and breaks in
supply, but they may also be about water quality. This could be an undesirable colour
or taste in the water that consumers have detected. More seriously, it could be a
problem related to ill health that has been linked to the water supply. To check that the
water supplied is both potable and palatable requires standards to be established.
Drinking water standards are a set of limits for a wide range of substances, organisms
and properties of water, with the protection of public health as the focus.

As you have read, water can contain many different types of biological contaminants.
Water is considered a good and universal solvent, which means all kinds of dissolved
substances can be found in it as well. As a result, there is a need to have precise
assessment methods that are used to test for the presence and concentrations of these
substances to find out if they are within the water quality standards. The World Health
Organization publishes international guidelines for drinking water quality (WHO, 2011)
and most national governments also produce their own country standards. When the
standards are breached, it gives a signal to the water supplier to investigate and take
remedial action. Although standards are set in Ethiopia, quality assurance is not always
present.
In addition to measuring health-related parameters set in international and national
drinking water quality standards, water suppliers need to carry out a wide range of
analyses important to the operation and maintenance of water treatment and
distribution systems. These analyses (Figure 9.5) should include acceptability, which is
a critical parameter. (Parameter means a measurable factor.) If the water supplied to the
community is not acceptable (for example, because it has a tinge of colour in it due to
natural compounds present, which may not be harmful), consumers may choose a more
palatable, but possibly unsafe, water source. Acceptability may be assessed by physical
observation (such as taste, colour, odour, visible turbidity), without laboratory
determinations. Water utilities will monitor the water quality to check that the
standards are adhered to.

Figure 9.5 A water analyst at work.

Microbial parameters

Drinking water can be contaminated with human or animal faeces, which are a source
of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminths. Measurement of microbial
parameters involves the microbiological tests for faecal contamination that you read
about in Study chapter 2.

What are the tests widely used to assess faecal contamination?

The usual tests are for total coliform bacteria, faecal coliform bacteria and E. coli.

Table 9.1 shows the Ethiopian bacteriological standards for drinking water. It includes
total coliforms and E. coli, and also mentions total visible colonies of organisms
(Figure 9.6) and faecal streptococci. These are additional ways of measuring the
microbial contamination of water. For all four parameters shown here the standards
state that none should be present in drinking water.

Table 9.1 Bacteriological quality standards for drinking water. (ESA, 2013)

Substance Maximum permissible level

Total visible organisms, colonies per 1 ml Must not be detectable

Faecal streptococci per 100 ml Must not be detectable

E. coli, number per 100 ml Must not be detectable

Total coliform organisms, number per 100 ml Must not be detectable

To conduct a visible colony test, a known volume of water is spread on a nutrient layer
in a Petri dish. After incubation, colonies of bacteria grow and can be counted. If there
are too many colonies to count (as in B) then a diluted sample of the same water should
be used (A).

Figure 9.6 Total visible colony test.

Physical parameters
Do you experience a taste while drinking potable water? Water in its natural state is
tasteless, odourless and colourless. Although changes in these parameters may have no
direct health effects, a slight change will result in consumer dissatisfaction. Important
physical characteristics of drinking water quality are listed in Table 9.2.

Table 9.2 Physical parameters of drinking water.

Parameter Maximum Adverse effect

permissible level

Colour 15 platinum-cobalt Unpleasing appearance

units (PCU)*

Odour Not objectionable Unappealing to drink

Taste Not objectionable Unappealing to drink

pH 6.5–8.5 High pH imparts taste and soapy feel, low

pH causes corrosion.

For effective disinfection pH is preferably

<8.0.

Turbidity 5 nephelometric Visibly cloudy

turbidity units
(NTU)**

* In platinum-cobalt units the colour is measured by visual comparison of the

sample with platinum-cobalt standards. One unit of colour is that produced by 1 mg of
platinum per litre of solution (1 mg/l or 1 mg l–1), in the form of the chloroplatinate ion.

** The nephelometric turbidity unit is a measure of the turbidity of the water.

Chemical parameters
Natural water has different elements and compounds in it due to the ability of water to
dissolve many substances. Unlike microbial contaminants, most chemical constituents
in drinking water only cause adverse health effects after a prolonged period of
exposure. A huge concern is if a massive accidental discharge of chemicals occurs in the
drinking water system. Experience has shown, however, that in many such incidents,
the water will exhibit changes in appearance, taste and odour that prompt consumers to
cease using it. For example, if the residual chlorine level exceeds a certain level,
consumers notice the taste and immediately reject the water. Ethiopian chemical
quality standards for the usual parameters in drinking water are presented in Table 9.3.
So, taking aluminium for example, its quantity in 1 litre of water must not exceed
0.2 mg. There are other components that also have limits, such as pesticides, but these
will only be analyzed for if a case of contamination by these types of substances is
suspected.

Table 9.3 Chemical quality standards of drinking water. (ESA, 2013)

Substance Maximum Health and other risks associated with high

permissible intake
level (mg l–
1)

Aluminium 0.2 Deposition of aluminium hydroxide flocs in

water pipes and exacerbation of discoloration
of water by iron

Ammonia 1.5 Objectionable (pungent) odour

Arsenic 0.01 High incidence of skin and possibly other

cancers

Barium 0.7
Substance Maximum Health and other risks associated with high
permissible intake
level (mg l–
1)

Boron 0.3

Cadmium 0.003 The kidney is the main target organ of toxicity

Calcium 75

Chloride 250 Undesirable (salty) taste

Chromium 0.05 Carcinogenicity suspected of chromium (VI)

compounds

Copper 2 Acute toxicity is high; effects on thyroid and

particularly the nervous system if long-term
exposure occurs

Cyanide 0.07 Effects on thyroid and particularly the

nervous system if long-term exposure occurs

Fluoride 1.5 At low concentration, prevents dental caries;

at high (7 mg l–1) concentration, increased risk
of dental fluorosis; much higher concentration
leads to skeletal fluorosis.

Iron 0.3 Causes reddish-brown colour, promotes iron-

bacteria growth and stains laundry and
plumbing fixtures

Lead 0.01 Toxic to both the central and peripheral

nervous systems, causing neurological effects
Substance Maximum Health and other risks associated with high
permissible intake
level (mg l–
1)

Magnesium 50

Manganese 0.5 Neurotoxicity and other toxic effects

Mercury (total) 0.001 The kidney is the main target for inorganic
mercury, whereas methyl-mercury mainly
affects the central nervous system

Nitrate (as 50 Causes methaemoglobinaemia in infants and

NO3) suspected risk of certain forms of cancer

Nitrite (as 3 Causes methaemoglobinaemia in infants and

NO2) suspected risk of certain forms of cancer

Potassium 1.5

Residual 0.5
chlorine

Sodium 200 Undesirable taste

Sulphate 250 Causes noticeable taste and corrosion of pipes

Total hardness 300

Total dissolved 1000 Undesirable taste

solids
Zinc 5 Imparts astringent taste and opalescence;
develops a greasy film on boiling

Summary of Study chapter 9

In Study chapter 9, you have learned that:

 Good governance of a water utility encompasses participation of stakeholders,

transparency, responsiveness, consensus, equity and inclusiveness, effectiveness,
efficiency, accountability and independence.

 Sound financial management is crucial to ensuring an adequate and safe water

supply.

 Asset management is the process of operating and maintaining systems, with the
objective of cost-effectively providing the best possible service to users.

 Customer complaints should be handled diplomatically and used as a means to

rectify flaws in the system.

 There may be complaints that are unresolvable. These may then have to be
passed to an independent party for resolution.

 Drinking water standards exist to ensure the safety of water for human
consumption, and they encompass microbial, physical and chemical parameters.
 Chapter 3

HOUSEHOLD WATER COLLECTION, TREATMENT, STORAGE AND

HANDLING

Introduction
Water utilities are responsible for putting fully treated water into the distribution
system, but it can become contaminated after it has left the treatment works if not
handled with care. The contamination can originate from several different sources, but
it is obviously important to eliminate any introduction of faecal material for health
reasons. Research in Sodo woreda, Guraghe Zone, in the Southern Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples’ Region (SNNPR) showed that 61% of the water in
households was faecally contaminated and for five woredas in Amhara Region the
figure was 74% (Kinfegabriel, 2015). These findings demonstrate that safe water
collection, treatment and handling at household level are key considerations for potable
water availability in the home.

This study chapter will discuss safe water collection methods and the ways in which
water can be treated at household level. It also presents the basic principles of safe
water storage and handling in the home.

Methods of safe household water collection

Households in urban areas that do not have a tap connection in their house or yard will
probably collect water from a water point or kiosk. Even where there is a household
connection, residents may sometimes need to use other sources, for example if there is a
break in supply. In longer-term emergency situations, safe water may be delivered by
tanker to residential areas for distribution to householders. In both of these instances,
collection vessels such as those shown in Figure 10.1 will be used to carry water to the
home.
Figure 10.1 Commonly used water collection vessels.

A water container has to be clean, and must not previously have been used to contain
any toxic material (such as pesticides). Ideally, the mouth of the vessel should be
narrow and it should have a lid. It should have handles so that it can be carried easily.

Why is it better to have a container with a narrow opening?

This reduces the chances of contamination because less of the water is exposed. Most
importantly, people will not be able to put their hands into the water, which is one of
the most likely sources of contamination.

An alternative to the containers shown in Figure 10.1 is the Hippo Water Roller
(Figure 10.2), which enables water to be transported more easily and efficiently. It is a
90-litre drum made from UV-stabilised, low-density polyethylene that can be rolled
along the ground using a steel clip-on handle. The device is designed to cope with
rough surfaces and is very stable in the upright position. The roller is rounded at the
shoulders and has hand grips at the top and bottom to make it easier to tilt a full roller
when pouring.
Figure 10.2 Hippo Water Rollers in use.

Methods of household treatment of water

If there is any doubt about the safety of the water for consumption by the household, it
should be treated at home. This does not require expensive equipment. Very often local
materials can be used, to keep costs down. Effective water treatment should ensure the
removal of all disease-causing agents and reduce the possibility of an outbreak of
waterborne disease. There are different methods of household water treatment that can
be grouped under sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. These processes are
essentially the same as those you met in the large-scale water treatment system
described in Study Session 5. The only difference is that in the household they are
applied on a smaller scale.

Sedimentation

What is sedimentation?

Sedimentation is the removal of suspended solids through the settling of particles.

Just as in the water treatment works, if the water is turbid (muddy), then giving it time
to settle (become calm) helps in sedimentation. This process can be assisted by adding a
coagulant that encourages the formation of larger, heavier particles (flocculation) that
then settle easily to the bottom of the container and make the water clear. At the
household level, natural coagulants can be used such as the crushed, dry seeds of the
Moringa fruit, shown in Figure 10.3 (Davis and Lambert, 1995). Moringa fruit comes
from Moringa trees, which grow in tropical countries

Figure 10.3 Fruits of Moringa oleifera.

Can you name one of the coagulants used in large-scale water treatment?

As you learned in Study chapter 5, aluminium sulphate and ferric chloride are used as
coagulants in large-scale water treatment.

After the suspended particles have settled, the clear water at the top can be carefully
poured into another container for further processing. The three-pot method is one
method of sedimentation.

The three-pot method

The three-pot method (Figure 10.4) is a means of reducing dirt and micro-organisms in
water, by storing the water in a container, allowing the dirt to settle, and moving the
cleaner water to different containers over time. Water in a container should be allowed
to settle for a day before it is decanted into the next container. Only water from Pot 3
should be consumed. The three-pot system is low-cost, easy to use and is something
people can do themselves. However, it does not totally remove disease-causing micro-
organisms, so some method of disinfection is still needed to remove the risk of disease
completely.

Figure 10.4 The three-pot water treatment system (IFRCRC, 2008).

Filtration

Filtration is another method of removing suspended particles and is also relatively easy.
There are several different methods of filtration that can be used in the home.

Cloth filtration

Cloth filtration (Figure 10.5) is cheap, easy to carry out and a common water treatment
technique. Pouring turbid water through a piece of fine, clean cotton cloth will remove
larger contaminants and a certain amount of suspended solids. It is better to use a used,
rather than new, piece of cloth.

Why do you think a used, washed piece of cloth is better for filtration?

Once cloth has been washed several times, the gaps between the fibres it is made from
are smaller and therefore better for trapping any solid matter.
Figure 10.5 Cloth filtration.

The steps in cloth filtration are as follows:

1. Use a large cloth, preferably made of finely-woven cotton. Fold the cloth at least
four times so that there are multiple layers of fabric, and place this over the
opening of the storage vessel.

2. The cloth, once folded, must be big enough to easily cover the opening of the
receiving water container.

3. Place the cloth over the mouth of the container.

4. Fasten the cloth securely around the rim of the opening, using string. If reusing
the cloth, always use the same side up each time.

5. Pour the water through the cloth, into the container.

6. Wash the filter cloth after each use, with a final rinse using cloth-filtered water,
and then leave the cloth in the sun until it is dry.

7. Clean the cloth regularly using detergent, and use a new piece of cloth as soon as
there are any visible tears or holes.

8. Always keep filtered water separate from non-filtered water.

Household sand filtration

A household sand filter can usually be made from locally available and inexpensive
materials like clay pots or barrels. They are simple and easy to use. One such system
consists of a pot and a storage vessel (Figure 10.6).

Figure 10.6 A household sand filter system, comprising a pot and a storage vessel.

The details of the system are as follows:

1. The bottom of the pot is perforated (has tiny holes in it).

2. The pot contains layers of gravel (about 5 cm deep), coarse sand (about 5 cm
deep) and fine sand (about 10 cm deep).

3. Water is poured in at the top and, as it passes through the layers, any particles
within it are filtered out.

4. Clean water drips into the storage container.

5. The storage container should have a tap to enable the clean water to be drawn
out easily and safely.

6. The sand and gravel should be changed when the rate of filtration starts to slow;
at a minimum it should be changed every two to three months.
Ceramic filtration
For ceramic filtration, a water filter in the form of a ceramic pot can be made using clay,
sawdust or rice husks, and a plastic bucket. The pot is made by mixing clay with the
sawdust or rice husks, forming it into a flowerpot shape and then firing it in a kiln. The
sawdust or rice husks burn away, leaving tiny pores in the ceramic through which
water can be filtered. The small pore size of the ceramic material traps the particles and
most micro-organisms.

To use the filter, the pot is inserted into a container so that its lip prevents it from
slipping into the container (Figure 10.7). The raw water is then poured into the ceramic
pot. Cleaned water percolates out of the pot and is collected in the container below. A
tap on the container allows water to be drawn out.

The filter is cleaned by gently scrubbing the surface, and it is recommended that the
filter be replaced every 1–2 years, as fine cracks not visible to the naked eye may have
developed.

Figure 10.7 Ceramic pot method of water filtration.

Disinfection
Disinfection is the final stage of water treatment in the home. All water treated using
one or more of the previous steps will need to be disinfected to ensure that all
pathogens are killed. The three common methods of disinfection are described below.

Boiling

Boiling drinking water is a simple way of killing pathogens and is suitable for use at
household level. Boiling destroys pathogens such as bacteria and viruses, and any
parasite ova (eggs) present in water. The water should be heated until large bubbles
come continuously to the surface of the water (referred to as a ‘rolling boil’), for at least
5 minutes. This has been shown to inactivate cholera and Shigella organisms (Luff and
Clarke, 2006). If the location of the site is at a high elevation (as in Addis Ababa) the
water should be boiled for longer. Boiling will make the water taste flat but this can be
remedied by shaking the water in a clean bottle, or by adding a pinch of salt to one litre
of water. If the water is turbid with particles, it should be filtered before boiling. Water
should be boiled, cooled and stored, all in the one container and consumed within 24
hours to prevent re-contamination.

Can you think of disadvantages associated with boiling?

Fuel has to be obtained, and scalding accidents can occur if people are careless. But it is
still the simplest way of ensuring that water is safe to drink.

Solar disinfection (SODIS)

Solar disinfection, known as SODIS, is a water treatment method that uses ultraviolet
(UV) radiation and high temperature from the sun to destroy micro-organisms in water.
The technique requires only some clear plastic bottles (without labels) and sunlight
(Figure 10.8).
Figure 10.7 Ceramic pot method of water filtration.

Disinfection

Disinfection is the final stage of water treatment in the home. All water treated using
one or more of the previous steps will need to be disinfected to ensure that all
pathogens are killed. The three common methods of disinfection are described below.

Boiling

Boiling drinking water is a simple way of killing pathogens and is suitable for use at
household level. Boiling destroys pathogens such as bacteria and viruses, and any
parasite ova (eggs) present in water. The water should be heated until large bubbles
come continuously to the surface of the water (referred to as a ‘rolling boil’), for at least
5 minutes. This has been shown to inactivate cholera and Shigella organisms (Luff and
Clarke, 2006). If the location of the site is at a high elevation (as in Addis Ababa) the
water should be boiled for longer. Boiling will make the water taste flat but this can be
remedied by shaking the water in a clean bottle, or by adding a pinch of salt to one litre
of water. If the water is turbid with particles, it should be filtered before boiling. Water
should be boiled, cooled and stored, all in the one container and consumed within 24
hours to prevent re-contamination.

Can you think of disadvantages associated with boiling?

Fuel has to be obtained, and scalding accidents can occur if people are careless. But it is
still the simplest way of ensuring that water is safe to drink.

Solar disinfection (SODIS)

Solar disinfection, known as SODIS, is a water treatment method that uses ultraviolet
(UV) radiation and high temperature from the sun to destroy micro-organisms in water.
The technique requires only some clear plastic bottles (without labels) and sunlight
(Figure 10.8).

Figure 10.8 Plastic bottles full of water being laid out in the sun for disinfection.

The steps to take for SODIS are shown in Figure 10.9. In Step 5, the bottles are placed on
a corrugated iron sheet (often used as roofing material) which is painted black so that it
retains heat from the sun, speeding up the rate of heating of the water.
Figure 10.9 The procedure for solar disinfection of water (SODIS).

Chemical disinfection using chlorine

Chlorine solution, also known as sodium hypochlorite or bleach, is the most affordable
and widely available chemical for household water treatment. Typically the procedure
is to add a capful of chlorine solution to water in a 20–25 litre storage container, then
stir and wait for 30 minutes. As you learned in Study Session 5, this period of time is
referred to as the contact time. After this, the water can be used.

Chlorination is effective if the water is not turbid. If the water is turbid, micro-
organisms can shelter within the particles and escape the effect of the chlorine. Solids
should therefore first be removed by sedimentation or filtration. It is important that
some residual chlorine remains in the water at the time it is used, so that it stays safe to
drink. A minimum concentration of 0.5 mg l–1 is recommended; this will kill any
organism that enters the water later.

Household water treatment using commercial products

One example you may be familiar with is Wuha Agar, a commercial product available
in Ethiopia for household water treatment. It is a chlorine-based solution used for
disinfection, as described above. There are several others.

Bishan Gari Water Purifier

The Bishan Gari Water Purifier (Figure 10.10) is a combined coagulant–flocculant–

disinfectant powder mixture produced in Ethiopia for water treatment. Bishan Gari
comes in a 2.5-g sachet, which is used to treat 20 litres of water. The sachet contains
aluminium sulphate as coagulant and a flocculant for reducing turbidity, and calcium
hypochlorite as a disinfectant to kill bacteria and viruses.

Figure 10.10 A Bishan Gari sachet.

The directions for using Bishan Gari powder are as follows:

1. Put 20 litres of raw water into a clean bucket.

2. Open the Bishan Gari sachet and add the contents to the bucket.
 3. Stir rapidly with a stick for 2 minutes (to disperse the chemicals) and then stir
slowly for an additional 3–4 minutes (to help the solid particles come together to
form larger particles or flocs).

4. Wait for at least 20 minutes for the flocs to settle and the micro-organism to die.
The longer you wait, the clearer the treated water will be.

5. Strain the water through a thick cotton cloth into a safe water storage container,
from which it can be consumed.

6. Dispose of the material that settles at the bottom of the bucket by burying it.

Aquatabs

Aquatabs is the brand name of a solid form of sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC), a

disinfectant. The tablets (Figure 10.11), which have to be imported, are easier than
bleach to store, handle and transport. One tablet contains 67 mg of NaDCC and can
treat 20 litres of clear water. The tablet has to be dissolved in the water by vigorous
mixing, and a contact time of 30 minutes is necessary. If the water is turbid, two tablets
will be needed.

Purifier of water

P&G Purifier of Water is the brand name of a combined coagulant, flocculant and
disinfectant product produced by Procter & Gamble (Figure 10.12), which is imported
into Ethiopia. The coagulant/flocculant is ferrous sulphate and the disinfectant is
calcium hypochlorite. It can be used to treat raw source waters with a wide range of
turbidity and pathogen load. This water treatment chemical allows flocculation to take
place and helps to remove Giardia and Cryptosporidium cysts that are resistant to
chlorine disinfection. (A cyst is a dormant stage in the life cycle of some protozoa and
bacteria that is resistant to adverse environmental conditions and therefore difficult to
destroy.) P&G Purifier of Water comes in sachets and one sachet is needed to treat
10 litres of water.
Figure 10.11 Aquatabs Figure 10.12 P&G
tablets for household water Purifier of Water.
treatment.
The procedure for using P&G Purifier of Water is illustrated in Figure 10.13.

Figure 10.13 How to use P&G Purifier of Water.

Safe storage and handling of water in the home

The most desirable specification for a water storage vessel for households is that it:

 has a capacity of between 10 and 25 litres, is rectangular or cylindrical with a flat

base and has one or more handles, for portability, stability and ease of storage
  is made of lightweight, oxidation-resistant plastic (so that it does not deteriorate
with time), such as high-density polyethylene or polypropylene, for durability
and shock resistance is opaque to prevent the growth of algae
 is fitted with a screw-cap opening that is wide enough to facilitate cleaning but
small enough to discourage or prevent the introduction of hands or dipping
utensils
 is fitted with a durable tap for dispensing water so that human contact with the
stored water is impossible (Figure 10.14).
Why is the recommended upper limit for the water storage vessel 25 litres?

The weight of 25 litres of water is 25 kg. This is just about manageable for an adult to
lift.

Figure 10.14 Containers for poor handling (left) and safe handling (right) of water.

Having collected, transported, treated and stored the water, households have to handle
the water carefully so that it does not become contaminated. It is essential that hands
are not put into the treated water. The best option is to use a tap. If the container does
not have a tap, and the container has a narrow neck, the water can be poured out
carefully. If the container has a wide neck, a long-handled ladle (Figure 10.15) should be
used to take the water out of the container. This is preferable to using a mug or jug,
because hands can inadvertently contaminate the water.

Figure 10.15 A long-handled ladle for taking water from a container.

Summary of Study chapter 10

In Study Chapter 10 you have learned that:

 Households may have to collect their own water if there is no water distribution
system to take water to individual houses. They may also have to do this if there
is a water emergency and water is distributed by tankers.

 A container used to collect the water must be clean and must not have previously
held any toxic compounds. It should have a narrow mouth, a lid, and handles for
portability. An easy option is to use the Hippo Water Roller.

 Household water treatment is needed if the safety of the water for human
consumption is in any doubt.

 Removal of suspended particles is the first step in household water treatment.

This can be done by sedimentation, for example by using the three-pot method.
 The crushed seeds of the Moringa fruit can be used as a natural coagulant, to aid
sedimentation of solids.

 Filtration (for example, by using cloth, a household sand filter, or a ceramic filter)
is also a way to remove suspended particles.

 Disinfection (for example, by boiling or using solar energy) eliminates

pathogenic (disease-causing) micro-organisms from the water.

 Water treatment chemicals such as Wuha Agar, Bishan Gari, Aquatabs and P&G
Purifier of Water can also be used for household water treatment.
 The ideal household storage container for treated water is made of lightweight,
oxidation-resistant, opaque plastic, with a screw-cap opening for ease of
cleaning, handles for portability and a tap to eliminate human contact with the
water inside the container. When handling treated water, a tap or a long-handled
ladle should be used.
 Chapter 4

EFFICIENT USE OF WATER

Introduction

Efficient use of water means using only the amount of water required for a given task
without any water going to waste. Using water efficiently results in water being
conserved. It also results in savings in energy and chemical use, since less treated water
has to be put into the water distribution system. In this study session you will look at
efficiency in water use, and also consider alternative sources of water (such as rainwater
and treated sewage) for non-drinking purposes such as irrigation.

Why do we need to use water efficiently?

Water is a precious resource and has to be conserved in order that future, increased
water demands due to population and industrial growth (as is happening in Ethiopia)
can be satisfied. Increasing economic prosperity also results in higher water use per
person. As people become more affluent and have a piped water connection in their
home, they are likely to purchase and use more domestic appliances that require
significant quantities of water, such as washing machines and dishwashers. Personal
bathing also tends to increase and people shower more frequently. Increasing demand
means that more water will need to be supplied, bringing with it the costs and
challenges of developing new water sources.

There are other costs to consider. Producing drinking water in water treatment plants
requires significant inputs of energy and chemicals, so saving on water use will also
save energy and chemicals.

How are energy and chemicals used in drinking water treatment?

You may recall from Study chapter 5 that energy is used to pump raw (untreated) water
to the treatment plant. Energy is used in the various treatment units at the plant, and
finally energy is used to pump the treated water into the distribution system.

Chemicals such as aluminium sulphate and ferric chloride are used as coagulants, and
chlorine is used as a disinfectant.

The water produced by the plant is treated so that it is clean and safe for drinking and
cooking with but, as you know, it is also used for many other purposes, some of which
do not need water to be of potable quality. It makes sense to avoid using fully treated
drinking water for purposes that do not need it. It is also important to note that using
less water has economic benefits for consumers, since their water bills will be lower!

Technical options for minimising drinking water use

Publicity campaigns to encourage people to use water sparingly are undertaken by

water utilities. Flyers are distributed to customers, and radio and television are used to
disseminate the message of water conservation. In Tigray, the motto is ‘Value every
drop of water!’ Ways of using less water are constantly being found and Table 11.1 lists
some that apply to the home.

Table 11.1 Ways of conserving drinking water from the piped supply within the home.

Advice Notes

Fix leaking taps by replacing the A dripping trap can waste about 13 litres
washers. of water a day.

Never let the water run while Leaving the tap running can waste up to
brushing teeth, face washing, 9 litres of water a minute.
shaving, etc.

Install aerator nozzles on taps These draw air into the water flow and
Advice Notes

(Figure 11.1). reduce water consumption by 10–20%.

Figure 11.1 An aerator nozzle for a

tap.

Install aerated showerheads These pull air into the water flow and
(Figure 11.2). discharge 8 litres of water a minute
(because the air replaces some of the
water), compared to 12 litres a minute in
a standard showerhead.

Figure 11.2 A water-saving aerated

shower-head.

Use water-economical washing Labels indicate the water usage efficiency

machines and use them only with of washing machines (Figure 11.3).
a full load.

Figure 11.3 Label indicating water

Advice Notes

use by the appliance.

Install water-efficient dual-flush Dual-flush cisterns have two buttons

toilet cisterns where possible. (Figure 11.4). If there is faecal matter to be
flushed away, the right-hand button is
pressed; this will use 6 litres of water to
take away the faecal matter. If urine only
is to be disposed of, the left-hand button
is pressed; this uses 4 litres of water to
Figure 11.4 The buttons on a dual- take the waste away.
flush toilet cistern.

Advice Notes

In older toilet cisterns, put one or This reduces the flush volume by
two 1-litre plastic bottles filled displacing the volume of bottles from the
with sand inside. cistern, thereby reducing its effective
capacity.

Use rainwater for toilet flushing, Rainwater can be collected from the roof,
and for watering plants. filtered and stored in a tank.

Use greywater (used water from The water should be filtered and
showers and sinks that is not disinfected before use.
faecally contaminated) for toilet
flushing or watering the garden.

Water garden plants and vegetable This reduces the amount of water lost
plots early in the morning or late through evaporation.
in the evening.
Many water-saving measures are simple and inexpensive to carry out (for example,
fixing a leaking tap). Others (such as buying and fitting an aerated showerhead) cost
money, but the savings made by using less water make these worthwhile.

Using rainwater

Rainwater offers a relatively clean source of water for numerous uses. Normally
rainwater can be considered clean but if the air is polluted with chemicals or particles
(for example, in an industrial area), it can become contaminated. It can also pick up
contaminants from roofs and gutters.

Where water is very scarce and there is no safe alternative source, rainwater harvesting
provides households with the water they use for all their domestic purposes. If the
water is used for drinking and cooking, it should be treated using one or more of the
methods described in Study Session 10. Some families may use rainwater directly
without treatment because they do not have treatment facilities – but this is not
recommended, as the water could be unsafe.

What are some of the ways in which rainwater is harvested?

From Study chapter 3 you know that rainwater can be collected by roof catchments,
ground catchments and sand dams.

People in urban areas are less likely to have to use rainwater for their basic needs but it
can still provide a useful source for numerous purposes in the home. Devi et al. (2012),
in research undertaken in rural and urban areas (Guma, Gambe, Suntu, Jimma and
Daraba) in Oromia Region, found that rainwater was harvested and used for house
cleaning, utensil cleaning, vehicle cleaning, washing clothes, bathing, giving to animals
and watering plants. A total of 2050 people were interviewed and about 30% of those
from rural areas used rainwater for drinking. The rainwater was collected from tin roofs
in urban areas and thatched roofs in rural areas, and led into a collection tank.
Rainwater was also harvested from surface run-off on the ground and stored in small
storage reservoirs.

The researchers found that rainwater harvested from tin roofs, if disinfected, would be
within the WHO guidelines for drinking water, while the rainwater from thatched roofs
was not suitable for drinking. They calculated that a house with a tin roof area of 100 m2
could collect 126,000 litres in the rainy season, which would be twice the water
requirement for a family of five, for a year.

If 126,000 litres of rainwater is enough for twice the water requirements of a family of
five for a year, what is the daily water usage of each person used in the calculation?

126,000
It would be (2×5×365) = 34.5 litres.

In urban areas, where space is more limited, roof collection is probably the only feasible
method of rainwater harvesting. The recommended practice for roof collection is to let
the first 15 to 20 minutes of the rain drain away, and then collect the water.

Why is it advisable to avoid using the first few litres of rain, especially after a dry
period?

The first few litres of rainwater from a roof may contain contaminants from the roofing
material, or from substances (such as dust, leaves and bird droppings) that have
accumulated on the roof or in the gutter.

The diversion can be done automatically using proprietary devices like the one in
Figure 11.5.
Figure 11.5 The floating ball first flush system.

In the floating ball first flush system, when the rain starts to fall it accumulates together
with any debris in a chamber with a conical top. As the chamber fills, a ball floats on the
surface of the collected water and eventually becomes stuck in the conical chamber
entrance, blocking the bottom chamber and therefore redirecting subsequent collected
rainwater into the main clean rainwater storage tank. This storage tank should have a
tight-fitting lid that prevents sunlight from entering and encouraging algal growth, and
also prevents entry of mosquitoes.

A small-bore pipe is used to slowly drain the water from the lower chamber of the
floating ball first flush system, to automatically reset the device. A tap can be used if
water is at a premium, since water dribbles out continuously when it is raining.

Treating sewage for reuse

A lot of water is used for purposes where high-quality drinking water is not necessary.
Can you think of water uses where the quality does not have to be of drinking water
standard?

You may have thought of the washing of outdoor areas (like the house yard), washing
of vehicles and gardening, but you could have mentioned anything that does not
involve ingestion of the water.

One of the biggest uses of water is in irrigation, not only for food crops but also for
landscaping schemes in cities like Addis Ababa (Figure 11.6). For uses such as these, it
is possible to use treated sewage effluent to water plants, if this is available. Sewage
treatment can be an economical process using a simple system of ponds called waste
stabilisation ponds, which are described below. (Note that reuse of the water is only
feasible for fully treated sewage; septic tank discharge should not be used in this way.)
In Ethiopia the opportunities for reusing treated sewage effluent may be limited at the
moment, but future changes could see more sewage treatment systems, which would
increase the potential.

Figure 11.6 Volunteers planting trees in Addis Ababa, on World Environment Day, 5 June
2013.

Waste stabilisation ponds

Waste stabilisation ponds are natural or constructed ponds used for treating sewage or
other wastewaters biologically by harnessing the power of sunlight and wind. They are
therefore ideal for tropical countries, and in Ethiopia there is such a system at Kality,
treating the sewage from Addis Ababa.

In a typical waste stabilisation pond system, effluent that has passed through a screen is
sent through a series of ponds with a total retention time of 10–50 days. (The retention
time, in this context, is the length of time the effluent stays in the ponds.) No mechanical
equipment is used in the ponds, so operation and maintenance costs are very low.
Figure 11.7 shows a typical layout for a waste stabilisation pond system treating
domestic sewage.

Figure 11.7 Layout of a waste stabilisation pond system for treating domestic wastewater.

Bacteria in the ponds oxidise the pollutants and work symbiotically with algae, which
provide oxygen through photosynthesis. (A symbiotic relationship means two types of
living organisms live together for their mutual benefit. In this case, the algae produce
the oxygen that the bacteria need, and the bacteria produce carbon dioxide and release
ammonia and phosphate that the algae consume.)

Oxygenation also occurs through the action of wind, and by diffusion. Diffusion is the
movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to one of low
concentration. In the present context it means the movement of oxygen from the air,
where it makes up 21% of the composition, to the water, where it is in low
concentration.)

The major part of the biodegradation of the sewage (the breaking down of complex
substances in sewage into simpler compounds, by micro-organisms) takes place in the
facultative ponds (Figure 11.7). These are ponds in which the upper portion is aerobic
and the lower portion is anaerobic. Facultative ponds are 1–1.5 m deep, with a retention
time of 5 to 30 days. Solids settle to the bottom and are anaerobically digested by
bacteria, so that sludge removal is rarely needed.

Maturation ponds are ponds placed after facultative ponds, for the purpose of
pathogen reduction. They are usually 0.5–1.5 m deep, with a retention time of 15 to
20 days. The ponds serve to inactivate pathogenic bacteria and viruses through the
action of UV radiation from sunlight and by the greater algal activity in these shallow
ponds, which raises the pH to above 8.5 (when pathogens are rapidly killed off). The
long retention time in each of the ponds also enhances the sedimentation of eggs of
intestinal nematodes (parasitic worms).

To prevent sewage from leaching away, and to preserve the effluent for reuse later, the
ponds should have a liner. This can be made of clay, asphalt, compacted earth, or any
other impervious material (material that does not let anything through). To prevent
run-off from entering the ponds, and to prevent erosion, a protective, raised earth
barrier can be constructed around the ponds using the excavated material from their
construction. A fence is needed to keep people and animals out (Tilley et al., 2014).
Any scum that builds up on the surface of the facultative and maturation ponds should
be removed to allow sunlight to reach all the algae, and also to increase surface
aeration. Large plants that are present in the water should be removed.

A further benefit of waste stabilisation ponds is that at the same time as treating
wastewater, they can be used to increase protein production through the rearing of fish
(such as Tilapia) and ducks in the maturation ponds.

Figure 11.8 shows part of waste stabilisation pond system.

Figure 11.8 Part of a waste stabilisation pond system in Tanzania.

Waste stabilisation ponds are especially efficient in hot climates. Although they require
large areas of land, this need can be satisfied by locating the ponds at the outer
perimeter of cities or on disused land. At the Kality waste stabilisation ponds on the
outskirts of Addis Ababa, the system consists of one facultative pond and three
maturation ponds, with a total retention time of 28 days. In an evaluation of Addis
Ababa’s sewage treatment system in 2010, Dagne found that an average of 83.6% of the
organic pollutants was removed by the process.

Health protection measures

The critical parameter for assessing the suitability of using the effluent from waste
stabilisation ponds for irrigation is microbiological analysis for the presence of
pathogens. Treated effluent can be reused in crop irrigation if safe limits of faecal
coliforms and intestinal parasites are achieved in the treatment process. The World
Health Organization (2006) addresses this in Wastewater Use in Agriculture, Volume 2 of
its Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater. An important
consideration is the type of crop that is being grown. If it meets specified standards,
wastewater can be used to irrigate crops that are not eaten raw. This is called ‘restricted
irrigation’ and includes non-food crops (such as cotton or oilseed), food crops that are
processed before consumption (such as coffee or wheat), and crops that have to be cooked
(such as rice or potatoes). For this type of crop, the WHO has specified that the level of
faecal coliforms should not exceed 105 per 100 ml of treated effluent, and there should be no
more than one intestinal nematode egg in 1 litre of treated effluent (WHO, 2006). (If
children under the age of 15 are exposed to the treated effluent, for example by working or
playing in fields irrigated with treated effluent, the limit for intestinal nematode eggs
becomes stricter at one egg per 10 litres of treated effluent).

Another important consideration is the type of irrigation. If spray irrigation is used,

there should be a buffer zone of 50–100 m between the irrigated fields and any nearby
houses and roads, so that local people are not affected by airborne wastewater. In
Ethiopia, flood irrigation or furrow irrigation is common; this is where farmers flow
water down small trenches running through their crops (Figure 11.9). In this situation,
the possibility of human contact with treated effluent is high.
Figure 11.9 Furrow irrigation, where there is a high chance of farmers coming into contact with
the water used.

In all situations, anyone who comes into contact with untreated or treated effluent
should wear appropriate protective clothing, including gloves and boots. After working
at the ponds, or after working on the irrigation of crops, people should wash
themselves thoroughly. While the ponds may be designed for the production of water
safe for irrigation, it is best to be safe and avoid all direct contact with the effluent.

Summary of Study chapter 11

In Study chapter 11, you have learned that:

 There are several ways of minimising the use of drinking water. In doing so, we
save not only water but also energy and chemical usage.

 Rainwater can be collected and used in a variety of ways, after the first flush is
discarded.

 Rainwater can be used for drinking if it is filtered and disinfected.

 Treated sewage can be an important resource for use in irrigation.

 In Ethiopia, waste stabilisation ponds offer an economical way of treating

sewage for reuse.

 Waste stabilisation ponds can be used to farm fish and ducks, for food.

 Safety measures are needed when working with treated effluent.

 Chapter 5

MONITORING DRINKING WATER QUALITY

Introduction

The inspection of water sources and monitoring how water is managed at household
level are important practices in assuring drinking water quality. In this study session
you consider what this involves for the sanitary technician undertaking the task.
Inspections around river water abstraction points, aspects of rainwater collection and
storage, and water management in the home are described, as are water sampling and
the enforcement of regulations

Inspection procedures

In Study Session 8, on Water Safety Plans, you learned how important it was to identify
the hazards in a water supply system and to carry out a risk assessment so that control
measures could be put in place to protect water quality. In this study session you focus
on sanitary inspections as a means of identifying the hazards at a water source. Doing
this at source is the most effective way of safeguarding consumers. A sanitary
inspection (in this context) is a survey of the surroundings of a water source to identify
possible health hazards and sources of pollution. Unlike in the development of a Water
Safety Plan, sanitary inspections can be undertaken by individuals, often called sanitary
technicians, who consider the water source, the sources of contaminants, and water
handling by household members. Information is gathered by observation and by
making enquiries of the residents and household members living near to the water
sources. Sanitary inspections, sometimes referred to as ‘sanitary surveys’, play a vital
part in preventing contamination of water supply systems.

One factor to consider is the time of year. The season will affect the quality of water
sources. For instance, during the rainy season, rainwater run-off is likely to carry
pollutants such as faecal matter from the surface of the ground into rivers. The
pollutants may also be carried into groundwater by water percolating into the ground
and thus lead to contamination of well and spring waters.

Duties of a sanitary technician

Carrying out inspections, recording data and, importantly, any follow-up with further
analysis are important functions of the sanitary technician. In many parts of the world,
the sanitary technician reports to a District Water Surveillance Coordinator or similar
position. The duties of a sanitary technician in Ethiopia might include the following:

 carrying out routine (for instance, weekly) monitoring of water sources and
distribution systems

 checking and recording chlorine residuals on the spot, and sampling from sites
showing low levels (such as 0.1 mg l–1 free chlorine) for bacteriological analysis

 transporting samples to the appropriate laboratory

 entering analytical results in surveillance reports and submitting weekly reports

to the District Water Surveillance Coordinator informing the Water Surveillance
Coordinator of high-risk zones – such as those where water pressure is low,
leakage high, the results of bacteriological tests bad or standpipes are used – as
soon as they are identified, and indicating by appropriate means any advice to be
given to the community in an emergency

 intensifying the monitoring of high-risk water supply zones

 carrying out special sampling programmes in peri-urban and urban areas

unserved by piped systems and preparing reports on them

 periodically providing samples to the provincial laboratory for chemical analysis

and obtaining the results for inclusion in the district archive

 maintaining a register of all major sources of pollution of water resources and

carrying out periodic inspections of these resources
  taking samples of water from urban water sources and sending them to the
appropriate laboratory for full analysis

 keeping and updating an inventory of all water sources and their location,
together with a sanitation inventory

 preparing a monthly summary of all sanitary inspections, including the advice

provided on remedial action, and sending this summary to the District Water
Surveillance Coordinator

 notifying the District Water Surveillance Coordinator of high-risk facilities, and

requesting support from them for follow-up inspection and analysis.

There need to be standard procedures for carrying out sanitary inspections. In this
study session you will consider three selected examples from WHO guidance to
illustrate the principles and the sort of questions that are involved.

Inspection of an abstraction point at a river

In Study chapter 3 you considered the different types of water sources and learned the
significance of the term ‘protected’.

What is a protected water source?

It is a water source that has structures to prevent the entry of physical, chemical and
biological contaminants.

You have learned about the different ways in which wells, boreholes and springs can be
protected. Surface waters, on the other hand, are difficult to protect because run-off can
wash pollutants (such as faecal matter) off the surface of the ground and take it into
rivers and lakes. Activities in a given catchment are difficult to control and so
substances such as pesticides and fertilisers used by farmers, and other activities such as
washing clothes and even vehicles in a river or lake, can contribute to pollution of these
water sources. A sanitary inspection can identify the sources of pollution so that
protective measures may be implemented.
For many towns and cities the water supply originates from a river, usually several
kilometres from the town or city centre. Figure 12.1 depicts a river water abstraction
point, with a filter to pre-treat the water before it is pumped away for fuller treatment.
The abstraction point should have a fence to keep people and animals away. The figure
shows what a technician should be looking for when undertaking a sanitary inspection,
and Box 12.1 gives a checklist of questions to consider. The numbers in the figure
demonstrate particular points and correspond to questions in the checklist. The number
of ‘Yes’ answers to the questions indicates the risk of contamination.

Figure 12.1 Sanitary inspection of an abstraction point at a river. (WHO, 1997)

Box 12.1 Example checklist for inspection of an abstraction point at a river

1. Is there any human habitation upstream, polluting the source? Yes/No

2. Are there any farm animals upstream, polluting the source? Yes/No

3. Is there any crop production or industrial pollution upstream? Yes/No

4. Is there a risk of landslide or mudflow (caused by deforestation) in the catchment

area? Yes/No

5. Is the intake installation unfenced? Yes/No

6. Is the intake unscreened? Yes/No

7. Does the abstraction point lack a device such as a dam so that water flows into
the box at 8? Yes/No

8. Does the system require a sand or gravel filter because the water is silt-laden and
can affect water treatment? Yes/No

9. If there is a filter, is it functioning badly? Yes/No

10. Is the flow uncontrolled? Yes/No

Total number of ‘Yes’ answers = contamination risk score:

9–10 = very high

6–8 = high

3–5 = intermediate

0–2 = low.

Name ______________________

Signature ______________________
 Date ______________________

Sanitary inspection of rainwater collection and storage

As you learned in Study Session 3, rainwater harvesting is appropriate for areas that
have a shortage of water sources. It is also practised in urban areas in institutions such
as health centres and schools, and in domestic dwellings. While rainwater can be
collected through ground catchments and stored in ponds or sand dams (see Section
3.5, in Study Session 3), here you will focus on sanitary inspections of roof catchments.

Rainwater is usually clean, unless the air is polluted by particles or chemicals, which
can contaminate the rainwater. These contaminants may be unimportant, however, if
the rainwater is used for purposes other than drinking or cooking.

What uses might there be for rainwater in towns, other than for drinking or cooking?

House cleaning, utensil cleaning, vehicle cleaning, washing clothes, bathing and
watering plants.
The roof from which rain is collected should be free from contaminants. There also
needs to be a clean and well-constructed tank, with no cracks in the sides and an
inspection hole with a cover. Figure 12.2 shows what you should look for if you are
carrying out a sanitary inspection of rainwater collection, and Box 12.2 has a list of
questions to be asked. As before, the numbers in the diagram demonstrate particular
points and correspond to the checklist of questions in the box.

Figure 12.2 Rainwater collection and storage. (WHO, 1997)

Box 12.2 Sample checklist for inspection of rainwater collection and storage
Questions to be asked during the inspection:

1. Does the roof have any visible contaminants (plants, dirt or excreta)? Yes/No

2. Are the guttering channels that collect the water dirty? Yes/No

3. Does the filter box at the tank inlet have any defects that could let in fine dust? Yes/No

4. Does the tank have any other point of entry that is not properly covered? Yes/No

5. Do the walls or top of the tank have cracks or holes that could let water in? Yes/No

6. Does the tap leak or have any defects? Yes/No

7. Does the concrete floor under the tap have any defects? Yes/No

8. Does the water collection area drain inadequately? Yes/No

9. Does the area around the tank or water container have any source of pollution, such as
faeces? Yes/No

10. If a bucket is in use and left in place, is it exposed to contamination? Yes/No

Total number of ‘Yes’ answers = contamination risk score:

9–10 = very high

6–8 = high

3–5 = intermediate

0–2 = low.

Name ______________________

Signature ______________________

Date ______________________
Sanitary inspection of the home

Good-quality water can be supplied by water utilities but there is potential for the water
to become contaminated by the user through using unclean water vessels for collection
of the water, and poor handling (for example, by not storing the water carefully, and
using contaminated containers to take water from the storage vessel).

What are the characteristics of a good water storage container in the home?

A container made of opaque non-degradable plastic (plastic that will not deteriorate
with time); with a maximum capacity of 25 litres; with handles and a flat bottom, for
easy carriage and storage; with a screw-cap; and fitted with a tap.

As you know, water is said to be safe to drink when it is free from pathogens and from
physical and chemical contaminants. This needs to apply right up to the point when the
water is ingested. Identifying and assessing the potential risks associated with the
collection and use of water is therefore a very important part of the inspection.

If you were conducting a sanitary inspection, you would need to ask users or observe
their practice on:

 how they collect the water (Figure 12.3) and the types of vessel they use (for
example, jerry cans, buckets or pots)
 how the vessels are handled and stored when not in use
 whether the vessels are used for purposes other than water collection that may
contaminate them
 whether users know how to collect safe water and keep it safe
 whether the water is treated or disinfected after collection
 hygiene practices of users (especially those of young children).
Figure 12.3 Water being collected at a hand pump in rural Ethiopia.

Solving problems found during sanitary inspections

Any issues regarding water safety found by the sanitary technician should be reported
to the District Water Surveillance Coordinator or equivalent, who will verify the
situation and may undertake further investigation before referring the matter, with
recommendations, to the person more senior to them in the hierarchy. They might then
liaise with others to decide on the remedial action needed to overcome the problem.

Water sampling

It is important that the water that people drink is safe. Ethiopia has drinking water
standards with limits for microbial, physical and chemical parameters, and you learned
about these in Study Session 9. The water utilities are responsible for monitoring the
quality of drinking water.

To check that drinking water quality is within standards, samples have to be carefully
taken for analysis. It is important that representative samples are obtained so that they
reflect an accurate assessment of the condition of the source. ‘Representative’ here
means that the water sample taken represents as accurately as possible the water supply
as a whole.
When water samples are collected for analysis, care should be taken to ensure that there
is no external contamination of the samples. Glass bottles, rather than plastic, are best
used for sampling. Both bottles and stoppers (caps) must be sterilised (to kill any micro-
organisms present) so that microbiological analysis of the water sample is valid. Bottles
should be clearly labelled with the place where the sample was taken and the date. A
suggested form to accompany the water sample is shown in Figure 12.4. Note that
residual chlorine is measured on site.
 Water quality monitoring programme

SAMPLING DATA

1 Region

2 Zone

3 Woreda

4 Town/village

5 Sampling site

6 Source

7 Nature of sample (treated or untreated)

8 Residual chlorine

9 Data of sampling

10 Time of sampling

11 Sampled by (organisation)

Figure 12.4 A form to accompany water samples when sent to a laboratory for analysis.
(MoWR, 2002)

Details of the sample (time taken, location, etc.) and results of any measurements made
should be carefully recorded and filed, so that they can be referred to later if needed.

You will now consider the sampling procedure for two different locations.

Procedure for sampling from a tap or pump outlet

To obtain a representative sample of water, the sampling procedure described below
and illustrated in Figure 12.5 should be followed. The steps are:
 1. Clean the tap/outlet using a clean cloth to remove any dirt.

2. Turn on the tap and let the water run at maximum flow for 1 to 2 minutes; then
turn it off.

3. Sterilise the tap outlet for a minute with the flame from a cigarette lighter or an
ignited alcohol-soaked cotton-wool swab.

4. Turn on the tap again and allow the water to flow for 1 to 2 minutes at a medium
flow rate.

5. Open a sterilised bottle by carefully unscrewing the cap.

6. Immediately hold the bottle under the water jet and fill.

7. While filling the bottle, hold the cap face downwards to prevent entry of dust,
which may contaminate the sample.

8. Screw on the cap. A small air space should be left so that the contents can be
shaken more easily before analysis.

Figure 12.5 Procedure for sampling water from a tap. (WHO, 1997)
Procedure for sampling from a watercourse or reservoir

For towns and cities it is common for the water source to be a river or a reservoir, due to
the large quantity of water needed each day by the population. Samples from the water
source will be analysed using the following parameters:

 temperature, which can affect dissolved oxygen content and treatment

 dissolved oxygen, to determine if the water has oxygen and thus is devoid of
undesirable products from anaerobic processes

 colour and odour, for acceptability to consumers

 turbidity, to determine if pre-treatment of the water is necessary

 suspended solids, to ascertain the level of treatment needed

 pH, to see if adjustment is needed

 organic compounds, metals and nitrate to determine if unacceptable levels of

pollutants are present

 coliforms and pathogens, to determine the level of treatment required

 phytoplankton, to determine if removal is needed to eliminate odour and taste

problems.

Phytoplankton are microscopic plants and other photosynthetic organisms that live in
water.

The steps for water sampling are as follows:

1. Open the sterilised bottle as described above.

2. Fill the bottle by holding it by the lower part and submerging it to a depth of
about 20 cm, with the mouth facing slightly upwards. If there is a current, the
mouth of the bottle should face towards it (Figure 12.6).

3. The bottle should then be capped.

Figure 12.6 Sampling of water from surface water (rivers, ponds, etc.). (WHO, 1997)

Enforcement of regulations
The water utilities regularly analyse the quality of water emerging from treatment
plants, and the water in the distribution system and at public and private taps. They
also undertake analyses and carry out an investigation whenever there is a complaint
from a customer or a government body.

In addition to the water sampling and analyses described above, the Food, Medicine
and Health Care Administration and Control Authority (FMHACA) analyses water
samples from service reservoirs and at public taps, and undertakes investigations of
poor water quality. If quality is found to be poor, the FMHACA sends a Notification to
the water utility, which must report back to the FMHACA on the remedial measures it
has applied to overcome the problem.

The Ethiopian Public Health Institute and its Regional Public Health Laboratories are
available for public and private bodies that wish to have water samples analyzed.
Typically, Woreda Health Offices would send water samples to their Regional Public
Health Laboratory if a complaint about quality is received. The Laboratory will
investigate the complaint, and recommend remedial measures that should be taken.
Summary of Study Chapter12
In Study chapter 12, you have learned that:

 Sanitary inspections play a major role in the prevention of contamination in

water supply systems.

 Sanitary inspections begin at the source of the water. Preventing source water
contamination is the most effective means of preventing contaminants from
reaching consumers.

 Source water quality and conditions around the water source are the key
elements of a sanitary inspection.

 Sanitary inspections include identifying and assessing the risks associated with
collection and use of the water.

 They also include assessment of water management in the home, and ensure that
household practices do not allow contamination to occur.

 There are specified procedures to follow when taking a water sample for analysis
to ensure the sample is representative.

 Drinking water quality is monitored by the water utilities that produce the water.
In addition, the Food, Medicine and Health Care Administration and Control
Authority also analyses the water.

 The Ethiopian Public Health Institute (and its Regional Public Health
Laboratories) analyse water samples in cases of complaints, and recommend
remedial measures to overcome any issues.
 Chapter 6

FINANCING URBAN WATER SERVICES

Introduction

The Water Resources Management Policy of Ethiopia recognises that water is a vital
socio-economic resource (MoWR, 1999). It also states that the cost of providing water
services should be recovered from the people using it. However, when considering the
price to be paid for water, the national policy states that ‘the price of water should be
neither too high (and discourage water use) nor too low (and encourage abuses and
over-use of water)’. It also acknowledges that different approaches are needed for rural
and urban dwellers.

In this study session you explore how cost recovery can be achieved, including billing
and smart meters. You will also look at how small loans can help to improve water
supply.

The rationale for water tariffs

One of the ways of ensuring sustainability in water supply is to make sure that the cost
of providing the supply is covered by the revenue from payments by consumers. For
this to happen, water tariffs must be set. A water tariff can be defined as ‘the price paid
by consumers for water’ (MoWE, 2013).

As you have been reading in previous study sessions, the process of providing safe
drinking water for large communities in towns and cities requires several steps, from
identifying and developing an appropriate water source through to delivery to
consumers via a distribution network. In many locations, large-scale water treatment is
also needed, involving a series of processes in a water treatment works.

Can you recall the main steps in water treatment?

The main steps in a large-scale treatment works are screening, aeration and/or pre-
chlorination, coagulation and flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, and chlorination.
Supplementary treatment may also be needed.

Producing the water, storing it and ensuring it gets to consumers requires the input of
expertise, labour, energy and chemicals, all of which cost money. The aim in a water
supply system should be to recoup this expenditure and also gather funds for
maintenance, renewal of equipment, management costs, repayment of debts, building
up of financial reserves, and expansion of the water supply system (when the need
arises). Water tariffs provide a way for the money to be gathered from consumers.

Different types of water tariff

There are four types of tariff that are most often applied in the water sector. Different
countries or areas may adopt different systems depending on their policies and
circumstances. For example, in some places all households with a piped connection are
required to have a water meter that measures the volume of water used. In other places,
water meters are not compulsory. The four main types of tariff are as follows:

Uniform flat rate: The consumer pays a flat rate regardless of how much water is used.
This tariff is used in areas that are not metered. While, for the customer, the expense of
installing and reading meters is eliminated, this tariff does little to discourage water
wastage by consumers, and everyone pays the same no matter what their consumption.

Single-block rate: The consumer is charged a fixed rate for each unit (or block) of water
used, based on meter readings. A block is defined as the quantitative interval of water
consumed (in cubic metres), for which a given tariff is set. This is a fairer system, as
people only pay for what they use, and also it encourages water conservation.

What are the benefits of water conservation?

Water conservation through the efficient use of water means that the available water
can be used to supply more people.
Two-part tariff: In this tariff, in addition to charging for the volume of water consumed, a
fixed charge is imposed. This fixed charge is to cover several items that are not related
to the level of water consumption, such as the cost of meter reading and billing,
repayment of loans, and capital improvements.

Rising block tariff: Here the consumer pays more as consumption increases. A certain
basic allowance of water, the first block, is supplied at a minimal price (or even free)
and subsequent blocks of water are charged at increasingly higher rates. The rising
block tariff encourages water conservation but is sometimes seen as being
disadvantageous to large families who tend to use more water. In these circumstances, a
financial subsidy can be given.

There is another tariff, which is not very widespread, called the ‘seasonal tariff’, which
is applied in Chile (Whittington et al., 2002). The tariff is low in the rainy season and
high in the dry season, thus encouraging water conservation when water is scarce.

Water tariffs used in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, the rising block tariff is used for both domestic and non-domestic users.
The National Guideline for Urban Water Utilities Tariff Setting recommends that no
more than five blocks should be used. The recommended blocks for medium and large
towns are shown in Table 13.1. The Guideline also recommends a set of block ranges for
small towns.

Table 13.1 Guideline water tariff blocks and ranges for medium and large towns in Ethiopia.
(MoWE, 2013)

Block Block range (m3 per month)

Domestic users Non-domestic users

1st 0–5 0–5

2nd 6–10 6–10

3rd 11–15 11–25

4th 16–20 26–40

5th >20 >40

Based on these block ranges, the price paid by each customer is calculated according to
the volume of water they use. The actual costs of water supply differ from town to
town, depending on various factors such as the ease of treatment of the raw water and
the cost of laying distribution pipes, etc., so the price paid by consumers also varies
between towns.

The following example uses the pricing of water to domestic users in Harar, where
there are four blocks for domestic consumers. Table 13.2 shows the price in birr paid per
m3 for each block.

Table 13.2 The rates for water in Harar for domestic customers. (Mohammed, 2015)

Block Volume used per month (m3) Price per m3 (birr)

1st 0–5 5

2nd 6–10 9

3rd 11–20 13

4th >20 26

Here is an example of how a water bill is calculated based on these blocks. Imagine the
household of Abdul Aziz and his family, who live in Harar and use 12 m3 of water per
month.

Calculation of the water bill for Abdul Aziz’s household:

The first 5 m3 will cost 5  5 = 25 birr.

The next 5 m3 will cost 5  9 = 45 birr.

 The remaining 2 m3 will cost 2  13 = 26 birr.

The total bill for the month will therefore be 25 + 45 + 26 = 96 birr.

How water tariffs are set

The basic principle behind the concept of water tariffs is that the income from water
sales should be sufficient to cover the expenses of water supply. Essentially, there are
two major categories of costs to be considered when setting water tariffs:

1. Operation and maintenance (O&M) costs: The O&M costs are incurred in the day-
to-day running of the water supply system, and include staff salaries and
benefits, administrative costs, office running costs, and the cost of water
production and distribution (chemicals, energy, repair and maintenance, water
analysis, etc.).

2. Capital costs: The capital costs include the cost of new equipment to replace or
upgrade old treatment units, and a fund set aside for future expansion of water
supply services when the need arises (for example, for the purchase of additional
storage tanks, distribution pipes and new connections). Capital costs also include
money used for professional and technical support obtained from outside
organisations.
The Water Resources Management Policy of Ethiopia (MoWR, 1999) dictates that the
water tariffs for rural areas should seek to recover O&M costs where possible. However,
in urban areas the tariffs should seek to recoup total costs – that is, O&M and capital
costs. This is called full cost recovery. Full cost recovery ensures the sustainability of
the water scheme because it is not dependent on outside sources of funding. It enables
investment in the future development of water provision for the benefit of all. If the
water supply service were not able to recover its costs, this would restrict the
opportunities to develop and extend the water supply network, which would
particularly disadvantage poor people.
When deciding on the specific price for a water tariff, financial experts consider all the
O&M and capital costs, and arrive at a price for each cubic metre of water produced and
distributed. Suppose, for example, that the total cost works out at Y birr per cubic metre
of water. Usually the cost for domestic users will start at some figure, X, which is lower
than Y. For non-domestic users (such as industrial and commercial users), however, the
price will be higher than Y, say Z. The higher price paid by non-domestic users
subsidises the price paid by domestic users. By subsidizing the price to domestic
consumers, the pricing policy ensures that poor people have access to reliable and safe
water.

Equitable and affordable

Water tariffs must be easy to administer for the water utility, and understandable and
equitable for the consumers, with each type of consumer paying their fair share.

For domestic users, a price will be decided for each of the blocks, similar to Table 13.2,
taking into account affordability. The price of ‘affordable’ water varies depending on
the local situation, but several sources suggest that for water to be affordable, its price
should not exceed 5% of the income of the household (Coalition eau, n.d.; AICD, 2008;
Simpson, 2012).

Low-income households, and households with many young children, older or retired
people, disabled people, or people with a long-term illness (where money might always
be needed for medical treatment), are the most vulnerable segments of the population,
since their financial burden will be high. (Vulnerable here means exposed to the
possibility of being harmed through the lack of access to water, due to finances.) Water
has to be made accessible and affordable for them. Currently, these types of households
pay a high price for water (higher than charged for piped supply) by buying water from
public taps or water kiosks. Households like these should be charged less than the
standard domestic rate for water.
The Water Resources Management Policy requires social tariffs to be set up for poor
communities, based on recovery of O&M costs only. These are fixed rates (or single-
block rates) and are applied for communal water services such as hand pumps and
public taps (also referred to as ‘public fountains’, ‘standposts’ or ‘standpipes’). The tariff
used is the one charged for the first block in rising block tariffs for domestic users in
Ethiopia. For example, in Harar, according to Table 13.2 this would be 5 birr per cubic
metre. The principle behind such a policy decision is that each person should have the
right to access a minimum level of water supply for cooking and drinking, at a price
that is affordable to low-income households.

Reduction of water tariffs

Water tariffs should be reviewed annually, because customers find small increases in
water costs easier to cope with and accept than a large increase every few years.
However, it is possible that water tariffs may be reduced with time. If water sales go up,
the fixed costs per cubic metre of water produced will be reduced. If non-revenue water
is minimised, this will serve to increase the available supply and the income to the
water supplier. Increased usage can be achieved by increasing the number of customers,
through installing more taps.

Can you remember what non-revenue water is, and what its biggest component is?

From Study chapter 7, it is water that is used but does not generate any income for the
water supplier; its biggest component is leakage.

Water tariffs may also be reduced if the income to the water supplier is increased
through more efficient billing and collection of payments due.

The billing process

Water meters are installed at points of water use so that the quantity of water used can
be ascertained, and the water user sent a bill for payment. The type of meter in general
use has a given flow rate range, which varies with different meters. Usage of water at a
higher rate than can be measured by a meter will result in the usage being under-
recorded. This means that the bill will be less than it should be. So before installing a
water meter, the anticipated rate of water use must be estimated for the given location,
and an appropriate meter then installed.

Simple and smart meters

A water meter can be placed below ground level, in a silo with a cover that can be lifted
to reveal the meter; above ground, within the compound of the property (Figure 13.1);
or on public land outside the property concerned.

Figure 13.1 Water meter inside the compound of a house.

Water meters can be simple, or fitted with automatic meter reading technology. With a
simple meter (Figures 13.1 and 13.2), commonly found in Ethiopia, a meter reader
employed by the water utility visits the household and physically notes down the meter
reading each month to record usage. The meter reader then goes back to the water
utility office and passes the reading to the Billing Department staff, who then generate a
water bill.
Figure 13.2 A simple water meter.

Where a meter has the facility for automatic meter reading, a meter reader visits the
property with a handheld computer or data collection device, as shown in Figure 13.3.
The device has an electronic probe. The meter is touched with the probe and a signal
from it interrogates the meter and downloads the data needed. Systems are also
available by which a meter reader can obtain the required data by walking near the
meter, or driving by in a vehicle. The data are downloaded later into a computer that
can then automatically and speedily generate a bill.

Figure 13.3 Automated water meter reading.

There are also smart meters (Figure 13.4) that transmit meter readings using wireless
technology every hour to the water utility that supplies the water and also to a device in
the home or property, so that usage can be monitored. The water bill can be generated
rapidly by a computer at the water utility, without a meter reader having to visit the
meter. The meter readings are usually monitored by the water utility and a sudden rise
in the meter reading can generate a warning that possibly a leak has arisen.

Figure 13.4 A smart water meter.

The different types of water meter have their advantages and disadvantages. The
simple meter is robust and inexpensive, while meters with automatic reading facilities
and smart meters are costly and sensitive to mishandling. Simple meters, unlike
automated and smart meters, require people to take readings and generate a bill, but
this gives employment. Automated and smart meters can be used to generate water
bills rapidly but require technical expertise to keep them functional.

Prepaid meters

There is no billing process for water purchased from water kiosks because payment is
simply by cash. One innovative alternative to this is the use of prepaid meters on public
water points, which have been introduced in some parts of South Africa and Kenya
(Figure 13.5). With prepaid meters, consumers buy credit in advance, which is
registered electronically on a plastic card or token. They then insert the card or token
into the meter, which automatically releases water. The cost of the water they have used
is deducted from the credit. The advantage of this method is that people can budget for
water by topping up their card as and when they can afford to pay. Also, the water
point does not have to be managed by a person, and can be open 24 hours a day.

Figure 13.5 A prepaid water meter. The man standing to the right is holding the small blue
credit token that is inserted into the meter to obtain water.

In Ethiopia, a pilot trial is underway of a prepayment system for domestic water

customers. The householder pays money in advance to the water utility and then uses
the water. This enables the household to proactively manage its budget, and
simultaneously save time in going to pay the water bill each month. The water utility
also makes savings as a meter reader doesn’t have to be sent out to take readings for a
bill.

The role of microloans in improving water supply

In Ethiopia, the hurdle in water supply for many people is the high initial cost of a
dedicated household water connection. The householder has to pay the cost of laying a
pipe from the mains to the house; the greater the distance of the house from the water
main, the higher the cost. Poor households have no capital budget or easy access to
credit or loan services to invest in a tap for their exclusive use. This challenge forces
such households to buy water from water kiosks and public standpipes at prices much
higher than the price of water sold directly to households. Such an additional burden on
poor households contributes to their cycle of poverty.

Many people in this group cannot access loans from banks because of their low income.
One way out of this is to make microloans available to them. Microloans are small
amounts of money lent at a low interest rate to people on low incomes. The idea
emerged from the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh in 1976. Because the borrowers, being
poor, did not have guarantees, ‘solidarity groups’ of five borrowers who could vouch
for each other’s loans were created. This was possible in rural or village settings where
all the borrowers knew each other. This fact also created peer pressure to repay the
loan, with the result that the repayment rate for loans at the Grameen Bank is greater
than 90% (Fonseca, 2006). The microloan system enables low-income households to
obtain their own water supply at a reasonable cost. Once they have their own taps,
households will need to spend less on water, and the savings made can be used towards
other needs of the household, such as health and education.

Microloans can also be made to a community, say, to finance the drilling of a well. A
loan such as this engenders ownership of the asset (the well, in this example), and
usually results in greater care and responsibility. This bodes well for the sustainability
of the asset.

Summary of Study chapter 13

In Study chapter 13, you have learned that:

 Water tariffs are needed to recover the costs associated with the treatment and
distribution of drinking water.

 There are four main types of water tariff: uniform flat rate; single-block rate; two-
part tariff; and the rising block tariff.
 In Ethiopia the rising block tariff is used for private taps and taps in industrial
and commercial establishments. In this tariff, the cost of water increases with the
volume used but consumption is measured in blocks, which are defined
quantities of water use.

 In Ethiopia, a single-rate social tariff is used for public taps and hand pumps.
This tariff is the same as the tariff for the lowest block in the rising block tariff.

 Water meters can be simple devices that require a person to read them (either
manually or using a handheld computer) and generate a water bill.
Alternatively, they can be smart meters that send data to the water utility
automatically using wireless technology for preparation of a water bill by
computer. Smart meters allow water usage to be monitored, making discovery of
a leak easy.

 Microloans can be a way for low-income households to obtain their own private
taps. Over time, this will reduce the proportion of their income spent on water,
leaving more money for other needs of the household.
 Chapter 7

WATER EMERGENCIES AND EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY

Introduction

Safe and reliable drinking water has always played a prominent role in the
development of human civilisation. Water was, and continues to be, a basic necessity of
human survival. However, access to safe, adequate and reliable water is not always
present. There may be emergencies in the water supply system that result in a break in
supply. Distribution of fresh water can also be a challenge when natural disasters (such
as droughts, floods, earthquakes, etc.) or accidents occur, or during catastrophes caused
by human actions such as wars, when a displaced population has to be supplied with
water. You will look at examples of these situations in this study session and learn
about water supply during emergencies in urban areas, and how emergency water
supplies can be set up for populations that have been displaced.

Causes of emergency situations

Emergencies are sudden, unexpected, hazardous situations where there is a need for an
immediate response. They can cause severe disruption because they are unexpected.
Resources are needed to cope with an emergency and they may have to be brought in
from outside.

Everyone will have to deal with emergencies in life at some time or another. Can you
think of an emergency that has occurred in your life? You can probably think of many.
The last one that I had was when a pipe burst in my mother’s house. It was late in the
night, and I had to take my friend Kabede with me (as an outside resource) to help fix it,
because I am useless at plumbing.

A water emergency, such as the one described above, is an event that disrupts the
normal supply of water. In town, it can occur due to natural causes or when there is
damage to the major infrastructure of the treatment plant, water storage or water
distribution system. Untreated or partially treated water may be inadvertently
distributed in an emergency situation. Another cause of a water emergency could be
contamination of the water supply, for example by a chemical leak.

As you can see, there are several different types of emergency that can affect water
supply and some of these are described in the sections that follow.

Drought

A drought occurs when there is a deficiency in precipitation over an extended period of

time, resulting in a water shortage. You are probably familiar with the consequences of
a drought. The lack of rain means that the water flow in rivers is reduced, lakes and
pools shrink in size or may dry up, groundwater and soil moisture are depleted, and
crops are damaged. Prolonged drought can lead to a major national and regional food
insecurity crisis. Domestic animals might also die (Figure 14.1).

Figure 14.1 Drought causes loss of life and livelihood.

Ethiopia has been associated with drought for a long time and many people have
suffered from its effects. For example, in the drought of 1985 in the northern part of the
country, an estimated 800,000 people died due to malnutrition and disease.

During a shortage of fresh water during a drought, people may be forced to use
unprotected water supplies. Furthermore, people and animals may use the same water
source, which increases the risk of contamination of that particular water source. This
leads to increased exposure to waterborne diseases (such as diarrhoea and dysentery)
and water-washed diseases (such as trachoma).

Flooding

Flooding is an abnormal rise in the water level and may result in overflowing of
streams or rivers. Flood waters can destroy infrastructure, including houses, roads and
water supply systems, as well as agricultural crops, which ultimately causes a shortage
of food supplies in the country. Besides the destruction of property, people and animals
may be killed, especially when flash floods occur. (A flash flood happens when rain
falls so fast that the underlying ground cannot drain the water away fast enough and
rivers overflow their banks. Roads can then become like rivers and if there is a lot of
water it can flood buildings and carry cars away.)

Floods can cause widespread bacterial contamination of wells and surface water
sources with faecal matter washed from the ground surface or from flooded latrines and
sewers, resulting in the outbreak of disease. For example, cholera commonly occurs
after flooding.

Earthquake

An earthquake can cause serious damage to infrastructure on and in the ground

(Figure 14.2). Pipes and treatment plants will be destroyed by a high-magnitude
earthquake and the communication systems (such as road and rail networks) often
become non-functional, making the delivery of emergency water supplies difficult.
Destruction during an earthquake can also cause chemical spillage at manufacturing
plants and warehouses, which can lead to widespread chemical contamination of
drinking water.
Figure 14.2 A building in Addis Ababa damaged by an earthquake.

Events caused by human intervention

It is possible that a deliberate attempt could be made to poison a water supply as an act
of terrorism, but it is far more likely that human causes of water emergencies will be
due to accident and neglect. There can be instances where the water supplied will be
unfit for human consumption as a result of an accident – Box 14.1 describes such a case
at a water treatment works in the United Kingdom.
Box 14.1 An example of a human-caused water emergency in the UK

In July 1988 in Camelford, a small town of 20,000 people in south-west England, 20 tonnes
of aluminium sulphate was dumped into the wrong tank at the local water treatment plant
(Figure 14.3) by a chemical tanker driver who was not familiar with the plant layout and
delivery procedures. Aluminium sulphate went directly into the mains water supply, and
this became the worst water poisoning incident in Britain. Residents complained because
the water coming out of the tap was black, and curdled the milk in their tea. One man
described how his hair had stuck together after he took a bath, as if his head had been
smeared with glue. Symptoms such as stomach cramp, diarrhoea, skin rashes, joint pain,
sore throat, short-term memory problems and general exhaustion were reported.

Figure 14.3 The water treatment plant at Camelford.

Aside from accidents, human neglect is the other most likely cause of a water
emergency. Case Study 14.1 illustrates how neglect can lead to a water crisis, although it
does not fit the definition of an emergency because it was not sudden.
Case Study 14.1 Water supply in Harar

Harar is a city in the eastern part of Ethiopia, 505 km from Addis Ababa. The city used to
get water from Lake Alemaya (Haromaya), but since February 2004 the supply has ceased.

The water treatment plant at the lake was originally designed to serve a population of
70,000 but in 2000 the plant was supplying 160,000 people, who lived in Harar City, two
small towns and at Haramaya University.

Lake Alemaya (Figure 14.4) has at its edge the town of Alemaya to the south and
southwest, Haramaya University to the east, and farming communities to the north and
northwest. In the mid-1980s its maximum depth was around 8 m and it covered an area of
4.72 km2. It was an attractive freshwater lake used for drinking water, irrigation, fishery
and recreation. Farmers in the surrounding community used a tremendous amount of
fertiliser to grow different crops, in addition to khat, and excess fertiliser used to end up in
the lake. Wastes containing chemicals from the town were dumped at the shore of the lake
in indiscriminate and irresponsible ways.

(a) (b)

Figure 14.4 (a) Lake Alemaya before 2004; (b) the lake after 2004.
The depletion of water from the lake started slowly and no protective conservation
measures were taken by anyone, although it was plain that the water level was
dropping year on year.

After the water had nearly gone, the city faced a serious water shortage and water
rationing was introduced. Responding to the acute water shortage in Harar, many
individuals in central government and non-governmental organisations were involved
in a programme to combat the emergency. Water tankers were used to transport water
to the town dwellers from distant available sources (Figure 14.5). This emergency
operation continued for more than a year until deep wells were dug 20 km away to
supply water to the residents again.

Figure 14.5 Tankered water supplies for residents of Harar in 2011.

People affected by emergencies

Catastrophic emergencies like floods and earthquakes will affect everyone, but the poor
and vulnerable will always be at a disadvantage. In many situations, the people most
likely to be severely affected are internally displaced people and refugees. In situations
of war and conflict people naturally want to escape and so they move in large numbers
away from the conflict zone. The places they arrive at frequently have no infrastructure
and very limited resources.
Internally displaced people are people who are forced to flee their homes due to
circumstances such as natural disasters or war, but who remain within their own
country's borders. For example, during 2014, internal war and conflict caused
thousands of people in the Central African Republic, Southern Sudan and Syria to flee
their homes and move elsewhere in their country. Such events call for a fast and
coordinated effort to provide basic services such as shelter, food, water, latrines,
handwashing facilities, etc. When providing shelter, the choice of location is often
dependent on the availability of water.

Conflicts of this kind can also result in people seeking refuge outside their own country.
For instance, in 2015, there were more than 600,000 Syrian refugees in Jordan who had
fled the conflict in their home country (UNHCR, 2015). Camps had to be set up in the
desert, and of course the supply of water was crucial.

14.3 Waterborne disease outbreaks caused by emergencies

A disease outbreak is the occurrence of cases of disease greater in number than would
normally be expected in a defined community, geographical area or season. A
waterborne disease outbreak is therefore another type of emergency situation. It might
be caused by one of the natural disasters described in the last section, or due to human
error, or indeed both. The greatest risk of waterborne outbreaks is pollution of water
sources by faecal pathogens. This might occur due to inadequate sanitation, poor
hygiene or lack of protection of water sources.

Cholera, caused by Vibrio cholerae, is a disease that is frequently associated with

disasters and emergencies, where the breakdown of normal procedures and the collapse
of infrastructure create conditions that lead to faecal contamination of water. This was
the situation on the island of Haiti following the earthquake there in 2010.
 Case Study 14.2 Cholera outbreak in Haiti

In Haiti in October 2010, ten months after a devastating earthquake, an outbreak of

cholera began in an area about 100 km from the capital, Port-au-Prince. This was the first
instance of cholera in Haiti for at least 100 years and by March 2011 it had killed 4672
people and thousands more were hospitalised (Figure 14.6). By March 2012, a further
2378 people had died, and more than 531,000 people had been taken ill. Furthermore, the
disease spread to neighbouring countries like the Dominican Republic and Cuba.

Figure 14.6 Cholera patients undergoing treatment in Haiti.

The suspected source of the epidemic was the Artibonite River (Haiti’s longest and
most important river), with which most of those who had caught the disease had been
in contact. The river water was used for washing, bathing, drinking, irrigation and
recreation. Along one of the tributaries of the Artibonite River was a United Nations
military base for peacekeeping troops from Nepal. This came under suspicion as the
source of the contamination of the river due to sewage from the base entering the river.
The UN appointed a panel to investigate the source of the outbreak and they confirmed
evidence that the particular strain of Vibrio cholerae isolated in the cholera cases found
was similar to that circulating in South Asia, including Nepal (Cravioto et al., 2011).
This suggested that the UN peacekeeping force was indeed the source and the
investigation led many people to blame the UN for the cholera outbreak (Figure 14.7).
Figure 14.7 Poster in Haiti blaming the UN for the cholera outbreak that occurred in 2010.

In the years after the outbreak, medical efforts and preventive measures (such as the
installation of more latrines) and changes in behaviour (for example, cooking food
thoroughly and rigorously washing hands after using the toilet) brought the number of
cholera cases down. The toll by November 2013 was 8448 killed and 689,448 taken ill
(Pan American Health Organization, 2013).

The UN-appointed panel came up with seven recommendations in their report and two
of these were related the cause of the outbreak (United Nations, 2011):

1. UN personnel from countries that have cholera and who respond to emergencies
in countries where cholera is not common should take antibiotics to prevent the
disease before departure and/or be screened to confirm that they are not
carrying Vibrio cholerae without suffering the disease.

2. UN installations worldwide should treat faecal waste using on-site systems to

inactivate pathogens before disposal. These systems should be operated and
maintained by trained, qualified UN staff or by local providers with adequate
UN oversight.

Treatment options for water emergencies

The purpose of water treatment in emergency situations is the same as it is in any

circumstance, which is to remove all types of contaminants present in the water and to
improve the quality to a level safe for human consumption. The difference in
emergency situations is that the normal structures and processes are not available.

In acute emergency situations where speed of providing water for people is paramount,
the main options for water supply are distribution of safe water to people through the
use of water tankers and/or plastic bottles. The other option is to give the water
consumers the means of treating water for themselves to render it safe. You learned
about the methods that could be used in Study Session 10.

Briefly describe the main processes of household water treatment and give examples of
the methods that could be used.

The main processes are sedimentation or filtration, both of which remove solids, and
disinfection to kill pathogens. Some examples of filtration methods are cloth filtration,
sand filtration, and ceramic filtration. For disinfection methods you could have said
boiling, solar disinfection, and chemical disinfection using products such as Wuha
Agar, Bishan Gari, Aquatabs and P&G Purifier of Water.

If it is not possible to filter the water, and if the water treatment chemicals mentioned
above are not available, then the water should be kept in a container to settle any solids
and then decanted out. The decanted water should then be boiled.

Water treatment and distribution

For the longer-term needs of displaced people and refugees, the population should, if
possible, be located in an area where there is adequate groundwater. This type of water
normally requires minimal treatment before consumption – usually just disinfection, in
order to keep the water safe from microbial contamination. Failing this, surface water
from rivers or lakes can be used, but these waters will require a greater degree of
treatment, since the level of suspended solids in them is likely to be high. Disinfection
will again be needed.
One way of achieving this is with an emergency water treatment system that replicates
the processes of a full-scale permanent water treatment works. A relatively simple
process for emergency water treatment is available (Figure 14.8) and can be constructed
in a matter of a few hours (Oxfam, 2014a). The tanks can be set up and operated by a
team of seven (an experienced water engineer and six technicians). It is important for
sustainability in an emergency that simple systems are used.

Figure 14.8 Emergency water treatment tanks.

In this system, the raw water is dosed with aluminium sulphate coagulant (which is
easily obtained in most countries of the world) and left to flocculate and settle for six
hours in 45-m3 sedimentation tanks. It is then chlorinated (using a solution of calcium
hypochlorite) and sent with a residual chlorine level of about 0.5 mg per litre (0.5 mg l–1)
to the distribution system made up of PVC pipes laid above ground (to bury them
would take time) and standpipes. The treatment system can produce 180 m3 of clean
water a day. Once a week or so, the residual chlorine level is increased to 1 mg l–1 so
that the water containers used by the people are disinfected.

How many people could 180 m3 of water support per day, if the water requirement is
20 litres per person per day?

180 m3 is 180,000 litres. If one person needs 20 litres of water a day, 180 000 litres will be
enough for (180,000 / 20) = 9000 people.
A more complex water treatment system (Figure 14.9), which uses coagulation and
flocculation, sand filtration, microfiltration (where a membrane filters out particles
which are 0.05–0.5 µm in size) and chlorination, is available (Oxfam, 2014b). This
requires a team of three – an experienced water engineer and two technicians. The unit
can produce up to 4 m3 of clean water an hour.

Figure 14.9 A complex water treatment system incorporating many processes in compact units,
for use in water emergencies.

Summary of Study Chapter 14

In Study chapter 14, you have learned that:

 Water supplies may be cut off in emergencies caused by natural events or human
actions. Natural factors could be droughts, floods or earthquakes, while human-
related emergencies can arise from accidents caused by human error, deliberate
poisoning of the water supply or neglect (as exemplified by Case Study 14.1).

 During emergencies water may be supplied via delivery by tankers, use of

plastic bottles or treatment of available poor-quality water in the home using
filtration and disinfection.
 Filtration at household level can be achieved by using cloth, sand or a ceramic
pot. Disinfection can be undertaken by boiling or solar methods, or by using
chlorine or commercial water treatment products.

 Emergency water treatment is needed when an internally displaced population

or refugees have to be provided with water urgently. It is preferable to use
groundwater as it is likely to be less polluted than surface water.

 Simple and complex systems for emergency water treatment are available. For
sustainability simple systems are preferable.

 The coagulant most commonly used in emergency water treatment is aluminium

sulphate, as it is widely available. A simple emergency water treatment system
comprises coagulation and flocculation, sedimentation, and chlorination, while a
complex unit might incorporate coagulation and flocculation, sand filtration,
microfiltration, and chlorination.
 Chapter 8
PUBLIC–PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP AND OTHER COMMERCIAL
OPPORTUNITIES

Introduction

In cities across the world it has usually been the case that a municipal (public) authority
takes responsibility for urban water supply. There are now variations in this service
provision. In many countries, private businesses (or operators) have joined in
partnership with public authorities to provide water in arrangements called public–
private partnerships. This study session explores the concept of public–private
partnerships and their application in urban water supply

Public–private partnerships

In the major towns and cities of Ethiopia water is supplied by water utilities (also
known as Town Water Supply Enterprises) but public–private partnerships (PPPs) can
be helpful. A public–private partnership is any collaboration between public bodies,
such as a municipality or even the government, and private companies. The belief is
that private companies are more efficient and better run than bureaucratic public
bodies, and the management skills and financial acumen that they bring will create
better value for money for customers. The incentive for the private companies is the
profit that can be generated. PPPs have become popular, to the extent that the number
of people served by private water operators in developing and former Communist
countries increased from 94 million in 2000 to more than 160 million in 2007 (Marin,
2009). Philippe Marin’s report, Public–Private Partnerships for Urban Water Utilities, which
was a review of PPPs in urban water utilities in developing countries, was undertaken
because of the interest generated in these arrangements. At the time of the report (2009),
about 7% of the urban population in the developing world was served by private water
operators. There are different ways in which PPPs can be set up (described later in this
study session) but the sections that follow now briefly consider the factors that Marin
covered in his report.

Access

Marin found that where most of the investment for expansion of access was provided
by the public partner rather than the private operator, access to piped water increased.
The finance provided by the public partner is thus crucial if the aim is to increase the
number of people with access to water.

Quality of service

Marin reported that often water PPPs substantially improved service quality, in
particular by reducing water rationing (for example, in Guinea, Gabon, Niger and
Senegal). This had the advantage of improving drinking water quality because a
constant flow of water through the piping system reduces the risk of infiltration of
unclean water from the soil around the pipelines.

Operational efficiency

The three main indicators of operational efficiency (water losses through leakage, etc.,
payment collection and labour productivity) were also studied by Marin.

Water losses

Any water lost is a loss in income, and so, perhaps predictably, Marin found (in line
with other researchers) that private operators were effective in reducing water losses,
some reducing non-revenue water to less than 15% (which Marin states is similar to that
of some of the best-performing water utilities in more developed countries).

Can you recall what non-revenue water is?

In Study Session 7 you learned that it is water from which no income accrues to the
water utility.
Payment collection

Not surprisingly, because of the financial benefits to the private partner, it was found
that the introduction of a private operator markedly improved the payment collection
rate.

Labour productivity

There was strong evidence that the introduction of private operators resulted in an
improvement in labour productivity. This is the amount of work undertaken by each
employee. Many of the public water utilities studied were over-staffed, and the PPPs
when set up were followed by significant redundancies, ranging from 20% to 65% of the
labour force. Besides the over-staffing issue, layoffs were often motivated by a need to
change the overall profile of the workforce and to hire more skilled people (Marin,
2009).

Marin concludes by saying that the biggest contribution that private operators can make
in a PPP is in improving operational efficiency and service quality. Improving service
quality results in customers becoming more willing to pay their bills, and increasing
operational efficiency results in increased income. Both of these factors lead to more
money being available for investment in expansion of services. In turn, expansion of
services results in more customers and consequently increased income, which again can
be invested to bring access to water to even more people.

Assessing the performance of a PPP

The performance of a PPP (and indeed a public water utility) can be assessed through
the following parameters (Athena Infonomics, 2012):

Accessibility: What proportion of the population have access to water? Is the distance to
the water point less than 1 km or 30 minutes’ walking time? Pickering and Davis (2012),
using survey data from 26 sub-Saharan countries, found that the further away a water
source was, the less water was used; when the distance was more than 30 minutes
away, households collected less water than was necessary for basic needs.

Affordability: Is the cost of the water needed less than 5% of the household’s income?

Cost recovery: Is the cost of providing the water being recouped?

Minimisation of non-revenue water: Is this reduced to no more than most 15%?

Water quality: Is there adherence to national standards?

Operational efficiency: What is the quantity of water supplied per capita? What is the
duration of water supply in hours per day?

These parameters can be used to evaluate whether a PPP is beneficial, with data from
before the partnership’s creation being compared with data after the PPP has been
running for, say, a year.

PPP for bill payment

In Ethiopia, a public–private partnership called ‘Lehulu’ (which means both ‘for all’,
and ‘for all services’, in Amharic), established jointly by the Ethiopian Ministry of
Communications and Information Technology and a private company, was launched in
early 2013. Its remit was to allow easy payment of bills from the Ethiopian Electric
Power Corporation (EEPCO), EthioTelecom, and Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage
Authority (AAWSA). Based on the ‘build–own–operate–transfer’ model, this was said
to be the first such institution in Africa, and has the potential to create more than 450
jobs (Kifiya Financial Technology, n.d.). In the build–own–operate–transfer model of
PPP, a private firm sets up a system, owns and runs it for several years, and then
transfers it to the public sector.

The one-stop facility is available in various parts of Addis Ababa and other towns.
Customers can save time, energy and transport costs by paying all three of their bills in
one location, instead of having to go to three different payment points. At launch there
were 31 Lehulu centres in Addis Ababa, with plans to expand to other towns such as
Mekele, Bahir Dar, Hawassa and Adama. Addis Ababa has 2.1 million transactions per
month and 1.1 million bill-paying customers (Anon., 2013a), and the payment centres
have extended opening hours, from 8:30 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. on Mondays to Fridays, and
from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. on Saturdays (Kifiya Financial Technology, n.d.). For each
bill processed, the private company running the system receives 2.54 cents (Anon.,
2013b). There are plans to make the system accessible online and via mobile phones so
that payments can be made without the customer actually going into one of the
payment centres. This will save even more time and energy.

Other possibilities for PPPs

According to François Munger (2008) the most common public–private partnership

arrangements in the water sector in developing countries take the following forms:

Management contracts, where the private firms look after the management, operation
and maintenance of the entire water system or part of it (for example, the distribution
network) for a limited period of time (approximately five years) in exchange for a
performance-related fee.

Lease contracts, where the private firms maintain and operate the water supply system,
at their own risk, deriving revenue from the water tariff, for a fixed period (six to ten
years). Investment is financed and carried out by the public sector.

Concessions, where the private firms provide a service at a given standard for a fixed
time (20 to 30 years). The private firms operate, manage, and make the investments,
carrying the commercial risks. For example, in countries where hand pumps are
common, a private company may take on the role of supplying pump mechanics and
spares to keep hand pumps operational.
Build–own–operate–transfer contracts, as mentioned earlier, are where private firms
construct new water treatment plants and run them for a number of years before
handing them over to the public sector.

As you can see, there are several different models of PPP.

Can you recall an example of a build–own–operate–transfer PPP?

The Lehulu PPP is an example of such a model.

Microenterprises

A microenterprise can be defined as a small business that employs fewer than ten
people and is started with a small amount of capital. Water supply is an area in which
microenterprises operate in a number of different ways, as you will discover in this
section.

Selling water at public taps

Public taps (Figure 15.1) are one way of distributing water. The water is sold to people
by volume, and customers come to the public tap with water containers. Although
many of the public taps are owned and run by the public utility, some are
microenterprises: the water is bought from the water utility by the tap attendant and
then sold on to consumers at a higher price. A survey of public taps in Addis Ababa
(Howard, 2005) found that water was being sold at a price up to eight times the cost of
buying directly from the water utility! Public taps are open for only a few hours each
day, which can sometimes result in long queues.
Figure 15.1 A public water point in Addis Ababa.

Selling water using tankers

Private sellers also supply water through the use of water tankers (Figure 15.2) licensed
by the government. This happens in areas not served by a piped water distribution
system. The tanker usually has a capacity of 20,000 litres and the water is pumped into
water storage tanks at the households, which usually have a capacity of about 3000
litres.

Figure 15.2 A water tanker in Denan, Ogaden.

Water vendors

In a survey of three poor areas of Addis Ababa (Sharma and Bereket, 2008), it was
found that 17% of the respondents (Figure 15.3) obtained their water from water
vendors who had originally purchased the water from the public water utility (the
Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority). The water vendors in cities are usually
people who have private taps in their homes or yards and who sell water from these.
The price at which the vendors sold the water to the end users was again about eight
times the price paid for the water, corroborating the findings of Howard (2005). Sharma
and Bereket found in their survey that most people would have preferred to have their
own private tap but the high initial cost of a private connection was prohibitive. If this
could be paid in small instalments, 90% of those keen to acquire a private tap would
take up the option. In Kombolcha, in Amhara Region it is possible to do this, with the
set-up cost being paid in four instalments. There is scope for a private–public
partnership here, with private companies providing the administrative arrangements to
collect the instalments.

Figure 15.3 Means of obtaining water in three poor areas of Addis Ababa in 2008. (Sharma and
Bereket, 2008)

There are also water vendors who sell water from horse-drawn or donkey-drawn carts
(Figure 15.4).
Figure 15.4 A water vendor selling from a donkey-drawn cart in Ethiopia.

Selling water at kiosks

Sharma and Bereket (2008) found that the price of the water at kiosks (Figure 15.5,
which were described in Study Session 7) was about three times the cost of water from
the water utility. Water kiosks are common in the countries of sub-Saharan Africa, and
water is brought from the kiosk owner’s home to the kiosk and sold. Alternatively, if
the kiosk is near the home of the owner, a hose connection to the house tap enables
water to be sold direct. In a typical day a kiosk can serve 500–3000 people bringing their
own water containers.

Figure 15.5 A water kiosk in Afto, Ethiopia.

Selling water-related services
As part of the water industry, several microenterprises have emerged to supply
plumbing services such as fixing leaks, extending pipelines around a house or
compound, and selling and installing plumbing systems (such as tanks, pipes, latrines,
WCs, etc.) (Figure 15.6).

Figure 15.6 A toilet shop in Addis Ababa.

Summary of Study chapter 15

In Study chapter 15 you have learned that:

 It is possible to obtain water from entities other than public utilities.

 One such possibility is a public–private partnership, where private companies

collaborate with a public body to provide water services. These partnerships
have the potential to bring about a more efficient service.

 Microenterprises are small businesses with fewer than ten staff members.

 In the water sector in Ethiopia, microenterprises operate some of the public taps,
as well as undertaking tanker deliveries, water vending and water kiosk
management.
 Microenterprises can also be set up for water-related services, such as plumbing
and supplying equipment.
 Assignment

1. List and briefly describe the measures by which the success or otherwise of a public–
private partnership providing water supply services can be assessed.

2. Give six possible causes of water emergencies, three due to natural causes and three
due to humans.

b. What are the options for safe water supply during a water emergency

3. You are about to set off to conduct a sanitary inspection of an abstraction point at a
river.

(a) What would you take with you?

(b) Explain four things you will be looking for during your inspection.

4. Explain briefly why a Water Safety Plan is necessary

5. Distinguish between the two types of maintenance at a water utility and give reasons
why one of them is Better