Circulatory System

Circulatory system
Components
Systemic and pulmonary system
Structure and function of blood
Structure and function of the heart
Structure and function of blood vessels
Circulatory system
Circulatory system is made up of the heart and the blood vessels (arteries, veins and
capillaries)
The circulatory system carries oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells, and
removes waste products, like carbon dioxide.
Parts of the circulatory system
Two pathways come from the heart:
 The pulmonary circulation is a short loop from the heart to the lungs and back
again.
 The pulmonary artery is a big artery that comes from the heart. It splits into two
main branches, and brings blood from the heart to the lungs. At the lungs, the
blood picks up oxygen and drops off carbon dioxide. The blood then returns to
the heart through the pulmonary veins.
 The systemic circulation carries blood from the heart to all the other parts of
the body and back again.
 Next, blood that returns to the heart, that is oxygenated ,from the lungs can now
go out to the body. The aorta is a big artery that leaves the heart carrying this
oxygenated blood. Branches off of the aorta send blood to the muscles of the
heart itself, as well as all other parts of the body. Like a tree, the branches gets
smaller and smaller as they get farther from the aorta.
At each body part, a network of tiny blood vessels called capillaries connects
the very small artery branches to very small veins. The capillaries have very thin
walls, and through them, nutrients and oxygen are delivered to the cells. Waste
products are brought into the capillaries.
Capillaries then lead into small veins. Small veins lead to larger and larger veins
as the blood approaches the heart. Valves in the veins keep blood flowing in the
correct direction. Two large veins that lead into the heart are the superior vena
cava and inferior vena cava. (The terms superior and inferior don't mean that one
vein is better than the other, but that they're located above and below the heart.)
Once the blood is back in the heart, it needs to re-enter the pulmonary circulation
and go back to the lungs to drop off the carbon dioxide and pick up more oxygen.
Heart
The heart is a roughly cone-shaped hollow muscular organ. It is about 10 cm long

and is about the size of the owner's fist. It weighs about 225g in women and is
heavier in men (about 310 g).
Position
The heart lies in the thoracic cavity in the mediastinum between the lungs
Organs associated with the heart

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Structure of the heart

The heart is composed of three layers of tissue: pericardium, myocardium and
endocardium.
Pericardium
It is the outermost layer of the heart

The pericardium is made up of two sacs. The outer sac consists of fibrous tissue
and the inner of a continuous double layer of serous membrane.
The outer layer of the serous membrane, the parietal pericardium, lines the fibrous
sac. The inner layer, the visceral pericardium, or epicardium, which is
continuous with the parietal pericardium, is adherent to the heart muscle.
The serous membrane consists of flattened epithelial cells. It secretes serous fluid
into the space between the visceral and parietal layers which allows smooth move-
ment between them when the heart beats
Myocardium
The myocardium is composed of specialised cardiac muscle found only in the
heart. It is not under vol- untary control but, like skeletal muscle, cross-stripes are
seen on microscopic examination.
This arrangement gives cardiac muscle the appearance of being a sheet of muscle
rather than a very large number of individual cells.
The 'sheet' arrangement of the myocardium enables the atria and ventricles to
contract in a coordinated and efficient manner.
Endocardium
This forms the lining of the myocardium and the heart valves. It is a thin, smooth,
glistening membrane which permits smooth flow of blood inside the heart. It
consists of flattened epithelial cells, continuous with the endothelium that lines the
blood vessels.
Interior of the heart

The heart is divided into a right and left side by the septum, a partition consisting
of myocardium covered by endocardium.
Each side is divided by an atrioventricular valve into an upper chamber, the

atrium, and a lower chamber the ventricle
The valves between the atria and ventricles open and close passively according to
changes in pressure in the chambers. They open when the pressure in the atria is
greater than that in the ventricles. During ventricular systole (contraction) the
pressure in the ventricles rises above that in the atria and the valves snap shut
prevent- ing backward flow of blood.
Flow of blood through the heart

The two largest veins of the body, the superior and inferior venae cavae, empty
their contents into the right atrium. This blood passes via the right atrioventricular
valve into the right ventricle, and from there it is pumped into the pulmonary
artery or trunk (the only artery in the body which carries deoxygenated blood).
The opening of the pulmonary artery is guarded by the pulmonary valve, formed
by three semilunar cusps. This valve prevents the back flow of blood into the right
ventricle when the ventricular muscle relaxes. After leaving the heart the pul-
monary artery divides into left and right pulmonary arteries, which carry the
venous blood to the lungs where exchange of gases takes place: carbon dioxide is
excreted and oxygen is absorbed.
Two pulmonary veins from each lung carry oxygenated blood back to the left
atrium. Blood then passes through the left atrioventricular valve into the left
ventricle, and from there it is pumped into the aorta, the first artery of he general
circulation. The opening of the aorta is guarded by the aortic valve, formed by
three semilunar cusps
Conducting system of the heart
The heart has an intrinsic system whereby the cardiac muscle is automatically
stimulated to contract without the need for a nerve supply from the brain
There are small groups of specialised neuromuscular cells in the myocardium

which initiate and conduct impulses causing coordinated and synchronised
contraction of the heart muscle.
Sinoatrial node (SAnode)

This small mass of specialised cells is in the wall of the right atrium near the
opening of the superior vena cava. The SA node is the 'pace-maker' of the heart
because it normally initiates impulses more rapidly than other groups of
neuromuscular cells.
Atrioventricular node (AV node)

This small mass of neuromuscular tissue is situated in the wall of the atrial septum
near the atrioventricular valves. Normally the AV node is stimulated by impulses
that sweep over the atrial myocardium. However, it too is capable of initiating
impulses that cause contraction but at a slower rate than the SA node.
Atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle or bundle of His)
This is a mass of specialised fibres that originate from the AV node. The AV
bundle crosses the fibrous ring that separates atria and ventricles then, at the upper
end of the ventricular septum, it divides into right and left bundle branches.
Within the ventricular myocardium the branches break up into fine fibres, called
the Purkinje fibres. The AV bundle, bundle branches and Purkinje fibres convey
electricalimpulses from the AVnode to the apex of the myocardium where the
wave of ventricular contraction begins, then sweeps upwards and outwards,
pumping blood into the pulmonary artery and the aorta
Factors affecting heart rate

Autonomic nervous system. As described above, the rate at which the heart beats
is a balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic activity and this is the most
important factor in determining heart rate.
Circulating chemicals. The hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline, secreted by

the adrenal medulla, have the same effect as sympathetic stimulation, i.e. they
increase the heart rate. Other hormones including thyroxine increase heart rate by
their metabolic effect. Some drugs, dissolved gases and electrolytes in the blood
may either increase or decrease the heart rate.
Position. When the person is upright, the heart rate is usually faster than when
lying down.
Exercise. Active muscles need more blood than resting muscles and this is
achieved by an increased heart rate and selective vasodilatation.
Emotional states. During excitement, fear or anxiety the heart rate is increased.
Other effects mediated by the sympathetic nervous system may be present (see
Fig. 7.43, p. 171).
Gender. The heart rate is faster in women than men.
Age. In babies and small children the heart rate is more rapid than in older
children and adults.
Blood vessels
Arteries and arterioles

These are the blood vessels that transport blood away from the heart. They vary
considerably in size and their walls consist of three layers of tissue
tunica adventitia or outer layer of fibrous tissue
tunica media or middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic tissue
tunica intima or inner lining of squamous epithelium called endothelium.

Capillaries and sinusoids
The smallest arterioles break up into a number of minute vessels called capillaries.
Capillary walls consist of a sin- gle layer of endothelial cells through which water
and other small-molecule substances can pass. Blood cells and large-molecule
substances such as plasma proteins do not normally pass through capillary walls.
The capillaries form a vast network of tiny vessels which link the smallest
arterioles to the smallest venules.
Structure and function of blood

Circulatory System

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Circulatory System

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Circulatory system

Parts of the circulatory system

Two pathways come from the heart:

The heart is a roughly cone-shaped hollow muscular organ. It is about 10 cm long

Organs associated with the heart

Structure of the heart

It is the outermost layer of the heart

Interior of the heart

Each side is divided by an atrioventricular valve into an upper chamber, the

Flow of blood through the heart

There are small groups of specialised neuromuscular cells in the myocardium

Sinoatrial node (SAnode)

Atrioventricular node (AV node)

Atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle or bundle of His)

Factors affecting heart rate

Circulating chemicals. The hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline, secreted by

Gender. The heart rate is faster in women than men.

Arteries and arterioles

tunica adventitia or outer layer of fibrous tissue

tunica media or middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic tissue

tunica intima or inner lining of squamous epithelium called endothelium.

Structure and function of blood

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