Expansion wave

Aerodynamics
2024/2025

12/12/2024 1
Expansion wave

Bow shock

12/12/2024 2
Expansion wave
● When the supersonic flow is “turned away from itself”, an expansion wave is
formed.
● The so called Prandtl-Meyer expansion wave occurs when a supersonic
flow turns around a convex corner.
● Expansion fans are isentropic. ● Through an expansion fan,
the Mach number increases,
the static pressure decreases
and the total pressure
Shock waves remains constant.

Expansion
waves
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Expansion wave
● Expansion fan is a continuous expansion region that can be
visualized as an infinite number of Mach waves, each making
the Mach angle μ with the local flow direction.
● Every wave is responsible for infinitesimal deflection.
● The expansion fan is bounded by a Mach wave with angle μ1 and
another Mach wave with angle μ2

Given conditions at 1, what

are the conditions at 2?

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Expansion wave: Derivation Trigonometric identities

Law of sines

Small angle
Substitution

Page 5 5
One expansion wave
Expansion wave: Derivation (2)
Power series, for x <1

Thus, Use the power series

Mach wave
relation

One expansion wave 6

Expansion wave: Derivation (3)
Integrate

Isentropic relation

From M = v/a

Prandtl Meyer function

One expansion wave 7

 Expansion wave: Derivation (4)

● The physical
interpretation of the
Prandtl-Meyer function
is that it is the angle
through which you
must expand a sonic
(M=1) flow to obtain a
given Mach number One expansion wave 8
Expansion wave: Derivation (5)
● For the given M1, obtain ν(M1).
● Calculate ν(M2), using the known θ and the value of ν(M1).
● Obtain M2 corresponding to the value of ν(M2).
● The expansion wave is isentropic, then:

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Expansion wave: Derivation (6)

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Expansion wave: An example

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Expansion wave:
An example

12
 Your turn!
● A supersonic flow with 𝑀1 = 2, 𝑝1 = 1.2 𝑎𝑡𝑚, and 𝑇1 = 300 𝐾 is
expanded around a sharp corner through a deflection angle of 20
degrees.
● Calculate 𝑀2 , 𝑝2 , 𝑇2 , 𝑝0,2 , 𝑇0,2 .

13
 Shock-expansion theory
Pramudita Satria Palar, Ph.D.
Flight Physics Research Group
Faculty of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Institut Teknologi Bandung
12/12/2024 14
Aerodynamic forces: Pressure coefficient
Speed of sound

Dynamic pressure in terms of Mach number

15
Aerodynamic forces: Aerodynamic coefficients

Two dimensional

16
 Shock-expansion theory
• We can utilize shock-
expansion theory for
some applications.

• Consider a supersonic
flow pass a flat plate
of length c and angle
of attack α

17
 Shock-expansion theory
• We can utilize shock-
Expansion
expansion theory for
some applications. Shock

• Consider a supersonic
flow pass a flat plate
of length c and angle
of attack α
Shock

Expansion

18
 Shock-expansion theory: Diamond airfoil
• A diamond airfoil at
zero angle of attack

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Shock-expansion theory: Diamond airfoil
Expansion
Shock

Shock

Shock
Shock

Expansion

20
First example
A flat plate in supersonic flow M= 3.0 and pressure = 1 atm. with
angle of attack of 8 deg.
1.Indicate shock waves and expansion waves occur on the flat plate
2. Calculate static pressure at upper and lower flat plate surfaces
3. Calculate lift coefficient and drag coefficient

1
M = 3.0
2

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First example (2)
1. Calculate pressure ratio and pressure at the upper surface
(after expansion wave)

Thus, ν(M2) = 49.76 deg + 8 deg = 57.76 deg, then M2 = 3.45

For M1 = 3 , p01/p1= 36.73, For M2 = 3.45, p02/p2=71.03

= 36.73/71.03=0.5171

1 p2 = 0.5171*1atm = 0.5171 atm

M = 3.0
2

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First example (3)
2. Calculate pressure ratio at the lower surface (after oblique
shock wave)

For M1 = 3 , p3/p1= 1.79528520, M3 =2.60309787

p3 = 1.795*1atm = 1.795 atm

1
M = 3.0
2

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 First example (4)
3. Calculate lift and drag coefficient

cl = (2/(1.4)*3^2) (1.795-0.5171) cos(8 deg) = 0.2009

cd = (2/(1.4)*3^2) (1.795-0.5171) sin(8 deg) = 0.0282

1
M = 3.0
2

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Second example
A bump with wedge angle of 4 deg.in supersonic flow M= 3.0 and
pressure = 1 atm. with angle of attack of 8 deg.
1. Indicate shock waves and expansion waves occur on the flat plate
2. Calculate static pressure at upper and lower flat plate surfaces
3. Calculate lift coefficient and drag coefficient

M = 3.0 1 4
2

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Second example
p3 = 1.795*1atm = 1.795 atm From previous example

Thus, ν(M2) = 49.76 deg + 4 deg = 53.76 deg, then M2 = 3.21614

For M2 , p02/p2= 50.6228, thus p2=0.7256 atm

p01=36.7327
atm
M = 3.0 1
2
4
3

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Second example
For M2 , p02/p2= 50.6228, thus p2=0.7256 atm

For M2 =3.21614, 𝜈(M2)=53.76 deg

Thus, ν(M4) = 53.76 deg + 8 deg = 61.76 deg, then M4 = 3.725

For M4 , p04/p4= 104.5346, thus p4=0.3514

atm

p01=36.7327
atm
M = 3.0 1
2
4
3

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Second example
p3 = 1.795 atm

p2=0.7256 atm p4=0.3514 atm

Cl= (p3c cos(8 deg)-0.5p2c cos(4 deg)-0.5p4c cos(8 deg)) / (q1S)=0.1971

Cd= (p3c sin(8 deg)-0.5p2c sin(4 deg)-0.5p4c sin(8 deg)) / (q1S)=0.0318

p01=36.7327
atm
M = 3.0 1
2
4
3

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Third example: Homework
A symmetric 2D airfoil having thickness-to-chord ratio of 8%
with wedge angle of 9 deg in supersonic flow M= 2.5 and free-
stream pressure of 1 atm. with angle of attack of 9 deg.
1. Indicate shock waves and expansion waves occur on the flat
plate
2. Calculate static pressure at upper and lower flat plate
surfaces
3. Calculate lift coefficient and drag coefficient

M = 2.5
 Method of characteristics

Aerodynamics
2024/2025

12/12/2024 30
Numerical methods for aerodynamics
Method of characteristics Finite difference

• Numerical methods is the backbone of current industry – they use it everyday to simulate flow dynamics.
• (Eulerian) Numerical methods represent a continuous flow field by a series of distinct grid points in space.
• The flow field properties (𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑝, 𝑇 etc) are calculated at each one of these grid points.
Numerical methods for aerodynamics

Examples of solution from

Euler equation for supersonic
aircrafts

• Numerical methods for fluid/aerodynamics is rapidly advancing, so it is very important

for you to familiarize yourself with them.
• Various numerical methods exist – they can handle complex flows, ranging from
unsteady to reacting flow.
• It is good to start with the basic – let us discuss the method of characteristics.
• What are characteristics? That is, the “lines” where disturbances travel (for
hyperbolic PDE)
Method of characteristics
Method of characteristics

• Consider a 2D, steady, inviscid, supersonic flow in xy space.

• The flow variables are continuous throughout this space.
• There are certain lines in xy space along which the
derivatives of the flow field variables are indeterminate
(characteristics lines)

The key idea of MoC is to transform the governing PDEs

into ordinary differential equations (ODEs) along specific
directions called characteristics lines.
Method of characteristics
Gov. equation for 2D supersonic, steady, inviscid, irrotational
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
=𝑢, =𝑣
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

The velocity potential and its derivatives are functions of x and y

Then, we have:
• This set of equations represent three
equations with three unknowns.
Method of characteristics

For example, using Cramer’s rule 𝜕2 𝜙

• The derivative has a specific value at point a.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
The solution is given for an arbitrary choice of
𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑦
• The differentials 𝑑𝑢 and 𝑑𝑣 represent the changes in
velocity over the increments 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑦.
𝜕2 𝜙 𝑁 0 There is a direction(s) through point A
= = 𝜕2 𝜙
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝐷 0 along which is indeterminate
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 𝜕2 𝜙 𝑁 0
= = Expanding the determinant, and
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝐷 0
setting D = 0

𝑑𝑦
• is the slope of the characteristic
𝑑𝑥
lines
𝒅𝒚
Solving for by means of quadratic formula Since 𝒖 = 𝑽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽, 𝒗 =
𝒅𝒙
𝑽 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽, and 𝑴𝟐 = 𝟏/𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝝁
Method of characteristics
• Two characteristic lines run through point A: One line
with a slope of tan 𝜃 − 𝜇 and one with tan 𝜃 − 𝜇

• The characteristic lines are denoted as 𝐶+ and 𝐶−

• They are simply the right- and left-running Mach waves
through point A.
• The characteristic lines are Mach lines!
Practical consequence:

The governing PDEs that describe the flow reduce to

ODE along the characteristic lines.
Expanding the determinant on the numerator, and setting N = 0

𝒖𝟐 +𝒗𝟐
Since 𝒖 = 𝑽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽, 𝒗 = 𝑽 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽, and = 𝑴𝟐
𝒂𝟐

• This ODE holds only along the characteristic lines,

called the compatibility relations.
• Describes how the flow changes along characteristic
lines.
 Integrating

• 𝐾− is a constant along 𝐶−
• 𝐾+ is a constant along 𝐶+
• It has different values for different characteristic line.
MoC for practical use: Internal points
The characteristic lines
𝐾+ 3 and 𝐾− 3 are
𝐾− 1 = 𝐾− 3 = 𝜃1 + 𝜈1
known values
𝐾+ 3 = 𝐾+ 2 = 𝜃2 − 𝜈2
At point 3
𝜃3 + 𝜈3 = 𝐾− 3 𝜃3 − 𝜈3 = 𝐾+ 3

𝜃3 and 𝜈3 are unknown, thus

1 1
𝜃3 = [ 𝐾− 1 + 𝐾+ 2 ] 𝜈3 = [ 𝐾− 1 − 𝐾+ 2 ]
2 2
MoC for practical use: Wall points
Assume that the flow properties at point 4 is known
𝐾− 4 = 𝐾− 5 = 𝜃4 + 𝜈4
𝐾_ 5 = 𝜃5 + 𝜈5

• Properties at the grid properties are calculated from known

properties at other grid points.
• Thus, we need to provide initial data line, then marching
downstream from the initial data line.
Summary
• MoC transform the PDEs into ODEs that can be solved along characteristic lines (in
2D, inviscid, irrotational, it becomes algebraic equations).
• The flow field is defined by two families of characteristic lines (𝐶+ , 𝐶− ), which
represent directions in the flow field where changes in properties propagate.

• The governing equation transformed into the following compatibility relations.

• Solution procedure: (1) Start from known BC (e.g., wall), (2) Solve compatibility
equations along characteristic lines to compute flow properties, (3) Use intersection of
characteristics to propagate the solution throughout the flow domain.
Supersonic nozzle design
The general idea

1. The properties at the limiting

characteristic is known.
2. Let 𝜃 denote the angle between a
tangent to the wall and the
horizontal.
3. 𝜃 is increasing in the expansion
section until 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥
(expansion section).
4. Downstream, 𝜃 decreases until
𝜃 = 0 (straightening section.)
An application example
 Introduction to viscous flows
Pramudita Satria Palar, Ph.D.
Flight Physics Research Group
Faculty of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Institut Teknologi Bandung
12/12/2024 47
Some preliminary questions
● Can flow separation occur in an inviscid flow? Why
or why not?
• What role does viscosity play in the formation of the
boundary layer?
● Will we have turbulence in inviscid flows?

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Viscous flows
● Viscous flows in aerodynamics refer to fluid flows where the effects of viscosity,
or internal friction within the fluid, significantly influence the behavior of the
flow.
● These effects are critical in determining phenomena such as boundary layer
development, skin friction drag, and flow separation around aerodynamic
surfaces.

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Viscous flows qualitative aspects

● Boundary layer formation

● Skin friction drag
● Flow separation
● Energy dissipation -> energy
loss
● Wake formation
● Reynolds number sensitivity

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 Laminar vs turbulent boundary layer

● Turbulent flow is the norm, laminar flow is the exception.

● The transition from laminar to turbulent flow is the subject of flow
stability.
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Adverse pressure gradient

Definition: An adverse pressure gradient occurs when pressure increases in the direction of the fluid
flow, opposing the motion and slowing the fluid down.

Effect: It can cause the boundary layer to decelerate, potentially leading to flow separation if the fluid
cannot overcome the opposing pressure
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 Drag due to viscous flows
𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑓

Skin friction drag Drag due to shock

waves

𝑫𝒕𝒐𝒕 = 𝑫𝒇 + 𝑫𝒑 + 𝑫𝒘

Pressure drag due

to flow separation

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 Drag in inviscid versus viscous incompressible flows

D'Alembert paradox: For an ideal, incompressible, and inviscid flow past a solid
body, the drag force on the body is exactly zero.

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 Viscosity and thermal conduction
• Each molecule in a fluid has momentum and energy, which it carries with it when it
moves from one location to another in space before colliding with another molecule.
• The transport of molecular momentum gives rise to the macroscopic effect we call
viscosity, and the transport of molecular energy gives rise to the macroscopic effect
we call thermal conduction.

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 Shear and normal stresses
Time rate of strain

• 𝜏𝑖𝑖 → Normal stresses

• 𝜏𝑖𝑗 → Tangential stresses

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 Navier-Stokes equation

Force in the x-direction

By applying Newton’s 2nd law

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Momentum eq. in x Navier-Stokes
equation

Momentum eq. in y

Momentum eq. in z

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 Viscous flow
energy equation

Page 59 59
 Non-dimensionalized Navier Stokes eq.
Steady, 2D, viscous, compressible N.S. Non-dimensionalized variables

Non-dimensionalized N.S. equation (x)

• Two cases are similar, if the similarity parameters are the same.

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Non-dimensionalized energy equation

𝑐𝑝 𝜇 𝑚𝑜𝑚. 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓
Pr = =
𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚. 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓

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