CS3353 FOUNDATIONS OF DATA SCIENCE

UNIT II DESCRIBING DATA

Types of Data – Types of Variables -Describing Data with Tables and Graphs –Describing
Data with Averages – Describing Variability – Normal Distributions and Standard (z) Scores

 What are the types of data? 2

 How to handling data in a Tables 6
Frequency Distribution and Data: Types, Tables, and Graphs
Frequency distribution in statistics provides the information of the number of occurrences
(frequency) of distinct values distributed within a given period of time or interval, in a list,
table, or graphical representation. Grouped and Ungrouped are two types of Frequency
Distribution. Data is a collection of numbers or values and it must be organized for it to be
useful. Let us take a look at data and its frequency distribution.

Data

Any bit of information that is expressed in a value or numerical number is data. For example,
the marks you scored in your Math exam is data, and the number of cars that pass through a
bridge in a day is also data. Data is basically a collection of information, measurements or
observations.

Raw data is an initial collection of information. This information has not yet been organized.
After the very first step of data collection, you will get raw data. For example, we go around
and ask a group of five friends their favourite colour. The answers are Blue, Green, Blue, Red,
and Red. This collection of information is the raw data.

Then there is discrete data and continuous data. Discrete data is that which is recorded in
whole numbers, like the number of children in a school or number of tigers in a zoo. It cannot
be in decimals or fractions. Continuous data need not be in whole numbers, it can be
in decimals. Examples are the temperature in a city for a week, your percentage of marks for
the last exam etc.

Browse more Topics under Data Handling

 Pictographs

 Bar Graphs

 Histogram and Pie-Charts

 Chance and Probability

 Arithmetic Mean and Median and Mode

Frequency

The frequency of any value is the number of times that value appears in a data set. So from the
above examples of colours, we can say two children like the colour blue, so its frequency is
two. So to make meaning of the raw data, we must organize. And finding out the frequency of
the data values is how this organisation is done.

Frequency Distribution

Many times it is not easy or feasible to find the frequency of data from a very large dataset. So
to make sense of the data we make a frequency table and graphs. Let us take the example of
the heights of ten students in cms.

Frequency Distribution Table

139, 145, 150, 145, 136, 150, 152, 144, 138, 138

This frequency table will help us make better sense of the data given. Also when the data set is
too big (say if we were dealing with 100 students) we use tally marks for counting. It makes
the task more organized and easy. Below is an example of how we use tally marks.
 Frequency Distribution Graph
Using the same above example we can make the following graph:

Learn more about Bar Graphs and Histogram here.

Types of Frequency Distribution

 Grouped frequency distribution.

 Ungrouped frequency distribution.

 Cumulative frequency distribution.

 Relative frequency distribution.

 Relative cumulative frequency distribution.

Grouped Data
At certain times to ensure that we are making correct and relevant observations from the data
set, we may need to group the data into class intervals. This ensures that the frequency
distribution best represents the data. Let us make a grouped frequency data table of the same
example above of the height of students.

Class Interval Frequency

130-140 4

140-150 3

150-160 3

From the above table, you can see that the value of 150 is put in the class interval of 150-160
and not 140-150. This is the convention we must follow.

 The table gives the number of snacks ordered and the number of
days as a tally. Find the frequency of snacks ordered. 2

Answer: From the frequency table the number of snacks ordered ranging between
 2-4 is 4 days

 4 to 6 is 3 days

 6 to 8 is 9 days

 8 to 10 is 9 days

 10 to 12 is 7 days.
So the frequencies for all snacks ordered are 4, 3, 9, 9, 7

 How to find frequency distribution? 2

Answer: We can find frequency distribution by the following steps:

 First of all, calculate the range of the data set.

 Next, divide the range by the number of the group you want your data in and then
round up.

 After that, use class width to create groups

 Finally, find the frequency for each group.

 Define frequency distribution in statistics? 2

Answer: In an overview, the frequency distribution of all distinct values in some variables
and the number of times they occur. Meaning that it tells how frequencies are distributed
overvalues in a frequency distribution. However, mostly we use frequency distributions to
summarize categorical variables.

 Why are frequency distributions important? 2

Answer: It has great importance in statistics. Also, a well-structured frequency distribution

makes possible a detailed analysis of the structure of the population with respect to given
characteristics. Therefore, the groups into which the population break down can be
determined.

 State the components of frequency distribution? 2

Answer: The various components of the frequency distribution are: Class interval, types of
class interval, class boundaries, midpoint or class mark, width or size o class interval, class
 frequency, frequency density = class frequency/ class width, relative frequency = class
frequency/ total frequency, etc.

Descriptive Statistics and the Normal Distribution

Statistics has become the universal language of the sciences, and data analysis can lead to
powerful results. As scientists, researchers, and managers working in the natural resources
sector, we all rely on statistical analysis to help us answer the questions that arise in the
populations we manage. For example:

 Has there been a significant change in the mean saw timber volume in the red pine stands?
 Has there been an increase in the number of invasive species found in the Great Lakes?
 What proportion of white tail deer in New Hampshire have weights below the limit
considered healthy?
 Did fertilizer A, B, or C have an effect on the corn yield?

These are typical questions that require statistical analysis for the answers. In order to
answer these questions, a good random sample must be collected from the population of
interests. We then use descriptive statistics to organize and summarize our sample data.
The next step is inferential statistics, which allows us to use our sample statistics and
extend the results to the population, while measuring the reliability of the result. But
before we begin exploring different types of statistical methods, a brief review of
descriptive statistics is needed.
Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, summarizing, analyzing, and
interpreting information.

Good statistics come from good samples, and are used to draw conclusions or answer
questions about a population. We use sample statistics to estimate population parameters
(the truth). So let’s begin there…

Figure 1. Using sample statistics to estimate population parameters.

 Section 1: Descriptive Statistics

A population is the group to be studied, and population data is a collection of all elements
in the population. For example:

 All the fish in Long Lake.

 All the lakes in the Adirondack Park.
 All the grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park.

A sample is a subset of data drawn from the population of interest. For example:

 100 fish randomly sampled from Long Lake.

 25 lakes randomly selected from the Adirondack Park.
 60 grizzly bears with a home range in Yellowstone National Park.

Populations are characterized by descriptive measures called parameters. Inferences about

parameters are based on sample statistics. For example, the population mean (µ) is
estimated by the sample mean (x̄ ). The population variance (σ2) is estimated by the sample
variance (s2).

Variables are the characteristics we are interested in. For example:

 The length of fish in Long Lake.

 The pH of lakes in the Adirondack Park.
 The weight of grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park.

Variables are divided into two major groups: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative
variables have values that are attributes or categories. Mathematical operations cannot be
applied to qualitative variables. Examples of qualitative variables are gender, race, and
petal color. Quantitative variables have values that are typically numeric, such as
measurements. Mathematical operations can be applied to these data. Examples of
quantitative variables are age, height, and length.

Quantitative variables can be broken down further into two more categories: discrete and
continuous variables. Discrete variables have a finite or countable number of possible
values. Think of discrete variables as “hens.” Hens can lay 1 egg, or 2 eggs, or 13 eggs…
There are a limited, definable number of values that the variable could take on.

Continuous variables have an infinite number of possible values. Think of continuous

variables as “cows.” Cows can give 4.6713245 gallons of milk, or 7.0918754 gallons of milk,
or 13.272698 gallons of milk … There are an almost infinite number of values that a
continuous variable could take on.
Examples

Is the variable qualitative or quantitative?

Species Weight Diameter Zip Code

(qualitative quantitative, quantitative, qualitative)

Descriptive Measures

Descriptive measures of populations are called parameters and are typically written using
Greek letters. The population mean is μ (mu). The population variance is σ2 (sigma
squared) and population standard deviation is σ (sigma).

Descriptive measures of samples are called statistics and are typically written using Roman
letters. The sample mean is (x-bar). The sample variance is s2 and the sample standard
deviation is s. Sample statistics are used to estimate unknown population parameters.

In this section, we will examine descriptive statistics in terms of measures of center and
measures of dispersion. These descriptive statistics help us to identify the center and
spread of the data.

Measures of Center

 Explain to find Mean, Median and Mode 13

Mean

The arithmetic mean of a variable, often called the average, is computed by adding up all
the values and dividing by the total number of values.

The population mean is represented by the Greek letter μ (mu). The sample mean is
represented by x̄ (x-bar). The sample mean is usually the best, unbiased estimate of the
population mean. However, the mean is influenced by extreme values (outliers) and may
not be the best measure of center with strongly skewed data. The following equations
compute the population mean and sample mean.
 where xi is an element in the data set, N is the number of elements in the population,
and n is the number of elements in the sample data set.
Example 2

Find the mean for the following sample data set: 6.4, 5.2, 7.9, 3.4

Median

The median of a variable is the middle value of the data set when the data are sorted in
order from least to greatest. It splits the data into two equal halves with 50% of the data
below the median and 50% above the median. The median is resistant to the influence of
outliers, and may be a better measure of center with strongly skewed data.

The calculation of the median depends on the number of observations in the data set.

To calculate the median with an odd number of values (n is odd), first sort the data from
smallest to largest.
Example 3

23, 27, 29, 31, 35, 39, 40, 42, 44, 47, 51

The median is 39. It is the middle value that separates the lower 50% of the data from the
upper 50% of the data.
 To calculate the median with an even number of values (n is even), first sort the data from
smallest to largest and take the average of the two middle values.
Example 4

23, 27, 29, 31, 35, 39, 40, 42, 44, 47

Mode

The mode is the most frequently occurring value and is commonly used with qualitative
data as the values are categorical. Categorical data cannot be added, subtracted, multiplied
or divided, so the mean and median cannot be computed. The mode is less commonly used
with quantitative data as a measure of center. Sometimes each value occurs only once and
the mode will not be meaningful.

Understanding the relationship between the mean and median is important. It gives us
insight into the distribution of the variable. For example, if the distribution is skewed right
(positively skewed), the mean will increase to account for the few larger observations that
pull the distribution to the right. The median will be less affected by these extreme large
values, so in this situation, the mean will be larger than the median. In a symmetric
distribution, the mean, median, and mode will all be similar in value. If the distribution is
skewed left (negatively skewed), the mean will decrease to account for the few smaller
observations that pull the distribution to the left. Again, the median will be less affected by
these extreme small observations, and in this situation, the mean will be less than the
median.

Figure 2. Illustration of skewed and symmetric distributions.

Measures of Dispersion

Measures of center look at the average or middle values of a data set. Measures of
dispersion look at the spread or variation of the data. Variation refers to the amount that
 the values vary among themselves. Values in a data set that are relatively close to each
other have lower measures of variation. Values that are spread farther apart have higher
measures of variation.

Examine the two histograms below. Both groups have the same mean weight, but the
values of Group A are more spread out compared to the values in Group B. Both groups
have an average weight of 267 lb. but the weights of Group A are more variable.

Figure 3. Histograms of Group A and Group B.

This section will examine five measures of dispersion: range, variance, standard deviation,
standard error, and coefficient of variation.

 What is meant by Range 2

 Difference between range and variance 2

Range

The range of a variable is the largest value minus the smallest value. It is the simplest
measure and uses only these two values in a quantitative data set.
Example 5

Find the range for the given data set.

12, 29, 32, 34, 38, 49, 57

Range = 57 – 12 = 45
 Variance

The variance uses the difference between each value and its arithmetic mean. The
differences are squared to deal with positive and negative differences. The sample variance
(s2) is an unbiased estimator of the population variance (σ2), with n-1 degrees of freedom.
Degrees of freedom: In general, the degrees of freedom for an estimate is equal to the
number of values minus the number of parameters estimated en route to the
estimate in question.

The sample variance is unbiased due to the difference in the denominator. If we used “n” in
the denominator instead of “n – 1”, we would consistently underestimate the true
population variance. To correct this bias, the denominator is modified to “n – 1”.

Population variance Sample variance

σ2 = s2 =
Example 6

Compute the variance of the sample data: 3, 5, 7. The sample mean is 5.

Standard Deviation

The standard deviation is the square root of the variance (both population and sample).
While the sample variance is the positive, unbiased estimator for the population variance,
the units for the variance are squared. The standard deviation is a common method for
numerically describing the distribution of a variable. The population standard deviation
is σ (sigma) and sample standard deviation is s.

Population standard deviation Sample standard deviation

Example 7

Compute the standard deviation of the sample data: 3, 5, 7 with a sample mean of 5.

Standard Error of the Means

Commonly, we use the sample mean x̄ to estimate the population mean μ. For example, if
we want to estimate the heights of eighty-year-old cherry trees, we can proceed as follows:

 Randomly select 100 trees

 Compute the sample mean of the 100 heights
 Use that as our estimate

We want to use this sample mean to estimate the true but unknown population mean. But
our sample of 100 trees is just one of many possible samples (of the same size) that could
have been randomly selected. Imagine if we take a series of different random samples from
the same population and all the same size:

 Sample 1—we compute sample mean x̄

 Sample 2—we compute sample mean x̄
 Sample 3—we compute sample mean x̄
 Etc.

Each time we sample, we may get a different result as we are using a different subset of
data to compute the sample mean. This shows us that the sample mean is a random
variable!

The sample mean (x̄ ) is a random variable with its own probability distribution called the
sampling distribution of the sample mean. The distribution of the sample mean will have a
mean equal to µ and a standard deviation equal to .
The standard error is the standard deviation of all possible sample means.

In reality, we would only take one sample, but we need to understand and quantify the
sample to sample variability that occurs in the sampling process.

The standard error is the standard deviation of the sample means and can be expressed in
different ways.
 Note: s2 is the sample variance and s is the sample standard deviation
Example 8

Describe the distribution of the sample mean.

A population of fish has weights that are normally distributed with µ = 8 lb. and s = 2.6 lb. If
you take a sample of size n=6, the sample mean will have a normal distribution with a mean

of 8 and a standard deviation (standard error) of = 1.061 lb.

If you increase the sample size to 10, the sample mean will be normally distributed with a

mean of 8 lb. and a standard deviation (standard error) of = 0.822 lb.

Notice how the standard error decreases as the sample size increases.

The Central Limit Theorem (CLT) states that the sampling distribution of the sample means
will approach a normal distribution as the sample size increases. If we do not have a
normal distribution, or know nothing about our distribution of our random variable, the
CLT tells us that the distribution of the x̄ ’s will become normal as n increases. How large
does n have to be? A general rule of thumb tells us that n ≥ 30.
The Central Limit Theorem tells us that regardless of the shape of our population,
the sampling distribution of the sample mean will be normal as the sample size
increases.

Coefficient of Variation

To compare standard deviations between different populations or samples is difficult

because the standard deviation depends on units of measure. The coefficient of variation
expresses the standard deviation as a percentage of the sample or population mean. It is a
unitless measure.

Population data Sample data

CV = CV =
Example 9

Fisheries biologists were studying the length and weight of Pacific salmon. They took a
random sample and computed the mean and standard deviation for length and weight
(given below). While the standard deviations are similar, the differences in units between
lengths and weights make it difficult to compare the variability. Computing the coefficient
of variation for each variable allows the biologists to determine which variable has the
greater standard deviation.

Sample mean Sample standard deviation

Length 63 cm 19.97 cm

Weight 37.6 kg 19.39 kg

There is greater variability in Pacific salmon weight compared to length.

Variability

Variability is described in many different ways. Standard deviation measures point to point
variability within a sample, i.e., variation among individual sampling units. Coefficient of
variation also measures point to point variability but on a relative basis (relative to the
mean), and is not influenced by measurement units. Standard error measures the sample to
sample variability, i.e. variation among repeated samples in the sampling process.
Typically, we only have one sample and standard error allows us to quantify the
uncertainty in our sampling process.

Basic Statistics Example using Excel and Minitab Software

Consider the following tally from 11 sample plots on Heiburg Forest, where Xi is the
number of downed logs per acre. Compute basic statistics for the sample plots.
Table 1. Sample data on number of downed logs per acre from Heiburg Forest.

(1) Sample mean:

(2) Median = 35

(3) Variance:
(4) Standard deviation:

(5) Range: 55 – 5 = 50

(6) Coefficient of variation:

(7) Standard error of the mean:

Software Solutions

Minitab

Open Minitab and enter data in the spreadsheet. Select STAT>Descriptive stats and check
all statistics required.
 Descriptive Statistics: Data

Variable N N* Mean SE Mean StDev Variance CoefVar Minimum Q1

Data 11 0 32.27 4.83 16.03 256.82 49.66 5.00 20.00

Variable Median Q3 Maximum IQR

Data 35.00 45.00 55.00 25.00

Excel

Open up Excel and enter the data in the first column of the spreadsheet. Select DATA>Data
Analysis>Descriptive Statistics. For the Input Range, select data in column A. Check “Labels
in First Row” and “Summary Statistics”. Also check “Output Range” and select location for
output.
 Data

Mean 32.27273

Standard Error 4.831884

Median 35

Mode 25

Standard Deviation 16.02555

Sample Variance 256.8182

Kurtosis -0.73643

Skewness -0.05982

Range 50

Minimum 5
 Maximum 55

Sum 355

Count 11

Graphical Representation

Data organization and summarization can be done graphically, as well as numerically.

Tables and graphs allow for a quick overview of the information collected and support the
presentation of the data used in the project. While there are a multitude of available
graphics, this chapter will focus on a specific few commonly used tools.

Pie Charts

Pie charts are a good visual tool allowing the reader to quickly see the relationship
between categories. It is important to clearly label each category, and adding the frequency
or relative frequency is often helpful. However, too many categories can be confusing. Be
careful of putting too much information in a pie chart. The first pie chart gives a clear idea
of the representation of fish types relative to the whole sample. The second pie chart is
more difficult to interpret, with too many categories. It is important to select the best
graphic when presenting the information to the reader.

Figure 4. Comparison of pie charts.

 Bar Charts and Histograms

Bar charts graphically describe the distribution of a qualitative variable (fish type) while
histograms describe the distribution of a quantitative variable discrete or continuous
variables (bear weight).

Figure 5. Comparison of a bar chart for qualitative data and a histogram for quantitative
data.

In both cases, the bars’ equal width and the y-axis are clearly defined. With qualitative data,
each category is represented by a specific bar. With continuous data, lower and upper class
limits must be defined with equal class widths. There should be no gaps between classes
and each observation should fall into one, and only one, class.

Boxplots

Boxplots use the 5-number summary (minimum and maximum values with the three
quartiles) to illustrate the center, spread, and distribution of your data. When paired with
histograms, they give an excellent description, both numerically and graphically, of the
data.

With symmetric data, the distribution is bell-shaped and somewhat symmetric. In the
boxplot, we see that Q1 and Q3 are approximately equidistant from the median, as are the
minimum and maximum values. Also, both whiskers (lines extending from the boxes) are
approximately equal in length.
Figure 6. A histogram and boxplot of a normal distribution.

With skewed left distributions, we see that the histogram looks “pulled” to the left. In the
boxplot, Q1 is farther away from the median as are the minimum values, and the left
whisker is longer than the right whisker.
Figure 7. A histogram and boxplot of a skewed left distribution.

With skewed right distributions, we see that the histogram looks “pulled” to the right. In
the boxplot, Q3 is farther away from the median, as is the maximum value, and the right
whisker is longer than the left whisker.
Figure 8. A histogram and boxplot of a skewed right distribution.
 Probability Distribution

Once we have organized and summarized your sample data, the next step is to identify the
underlying distribution of our random variable. Computing probabilities for continuous
random variables are complicated by the fact that there are an infinite number of possible
values that our random variable can take on, so the probability of observing a particular
value for a random variable is zero. Therefore, to find the probabilities associated with a
continuous random variable, we use a probability density function (PDF).

A PDF is an equation used to find probabilities for continuous random variables. The PDF
must satisfy the following two rules:

1. The area under the curve must equal one (over all possible values of the random variable).
2. The probabilities must be equal to or greater than zero for all possible values of the
random variable.

The area under the curve of the probability density function over some interval
represents the probability of observing those values of the random variable in that
interval.

The Normal Distribution

Many continuous random variables have a bell-shaped or somewhat symmetric

distribution. This is a normal distribution. In other words, the probability distribution of its
relative frequency histogram follows a normal curve. The curve is bell-shaped, symmetric
about the mean, and defined by µ and σ (the mean and standard deviation).

Figure 9. A normal distribution.

There are normal curves for every combination of µ and σ. The mean (µ) shifts the curve to
the left or right. The standard deviation (σ) alters the spread of the curve. The first pair of
curves have different means but the same standard deviation. The second pair of curves
share the same mean (µ) but have different standard deviations. The pink curve has a
smaller standard deviation. It is narrower and taller, and the probability is spread over a
 smaller range of values. The blue curve has a larger standard deviation. The curve is flatter
and the tails are thicker. The probability is spread over a larger range of values.

Figure 10. A comparison of normal curves.

Properties of the normal curve:

 The mean is the center of this distribution and the highest point.
 The curve is symmetric about the mean. (The area to the left of the mean equals the area to
the right of the mean.)
 The total area under the curve is equal to one.
 As x increases and decreases, the curve goes to zero but never touches.

 The PDF of a normal curve is .

 A normal curve can be used to estimate probabilities.
 A normal curve can be used to estimate proportions of a population that have certain x-
values.

The Standard Normal Distribution

There are millions of possible combinations of means and standard deviations for
continuous random variables. Finding probabilities associated with these variables would
require us to integrate the PDF over the range of values we are interested in. To avoid this,
we can rely on the standard normal distribution. The standard normal distribution is a
special normal distribution with a µ = 0 and σ = 1. We can use the Z-score to standardize
any normal random variable, converting the x-values to Z-scores, thus allowing us to use
probabilities from the standard normal table. So how do we find area under the curve
associated with a Z-score?

Standard Normal Table

 The standard normal table gives probabilities associated with specific Z-scores.
 The table we use is cumulative from the left.
 The negative side is for all Z-scores less than zero (all values less than the mean).
 The positive side is for all Z-scores greater than zero (all values greater than the mean).
 Not all standard normal tables work the same way.

Example 10

What is the area associated with the Z-score 1.62?

 Figure 11. The standard normal table and associated area for z = 1.62.

Reading the Standard Normal Table

 Read down the Z-column to get the first part of the Z-score (1.6).
 Read across the top row to get the second decimal place in the Z-score (0.02).
 The intersection of this row and column gives the area under the curve to the left of the Z-
score.

Finding Z-scores for a Given Area

 What if we have an area and we want to find the Z-score associated with that area?
 Instead of Z-score → area, we want area → Z-score.
 We can use the standard normal table to find the area in the body of values and read
backwards to find the associated Z-score.
 Using the table, search the probabilities to find an area that is closest to the probability you
are interested in.

Example 11

To find a Z-score for which the area to the right is 5%:

 Since the table is cumulative from the left, you must use the complement of 5%.

1.000 – 0.05 = 0.9500

Figure 12. The upper 5% of

the area under a normal curve.

 Find the Z-score for the area of 0.9500.

 Look at the probabilities and find a value as close to 0.9500 as possible.

Figure
13. The standard normal table.
The Z-score for the 95th percentile is 1.64.Area in between Two Z-scores
Example 12

To find Z-scores that limit the middle 95%:

 The middle 95% has 2.5% on the right and 2.5% on the left.
 Use the symmetry of the curve.
 Figure 14. The middle
95% of the area under a normal curve.

 Look at your standard normal table. Since the table is cumulative from the left, it is easier
to find the area to the left first.
 Find the area of 0.025 on the negative side of the table.
 The Z-score for the area to the left is -1.96.
 Since the curve is symmetric, the Z-score for the area to the right is 1.96.

Common Z-scores

There are many commonly used Z-scores:

 Z.05 = 1.645 and the area between -1.645 and 1.645 is 90%
 Z.025 = 1.96 and the area between -1.96 and 1.96 is 95%
 Z.005 = 2.575 and the area between -2.575 and 2.575 is 99%

Applications of the Normal Distribution

Typically, our normally distributed data do not have μ = 0 and σ = 1, but we can relate any
normal distribution to the standard normal distributions using the Z-score. We can
transform values of x to values of z.

For example, if a normally distributed random variable has a μ = 6 and σ = 2, then a value of
x = 7 corresponds to a Z-score of 0.5.
 This tells you that 7 is one-half a standard deviation above its mean. We can use this
relationship to find probabilities for any normal random variable.

Figure 15. A normal and standard normal curve.

To find the area for values of X, a normal random variable, draw a picture of the area of
interest, convert the x-values to Z-scores using the Z-score and then use the standard
normal table to find areas to the left, to the right, or in between.

Example 13

Adult deer population weights are normally distributed with µ = 110 lb. and σ = 29.7 lb. As
a biologist you determine that a weight less than 82 lb. is unhealthy and you want to know
what proportion of your population is unhealthy.

P(x<82)
 Figure 16. The area
under a normal curve for P(x<82).

Convert 82 to a Z-score

The x value of 82 is 0.94 standard deviations below the mean.

Figure 17. Area under

a standard normal curve for P(z<-0.94).
Go to the standard normal table (negative side) and find the area associated with a Z-score
of -0.94.

This is an “area to the left” problem so you can read directly from the table to get the
probability.

P(x<82) = 0.1736

Approximately 17.36% of the population of adult deer is underweight, OR one deer chosen
at random will have a 17.36% chance of weighing less than 82 lb.
Example 14

Statistics from the Midwest Regional Climate Center indicate that Jones City, which has a
large wildlife refuge, gets an average of 36.7 in. of rain each year with a standard deviation
of 5.1 in. The amount of rain is normally distributed. During what percent of the years does
Jones City get more than 40 in. of rain?

P(x > 40)

Figure 18. Area under a normal

curve for P(x>40).

P(x>40) = (1-0.7422) = 0.2578

For approximately 25.78% of the years, Jones City will get more than 40 in. of rain.

Assessing Normality

If the distribution is unknown and the sample size is not greater than 30 (Central Limit
Theorem), we have to assess the assumption of normality. Our primary method is the
normal probability plot. This plot graphs the observed data, ranked in ascending order,
against the “expected” Z-score of that rank. If the sample data were taken from a normally
distributed random variable, then the plot would be approximately linear.

Examine the following probability plot. The center line is the relationship we would expect
to see if the data were drawn from a perfectly normal distribution. Notice how the
observed data (red dots) loosely follow this linear relationship. Minitab also computes an
Anderson-Darling test to assess normality. The null hypothesis for this test is that the
sample data have been drawn from a normally distributed population. A p-value greater
than 0.05 supports the assumption of normality.
Figure 19. A normal probability plot generated using Minitab 16.

Compare the histogram and the normal probability plot in this next example. The
histogram indicates a

skewed right distribution.

Figure 20. Histogram and normal probability plot for skewed right data.

The observed data do not follow a linear pattern and the p-value for the A-D test is less
than 0.005 indicating a non-normal population distribution.

Normality cannot be assumed. You must always verify this assumption. Remember, the
probabilities we are finding come from the standard NORMAL table. If our data are NOT
normally distributed, then these probabilities DO NOT APPLY.
 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. What are the types of data.

2. List out the types of variables.

3. How to describing data with table and graph.

4. Define variability

5. What is meant by normal distribution.

6. Define standard (z) scores.

7. What is standard errors.

8. Difference between bar chart and histogram.

9. Write the properties of the normal curve

10. To find a z-scores for a given area which the area to the right at 5% and 95%
of area under normal.

11. Application of the normal distribution.

12. Explain mean ,median and mode with proper example.

13. Shorts notes on range and variance

14. How to find the standard deviation of a given data 3,5,7 with a sample mean
is 5.