INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE AND SECURITY STUDIES

UNIT TITLE: DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN

ADMINISTRATION

CODE: DJS3101

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DJS3101: DISASTER MANAGEMENT

MODULE DESCRIPTION

This module is an introduction to disaster and trauma management. It seeks to equip students
with the basic knowledge and skills of managing disasters within their localities. The module
examines the key terminologies and concepts of disaster and trauma management as well as
the different types of disasters. The module also looks at the disciplines of disaster
management and the role of the media in emergency management. In recent times as
emphasised in the Hyogo Declaration of 2005, disaster managers and agencies are
encouraged to actively involve local communities in disaster and trauma management. The
module comprehensively discusses the rationale, pros and cons of involving the local
populations through public awareness and education in the management of disasters.

MODULE OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:

a. Understand the key concepts and history of disaster and trauma management
b. Identify and discuss the major disciplines of disaster Management

c. Mitigate the effects of human-made and natural disasters

d. Explain the role of the media in disaster and trauma management
e. Discuss why it is absolutely necessary to involve local communities in the economy
of disaster management

MODULE OUTLINE

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT

 Understanding key concepts: Hazards, Risks, Vulnerability, Safety, Resilience and

Capability and Disasters.
 Types of Disasters: Natural, Human-made, Human-Conceived, slow and rapid onset
disasters.
 International Disasters and Phases of a Disaster
 Impacts of Disasters
 Disaster Management and Objectives

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LESSON TWO: DISASTER MITIGATION
 Understanding Disaster Mitigation
 Does Disaster Mitigation differ from Other Disciplines of Disaster Management
 Forms of Mitigation: Structural and non-Structural Mitigation
 Pre-requisite and rationale of Mitigation
 Mitigation of Natural Disasters
 Impediments to effective Disaster Mitigation

LESSON THREE: DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

 Understanding Disaster Preparedness
 Objectives of Disaster Preparedness
 Disaster Preparedness activities
 Disaster Mitigation and Preparedness

LESSON FOUR: DISASTER RESPONSE AND RECOVERY

 What is Disaster Response?
 Objectives of Disaster Response
 Disaster Response Activities
 Disaster Recovery
 Short term Recovery
 Long term Disaster Recovery
 The Politics of post-Disaster Reconstruction
 Basic Principles in Disaster Response and Recovery

LESSON FIVE: COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACH TO DISASTER

MANAGEMENT
 Understanding Community-Based Approach to Disaster Management
 Rationale for Community Based Approaches {CBA}
 Stakeholders in CBA
 Methods used in Creating Public Awareness
 Advantages and Disadvantages of CBA

LESSON SEVEN: DISASTERS, DEVELOPMENT AND ANIMALS

 Disasters and Development
 Disasters destroy years of Development
 Disasters Create Development Opportunities
 Development Schemes can Increase Susceptibility to Disasters
 Development Initiatives reduces Vulnerability and increase Resilience
 Disaster Management in Developing Countries
 Animals and Disaster Management

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COURSE ASSESSMENT

 Examination - 70%
 Continuous Assessment Test (CATS) - 20%
 Assignments - 10%
 Total - 100%

Sample Examination Questions

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

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TABLE OF CONTENT
Module Description and Objectives…………………………………………………………2
Course Outline………………………………………………………………………………..2

LESSON One: Introduction to Disaster

Management……………………………………....6
1.2 Understanding key concepts in Disaster Management……………………………………6
1.2.1 Hazards………………………………………………………………………………….6
1.2.2 Hazard Identification……………………………………………………………………6
1.2.3 Hazard Portfolio………………………………………………………………………....7
1.2.4 Hazard Risk Management…………………………………………………………….…7
1.2.5 Risk……………………………………………………………………………………...7
1.2.6 Risk and Hazard………………………………………………………………………....7
1.2.7 Safe/Safety……………………………………………………………………………....8
1.2.8 Vulnerability…………………………………………………………………………….8
1.2.9 Resilience and Capacity…………………………………………………………….…...9
1.2.10 Disaster…………………………………………………………………………….…...9
1.3 International Disaster………………………………………………………………….....10
1.4 Compound Disaster……………………………………………………………………....11
1.5 Phases of a Disaster………………………………………………………………………11
1.6 Types of Disasters………………………………………………………………………..11
1.7 Consequences of Disasters……………………………………………………………….13
1.8 Disaster Management…………………………………………………………………….14
1.9 Objectives of Disaster Management……………………………………………………..15
1.10 Characteristics of Disaster Management………………………………………………..16
1.11 Major players in Disaster Management………………………………………………...18

LESSON TWO: DISASTER MITIGATION……………………………………………19

2.2 Understanding Disaster Mitigation………………………………………………………19
2.3 Uniqueness of Disaster Mitigation……………………………………………………….19
2.4 Forms of Mitigation……………………………………………………………………...20
2.5 Pre-requisites of Mitigation……………………………………………………………...20
2.7 Rationale of Mitigation…………………………………………………………………..21
2.8 Mitigation of Natural Disasters………………………………………………………….22
2.17 Impediments to Disaster Management…………………………………………………34

LESSON THREE: DISASTER PREPAREDNESS……………………………………..37

3.2 Disaster Preparedness…………………………………………………………………….37
3.3 Objectives of Disaster Preparedness……………………………………………………..38
3.4 Disaster Preparedness Measures…………………………………………………………38
3.5 Mitigation vs. Preparedness…………………………………………………………...…38

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LESSON FOUR: DISASTER RESPONSE AND RECOVERY……………………….39
4.2 What is Disaster Response?..………………………………………………………….…39
4.3 Objectives of Disaster Response…………………………………………………………39
4.4 Disaster Response Measures……………………………………………………………..40
4.5.1 Short-term Disaster Recovery……………………………………………………….…41
4.5.2 Long-term Disaster Recovery………………………………………………………….41
4.5.3 Long-term Disaster Recovery Measures……………………………………………….42
4.6 Disaster Recovery and Mitigation………………………………………………………..43
4.7 Principles in Disaster Recovery and Response…………………………………………..44

LESSON FIVE: COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACH TO DISASTER

MANAGEMENT……………………………………………………………………………47
5.1 Understanding Community-Based Approach to Disaster Management………………....47
5.2 Rationale of Community-Based Approach………………………………………………48
5.3 Methods used to facilitate Disaster Public Awareness…………………………………..50
5.4 Advantages of Community-Based Approach to Disaster Management………………….51
5.5 Disadvantages…………………………………………….………………………………51

LESSON SIX: MEDIA AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT………………………..…53

6.1 The Media and Disaster Management…………………………………………………....54
6.2 Types of Media…………………………………………………………………………..54
6.4 Does the media play a role in Disaster Management?.......................................................55
6.5 Positive Role of Media in Disaster Management………………………………………..55
6.6 Negative Effects of Media in Disaster Management…………………………………….56

LESSON SEVEN: ANIMAL, DEVELOPMENT AND DISASTER…………………..59

7.1 Disasters and Development………………………………………………………………59
7.2 Disasters Destroy Years of Development………………………………………………..59
7.3 Disasters create Development Initiatives………………………………………………...60
7.4 Development Schemes increases Susceptibility to Disasters…………………………….60
7.5 Development Initiatives reduce Vulnerability and Increase Resilience………………….60
7.6 Disaster Management in Developing Countries………………………………………….61
7.7 Animals and Disaster Management………………………………………………………62
7.8 Animals as Hazards………………………………………………………………...…….62

Sample Examination Questions………………………..…………………………….….…65

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………67

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 LESSON ONE

INTRODUCTION TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Learning objectives:

Upon completion of this LESSON, you should be able

to:
1. Define and describe key concepts in the study of disaster management
2. Discuss the socio-economic and environmental impacts of disasters
3. Identify the disciplines/phases of disaster management
1.1 Introduction

This LESSON examines the key terminologies and concepts (jargons) in disaster
management. The types and impacts of disasters, history of disaster management and the
disaster management cycle are also discussed.

1.2 Understanding Key Concepts

1.2.1 HAZARD

Etymologically, the term hazard is derived from the French word hazard or the Arabic al-
zahr which is a game of dice predating craps or the die respectively. The essence of the word
is the concept of chance and luck. Hazards are events or physical conditions with the
potential to cause fatalities, wreak havoc and damage to the environment and eco-system.
The UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines hazard as „a potentially
damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that may cause the loss of life or
injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation‟.
Hazards are sources of danger that may or may not lead to an emergency or disaster and each
hazard carries an associated risk.

1.2.2 Hazard identification

Hazard identification is the foundation and starting point of all disaster management
activities. Knowledge about the risk posed by identified hazards is the basis of preparedness
planning and mitigation actions and response.

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1.2.3 Hazard Portfolio

It is a wide range of hazards. Hazards have different categorizations and could be natural,
technological or intentional. Factors such as laws, population density, climate and income do
not only determine a particular hazard portfolio, but also indicate the magnitude of the risk
posed. Natural hazards exist in the natural environment as a result of hydrological,
meteorological, seismic, geologic, mass movement and other natural processes that pose a
threat to human populations and communities.

1.2.4 Hazard Risk Management

Hazard risk management is a process via which the threats posed by identified hazards are
investigated or the process by which individuals, communities, and countries deal with
identified hazards.

1.2.5 Risk

Risk is an aspect of life and oftentimes expressed by adages such as „throw caution to the
wind‟, and „a man must take risks‟. It is the chance or probability that a hazard or something
bad and consequential will happen. The Chinese word for risk „weij-ji‟ combines the
characters meaning „opportunity‟ and „danger‟ to show that uncertainty always involves some
balance between profit and loss. In disaster management, risk cannot be eliminated, so it has
to be assessed and managed in order to reduce the likelihood of disasters.

Risk assessment entails evaluating the significance of a risk, either quantitatively or

qualitatively. In disaster management, the concept has a negative connotation.

Involuntary risks are not willingly or knowingly undertaken and accepted.

Voluntary risks are willingly accepted.

Scholars like Ansel and Wharton state that risk equals the likelihood of an event occurring
multiplied by the consequence of that event, were it to occur. Thus, two equal factors for
calculating risk are hazard likelihood and hazard consequence.

Risk {k} can be determined as a product of hazard {H} and vulnerability {V}.

Risk = Likelihood x Consequence (R = H x V).

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Risk = Hazard (probability) X Loss (expected)
Preparedness (loss mitigation)

The level of risk depends on: the nature of the hazard, vulnerability of the elements which
are affected and economic value of those elements.

1.2.6 Risk and Hazard

The relationship between hazard and risk could be illustrated using an analogy of two persons
crossing the Tana River in the coastal region of Kenya. One of the persons is using a large
modern ship while the other in an old dilapidated canoe. The hazard in this situation is deep
water and dangerous waves which both persons are susceptible and vulnerable to. The risk is
the probability of the ship and canoe capsizing leading to drowning and death. However the
person in the canoe is more at risk of capsizing and drowning than the party donning the ship.
The relationships between hazards and risks could be altered or modified by human actions
and conditions. Risks and hazards are sometimes used synonymously by different scholars.
However, risk is the exposure of something/Individual/Community to a hazard.

1.2.7 Safe/Safety

In disaster management, safe/safety does not mean elimination of all risks. An absolute level
of safety is unattainable in the economy of disaster management. Derby and Keeney (1981)
argue that a risk becomes „safe‟ or „acceptable‟ if it is associated with the best available
alternatives and not with the best of the alternatives which could have been available.
Theoretically, the safest response to environmental hazard is to avoid all danger, but that is
impractically impossible especially in the age of development in information technology. The
major question is how safe is safe enough?

1.2.8 Vulnerability

Etymologically, the term „vulnerability‟ is derived from the Latin vulnerabilis which means
„to wound‟. Although closely related to risk, vulnerability is closely determined by a different
set of variables. It measures the susceptibility of an individual, groups, object, community or
country is to the consequences of a hazard. It could also be defined as „the extent to which a
community, structure, services or geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the

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impact of particular hazard, on account of their nature, construction and proximity to
hazardous terrains or a disaster prone area‟.

The consequences of a disaster depend on the vulnerability of a community to the hazard. For
example, an earthquake of the same magnitude and intensity could cause 200 deaths in
Mombasa and 3000 in Eldoret. Vulnerabilities may be reduced through actions that lower the
propensity to incur harm, and increased through actions that increase that propensity. For
example, retrofitting a building to withstand the shaking effect of an earthquake will lower
that building‟s vulnerability to the hazard, thereby lowering risk.

Human vulnerability is the relative lack of capacity of a person or community to anticipate,

cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a hazard.

1.2.9 Resilience or Capacity

Resilience or capacity is the opposite of vulnerability and is a measure of propensity to avoid

loss. Resilience is a measure of the capacity to absorb and recover from the impact of a
hazardous event. Capacity could be defined as „resources, means and strengths which exists
in households and communities and which enable them to cope with, withstand, prepare for,
prevent, mitigate or quickly recover from a disaster‟. There exists physical and socio-
economic retreat.

1.2.10 Disaster

When a hazard actualizes, the net result is termed a disaster especially if it overwhelms the
individual‟s or the community‟s capacity to respond or contain the effects. A disaster is the
actualization or realization of a hazard (a hazard is in potency while disaster is the
actualization). Disasters are the convergence of hazards with vulnerabilities. The term
disaster is derived from the Latin roots dis and astro which literally mean „away from the
stars‟ or put in other words, „an event to be blamed on some astrological configuration‟. The
etymology of the word could also be derived from the French word Desastre which is a
combination of two words des meaning bad and aster meaning star. Thus it means „Bad or
Evil star‟.

The yardstick used in measuring a disaster is „consequences‟ in terms of loss of lives,

property damaged and environmental degradation. A disaster is „an event, concentrated in

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time and space, in which a community experiences severe danger and disruption of its
essential functions, accompanied by widespread human, material or environmental losses,
which often exceed the ability of the community to cope without external assistance {Keith
Smith, 1991:13}. Hazards could exist in uninhabited regions but risks and disasters exist only
where there are human beings and property. Some dictionaries use the words misfortune or
calamity to imply a disaster. A victim of a disaster is any person affected directly or
indirectly by disaster.

Risks and disasters affect all persons irrespective of geographical locations, religions and
socioeconomic conditions. For instance, the earthquake that hit Haiti in January 2010, among
others destroyed the presidential palace in Port-au-Prince.

Emergency Events are routine occurrences such as household fires that are easily managed
and contained are emergency events.

1.3 International Disasters

Disasters grow in intensity as they overwhelm progressively larger response units. When an
individual is unable to contain a house fire, he/she calls the fire brigade, the county
government and the national government. When a country is overwhelmed by a national
disaster, the actualized hazard becomes an international disaster if the international
community intervenes. The threshold beyond which a disaster becomes international in size
and scope is idiosyncratic of countries depending on factors such as geographical locations,
economic resources, severity of hazards, the built-in resilience of infrastructure inter alia.
Such thresholds are easily crossed much earlier in poorer countries than in the wealthiest
ones.

1.4 Compound Disasters

When two or more disasters occur simultaneously they are referred to as compound disaster.
Disasters are not always limited to a single hazard. Complete independent disasters could
occur at the same time. For instance, an earthquake strikes during a flood. A disaster may
trigger a secondary hazard (floods leading to landslides or droughts causing bush fires).

1.5 The Five Phases of a Disaster

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Non-Disaster Pre Disaster Impact Emergency
Reconstruction/Recovery

Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase

Phase 1: Non-Disaster Phase: There is no disaster or any signs of a disaster

Phase 2: Pre disaster Phase: Noticing the warnings of a looming disaster
Phase 3: Impact Phase: The disaster occurs
Phase 4: Emergency Phase: Counting of effects, immediate relief support
Phase 5: Reconstruction phase: Bringing back things/life to normalcy.

1.6 Types of Disasters

Two criteria used in classifying disasters are:

a. Causes (causality) – Natural vs. Human

b. Speed of onset (Rapidity) – Sudden vs. Slow

A. SPEED OF ONSET

1. Sudden-onset Disasters occur with little or no warning and their damaging effects
are sustained and felt within hours or days. Examples are earthquakes, tsunamis,
volcanoes, landslides, tornadoes and floods.

2. Creeping or slow-onset Disasters take time to actualise especially when the ability
of response capacities of units degrades over weeks or months or years. They are
adverse events which are slow to develop; first the situation develops; the second
level is an emergency; then the third level is a disaster. Examples are drought, civil
strife, epidemic, soil salination, erosion and famine and the like.

B. CAUSALITY OR ORIGIN

A. Human-Made Disaster

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Human made disasters are caused or triggered by human actions, which could be voluntary or
involuntary, sudden or slow, directly or indirectly, with grave consequences to the population
and the environment. Examples include, environmental pollution, desertification, fires,
epidemics, deforestation and accidents and civil wars

B. Complex Disaster/Complex Emergency

It is a major disaster or complicated emergency situation affecting large civilian populations,

which is further aggravated by intense political and military interference, including war and
civil strife, resulting in serious food shortages, epidemics, population displacements and
increased mortality. For instance, the outbreak of cholera in Haiti as the country was
recovering from the earthquake.

C. Human Conceived Disaster

Human conceived disasters are distinct from man-made disaster. Man-conceived disasters are
disastrous actions like genocide, death camps, ethnic cleansing, forced disappearance,
pauperization, torture, and other acts against humanity that are obscenely conceived, cold-
bloodedly and intentionally planned and indecently perpetrated with impunity by evil rulers,
dictators, terrorists with the aim of inflicting maximum suffering, death, and destruction in
full violation of personal, social and cultural rights of humanity. All human conceived
disasters are man-made disasters but not all man-made disasters are human conceived
disasters. Man-conceived disasters are usually responded to through judicial processes while
the response to man-made disasters is scientific, managerial and humanitarian.

D. Natural Disasters

Natural disasters are caused by some biological, meteorological, hydrologic, geological

configuration of natural forces in the natural environment. Examples include windstorms,
earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides, avalanches, volcanic eruptions and meteor strikes. Thus,
natural disasters follow natural hazards.

According to K.S Ramesh every disaster is man made since disasters only occur in places
inhabited by human beings and because human actions can modify or influence the likelihood
of a disaster occurring (inaction is action – sin of omission or commission).

1.7 Consequences/Impacts of Disasters

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Disasters strike indiscriminately and it impacts are felt across all sectors or stratum in society.
The effect of a disaster could be direct or indirect, tangible and intangible, physical, social,
economic, emotional and political. Factors that modify the consequences of a disaster could
be population growth and density, environmental degradation, poverty, lack of information
and awareness.

A. Direct Losses

According to Keith Smith in his book Environmental Hazards, direct losses are „those first
order consequences which occur immediately after an event, such as the deaths and damage
caused by the throwing down of buildings in an earthquake‟. Examples include: fatalities,
injuries, relocation cost, loss of income, community response cost and clean-up costs.

B. Indirect Losses

Indirect losses are experienced much later after the disaster and may be less easy to attribute
directly to the event because of the multi-causality factor. Examples are loss of income,
mental illness, bereavement and loss of institutional knowledge.

C. Tangible Losses

Tangible losses are those for which a dollar value can be assigned and are visible to the eyes.
Mostly, only tangible losses are included in the estimation of future events and the reporting
of past events. Examples of such losses are collapsed infrastructures, response costs, loss of
inventory and loss of income.

D. Intangible Losses

Intangible losses cannot be expressed in universally acceptable financial terms. That is why
human fatalities and injuries are assessed as a separate category from the cost measurement
of consequence in disaster management. These losses are almost never included in damage
assessments or predictions. Examples are cultural losses, stress, mental illness, sentimental
value and environmental losses, trauma, emotional insecurity {aesthetic value}. Intangible
losses will be discussed in the LESSON of Trauma Management.

1.8 Disaster/Emergency Management

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Disaster management or emergency management is the academic discipline that deals with
the „management‟ of disasters. In the United States, disaster management is referred to as
emergency management. The United States national disaster management body is the Federal
Emergency Management Authority (FEMA). The International Red Cross defines disaster
management as the organization and management of resources and responsibilities for
dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response
and recovery in order to lessen the impact of disasters.

Simplistically, disaster management refers to a range of activities used to control an

emergency situation. Disaster management assumes a proactive method because it is very
comprehensive in nature. Disasters can be and have been prepared for, responded to, and
recovered from, and have had their consequences mitigated to an increasing degree.

1.9 Objectives of Disaster Management

 To reduce or avoid loss suffered by victims (individuals, households and

communities)
 To reduce personal suffering and to eliminate that which may constitute the suffering
since disasters cannot always be prevented, but the adverse effects can be minimised.
 To initiate recovery and reconstruction activities that will normalize living conditions
of the victims.

Comprehensive Emergency Management or the Disaster Management Cycle

encompasses four distinct phases or disciplines namely: prevention/mitigation, preparedness,
response and recovery. Disaster management is a cyclical process although one phase of the
cycle does not necessarily have to be complete for the next to commence. Some activities of
the phases are carried out concurrently.

In strict sense, mitigation and preparedness activities are carried out before the onset of a
disaster while response and recovery set in after the disaster.

Mitigation includes all those actions taken in order to prevent a disaster from occurring or
minimize their impacts should they strike.

Preparedness entails equipping people with the tools to increase their chance of survival or
to minimise their financial and other losses should a disaster occur.

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Response activities are carried out in the phase of a disaster in order to save lives and provide
the immediate survivors with the basic necessities and needs.

Recovery measures aim at restoring life of the community to normalcy. It involves returning
victims lives back to a normal state following the impact of disaster consequences. This
phase generally begins after the immediate response has ended and it can persist for months
or years.

The Disaster Management Cycle

1.10 Characteristics of Disaster Management

Comprehensive – emergency managers consider and take into account all hazards, all
phases, all stakeholders and all impacts relevant to disasters.

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Progressive – emergency managers anticipate future disasters and take preventive and
preparatory measures to build disaster-resistant and disaster-resilient communities.

Risk-driven – emergency managers use sound risk management principles (hazard

identification, risk analysis, and impact analysis) in assigning priorities and resources.

Integrated – emergency managers ensure unity of effort among all levels of government and
all elements of a community.

Collaborative – emergency managers create and sustain broad and sincere relationships
among individuals and organizations to encourage trust, advocate a team atmosphere, build
consensus, and facilitate communication.

Coordinated – emergency managers synchronize the activities of all relevant stakeholders to

achieve a common purpose.

Flexible – emergency managers use creative and innovative approaches in solving disaster
challenges.

Professional – emergency managers value a science and knowledge-based approach; based

on education, training, experience, ethical practice, public stewardship and continuous
improvement.

LESSON
Summary

LESSON one outlines an expansive overview of disaster management. It defines and explains
the key terminologies and concepts such as hazards, risk, vulnerability, resilience, safe/safety
and disaster. The meaning, scope, history, phases and characteristics of disaster management
is also examined in this LESSON.

Revision Questions

1. Define the following terms;

i) Hazards
ii) Risk

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iii) Vulnerability
iv) Disaster

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 2. Distinguish between the following concepts;

i) Rapid Onset Disasters vs. Creeping Disasters

ii) Natural Disasters vs. Human Conceived Disasters
iii) Compound Disasters vs. Human-made Disasters

3. What is Disaster Management? Outline the Disciplines of the Disaster Management

Cycle

References for further Reading

Keith Smith (2004). Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster. New

York: Routledge. Pp.1-54

George D. Haddow, Jane Bullock and Damon Coppola (2011). Introduction to Emergency

Management. Tokyo: Butterworth-Heinemann. P.1, 33-45

Damon Coppola and Erin Maloney (2009). Communicating Emergency Preparedness:

Strategies for Creating a Disaster Resilient Public. London: Taylor and Francis
Group. 43-70

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 LESSON TWO

DISASTER MITIGATION

LESSON Objectives: Upon completion of this LESSON, you should be

able to:

a. Define disaster mitigation

b. Identify and discuss the two main forms of mitigation

c. Explain how the effects of different natural disasters could be mitigated.

2.1 Introduction

In this LESSON, the meaning and forms and rationale of disaster mitigation is discussed. This
LESSON comprehensively examines measures of mitigating the effects of different natural
disasters. Impediments of effective disaster mitigation are also discussed.

2.2 Understanding Disaster Mitigation

Two basic approaches for reducing the impacts of natural disasters are disaster mitigation and
response. Disaster mitigation entails measures put in place to prevent disasters from
occurring or minimize their impacts should they strike. In strict sense, disaster mitigation
takes place before the onset of a disaster although some of her activities could overlap in
other phases of disaster management. Knowledge of the existing hazards is an essential
starting point for disaster mitigation.

2.3 Does Mitigation Differ from other Disciplines of Disaster Management?

The function of mitigation curiously differs from other phases of disaster management. First,
unlike in other phases, mitigating measures are customarily long-term in nature. mitigation
strategies are part of the long term disaster recovery process.

Secondly, mitigation is often times not considered part of the emergency phase of a disaster
as in response or short term recovery processes. Further, unlike the other disciplines,
mitigation involves a broad spectrum of players and actors such as politicians, building
officials, community leaders, insurance companies, land-use planners, NGOs, regional
organizations and national governments among others. Mileti and Myers (1997) developed
the concept of sustainable hazard mitigation which is a holistic paradigm which goes beyond

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short-term loss reduction and seeks to mesh disaster reduction strategies into an on-going
development agenda for a changing world.

2.4 Forms of Mitigation

Two forms of mitigation are structural and non-structural mitigation.

2.4.1 Structural Mitigation

Structural mitigation refers actions that change the characteristics of a building or its
surrounding. They are physical measures put in place to prevent disasters from occurring or
minimize it economic, environmental, emotional and social impacts. Examples include flood
levees, dams, dykes and building retrofitting and wooden beams inter alia.

2.4.2 Non-structural Mitigation

Non-structural mitigation are policies aimed at raising awareness of hazards, encourage

developments to reduce the impact of disasters and prohibiting people from exposing
themselves to hazards. It may include insurance policies, legislations, land-use planning, land
reforms and crop diversification and informational programs and improved building
regulations.

2.5 Mitigation and Preventive Diplomacy

There is an intricate relationship between mitigation and preventive diplomacy. Both aimed
at preventing disasters from occurring or reduce their consequences when they occur. In An
Agenda for Peace, Boutros Boutros-Ghali defined preventive diplomacy as diplomatic
actions taken to prevent disputes from escalating into conflicts and to limit the spread of
conflicts when they occur

2.6 Pre-requisites of Effective Disaster Mitigation

2.6.1 Hazard Identification -. A precursor to mitigation is the identification of risks and

hazards.

2.6.2 Knowledge of Existing Hazards & Disasters

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Since half knowledge is dangerous, detail knowledge of frequent disasters and hazards are
important prerequisites for effective disaster mitigation. Disasters and hazards are
idiosyncratic to different areas and regions. The impact of the disaster in a specific region
will depend on the following factors:

a. Concentration of human beings in an area

b. Types of housing and designs,
c. Sources of the livelihood of the inhabitants,
d. Infrastructure,

Thus, in order to successfully develop natural disasters mitigation strategies; one ought to
have a good knowledge of:

1. Causes of hazards and disasters and how they originate

2. Disaster history of the area (history repeats itself)
3. Magnitude of the disaster or potential disaster
4. Frequency of the disaster,
5. Elements at risks
6. Physical mechanism of destruction caused
7. Economic and social consequences after damage.

2.7 Rationale of Disaster Mitigation

The raison d‟être for disaster mitigation could be expressed in adages such as prevention is
better than cure or a stitch in time saves nine. Prevention is 100% mitigation. The overall aim
of structural and non-structural mitigation are not particularly to stop disasters especially
natural ones from occurring but to reduce vulnerability or increase resilience to the effects of
the inevitable disasters. The specific objectives of disaster mitigation are:

1. To creates awareness of the degree of risks at the individual, community and national
levels
2. To promote local actions through community participation aimed at reducing risks
3. To induct mitigation measures in the national and development plans thereby
stipulating policies.

22
 4. Assist different stakeholders such as politicians and administrators understand the
nature and extent of various risks faced by the communities in their area of
responsibility and to assess its effects on sectors such as agriculture, industrialization,
commerce and different industries.
5. To implement plans at the different levels of public administration based on risk
assessment, vulnerability analysis and early warning systems.

2.8 Mitigation of Natural Disasters

A strategy is a plan that is intended to achieve a particular purpose. Natural disaster

mitigating strategies are measures aimed at reducing losses upon the realization of natural
hazards. The United Nations declared the 1990s as the International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction because of the catastrophic effects of natural disasters. The focus was to
curb the increasing losses caused by natural hazards and promote actions to mitigate their
impacts. The mitigation strategies of natural disasters vary depending on the disaster.

2.8.1 Earthquakes

There were about 1000 recorded earthquakes around the world in the 20th century causing
about 2 million deaths, collapse of infrastructures and bridges and destruction of the
environment. Earthquakes occur when there is a sudden movement of the earth along a zone
of pre-existing geological weakness called fault. Earthquakes are measured by the local
magnitude scale postulated by Charles Richter. The February 12, 2010 earthquake that hit
Haiti was of 7.8 magnitudes. Some earthquake related hazards are soil liquefaction,
landslides, rock and snow avalanches and tsunamis. The word Tsunamis derived from two
Japanese words, tsu (port or habour) and nami (wave or sea).

2.8.2 Earthquake Mitigation Strategies

2.8.2.1 Earthquake Insurance: The aim of earthquake insurance is to modify and spread the
financial loss burden beyond the immediate victims of a disaster. However, not many
companies can comprehensively cover the loss incurred via earthquakes and not many people
can afford to insure things.

23
2.8.2.2 Disaster Aid: Disaster or humanitarian aid spreads the loss rather than reducing it.
According to theories of foreign policies, states and organizations ditch out humanitarian aid
for different motives. Disaster aid could be food, money, tents, tricycles and the like.

The Oslo Guidelines of 1994 (updated in 2006) is the international regime that regulates the
economy of humanitarian aid. It stipulates core principles that must be adhere to in the
delivery and receiving of humanitarian assistance in times of disasters. Among others, the
Guidelines states that humanitarian aid must be provided in accordance with the principles of
humanity, neutrality, impartiality and respect of the Westphalian notion of sovereignty.

2.8.2.3 Earthquake Resistant Materials

Earthquake resistant materials aim at loss reduction. Since collapse of structures is one of the
consequences of disasters, building codes, regular inspection of buildings and hard-resistant
designs and modern technology will minimize losses when earthquakes happen. Ductile and
flexible materials are preferred to stiff and brittle material in earthquake mitigation. For
example, steel framing is a ductile material that absorbs a lot of energy. Slender multi-storey
buildings are more vulnerable. Deep foundations, multi-storied buildings should not be too
close to one another because pounding may occur between them and worsen the effects of a
disaster. Wooden beams absorb the waves of the earthquakes and serve as shock absorbers.

2.8.2.4 Triple Pendulum Bearing

Cross LESSON of Triple

PendulumTM Concaves and Slider Assembly
Bearing

Triple and Single Pendulums bearings are some device/material put beneath a building in
such a way that a building will move/swing without any damage during an earthquake. Triple

24
pendulum bearings which have been widely described as a revolution are placed just above
the foundations of buildings.

Turkey experienced two unfortunate earthquakes in 1999 leaving about 10000 dead. In the
wake of the earthquake, the Turkish government invested in earthquake technologies in order
to minimize future casualties. Earthquake mitigation measures were considered in the
recovery phase of the earthquake in Turkey. The tallest building in Europe is the Sapphire
Hotel in Turkey and it is built using some very good earthquake resistant materials. The
Sapphire is a reference for disaster/emergency management.

Sabiha Gökçen International Airport Terminal

The Sabiha is the world‟s largest earthquake-proof building. It is designed to remain

completely operational after earthquakes since it was built using some new seismic building
technology and advanced computer simulations.

2.8.2.4 Early Warnings

Early warning systems and weather forecasting is based on probability theories and past
history. Building early warning system or network could transmit vital information of

25
imminent earthquakes within 5-7 seconds (information like turning off gas and pipe lines).
Some information could save many lives and property.

Other earthquake mitigation measures are relocation of people to safer lands, effective land
use and planning policies, land reforms among others.

2.8.3 Personal mitigation

Personal mitigation is measures individuals are expected to take in order to avoid

unnecessary risks and reduce impacts of disasters. This includes an assessment of possible
risks to personal/family health and to personal property. The table below is about some
personal and family mitigation strategies from the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA).

EARTHQUAKE MITIGATION

Before the Disaster During the Disaster After the Disaster

• Check for hazards in the • If indoors: Take cover under a • Be prepared for after
home piece of heavy furniture or against shocks
an inside wall and stay inside
• Identify safe places in each • Help injured or trapped
room • If outdoors: Move into the open, persons and give first aid
away from buildings, street lights, where appropriate
• Locate safe places outdoors
and utility wires and remain there
• Listen to a battery
• Ensure all family members until shaking stops
operated radio for
know how to respond after an
• If in a moving vehicle: Stop emergency information
earthquake
quickly, stay in vehicle, move to a
• Stay out of damaged
• Teach children when and clear area away from buildings,
buildings and return
how to call 9-1-1 trees, overpasses, or utility wires
home only when
authorities say it is safe
• Have disaster supplies on

• Develop an emergency
communications plan in case

26
of separation during the
earthquake

• Ask an out-of-state relative

or friend to serve as the family
contact

2.9 Biological Hazards: WILD FIRES

2.9.1 Wild fires are caused when natural vegetation becomes too dry and weather conditions
determine the magnitude and spread of the fire. Lightening and camp fires or burning bushes
may trigger wild fire. Wild fires are common in Australia. Extreme temperatures could be
very fatal. In 1845, the outbreak of potato blight disease (phytophora infestans) was caused
by the unusual warm and wet weather conditions in Ireland. The natural viral host for yellow
fever (Flavivirus) is found in local wild fires. In Australia, wildfires are referred to as
bushfire. Three necessary conditions for the outbreak of fire is heat, oxygen and fuel.

2.9.2 Mitigation

Among the mitigating measures are fire bans and fire fighters, international aid, insurance,
restrictions on the burning of bushes, forecasting and warning and evacuation among others.

WILDFIRE MITIGATION

Before the Disaster During the Disaster After the Disaster

• Learn and teach safe fire practices If trapped in a wildfire, • Be cautious when
you CANNOT outrun it: re-entering a burned
• build fires away from nearby trees or wildland area - hot
bushes, always have a way to extinguish a • Crouch in a pond or spots can flare up
fire, never leave a fire unattended river and cover head and without warning
upper body with wet
• Obtain local building codes and weed • Check the roof
clothing
abatement ordinances for buildings near immediately and

27
wooded areas • Use fire-resistant • If a body of water is extinguish any sparks
materials when building, renovating, or unavailable, look for or embers and the
retrofitting structures shelter in a cleared area or attic for hidden
among a bed of rocks and burning sparks
• Create a safety zone to separate home
lie flat and cover body
from combustible plants and vegetables • Re-check for smoke
with wet clothing or soil.
and sparks throughout
• Install electrical lines underground, if
• Listen to radio for the home for several
possible
emergency information hours afterward

• Prune all branches around residence to a

• Remove combustible • Breathe the air close
height of 8-10 feet
items (outdoor furniture, to the ground through
umbrellas, tarp coverings, a wet cloth to avoid
• Keep trees adjacent to buildings free of
and firewood) from scorching lungs or
dead or dying wood and moss
around the home inhaling smoke.
• Remove all dead limbs, needles, and
• Take down flammable
debris from rain gutters
drapes and curtains and
• Store combustible/flammable materials close all Venetian blinds
in approved safety containers and keep or non-combustible
away from home window coverings

• Keep chimney clean • Close all doors and

windows inside home to
• Avoid open burning, especially during
prevent draft
dry season Install smoke detectors on
every level of your home • Close gas valves and
turn off pilot light
• Make evacuation plans from home and
neighborhood and have back up plans • Turn on a light in each
room for visibility in
• Avoid using wooden shakes and
heavy smoke
shingles for roofing
• Place valuables that will
• Use only thick, tempered safety glass in

28
large windows and doors not be damaged by water,
in a pool or pond
•Have disaster supplies on hand
(flashlights, extra batteries, portable • If hoses and adequate
radios, first aid kits, emergency food and water are available, leave
water, nonelectric can opener, essential sprinklers on roofs and
medicines, cash and credit cards, and anything that might be
sturdy shoes) damaged by fire

• Develop an emergency communication • Be ready to evacuate all

plan in case of separation family members and pets
when fire nears or when
• Ask an out-of-state relative to serve as
instructed to do so by
the "family contact"
local officials.

Source: FEMA

2.10 Hydrological Hazard

2.10.1 FLOODS

Floods are the most common environmental disaster in the world. Bangladesh is the most
flood-prone country in the world. In recent times, Kenya has experienced some severe floods
with dire consequences. Floods may bring untold damages such as loss of human life,
destruction of crops and property. However, moderate floods could also bring some benefits
as well as losses (Smith and Ward, 1998). Flood pulse is good for eco-systems since it leads
to wetlands habitats with deposition of silts and flushing salts. In traditional areas, fishing and
irrigation schemes could be carried out during periods of moderate floods.

2.10.2 Mitigation Measures

2.10.2.1 Flood control Dams: Dams will inevitably reduce the flood flows and can serve as
flood alleviation instruments, although they could be inundated by heavy flows. However,
they are expensive to construct and are vulnerable to earthquakes.

29
2.10.2.2 Levees (embankments, dykes or stop banks). Earth banks are relatively cheap to
construct and they help to re-direct flood flows from inhabited areas.

2.10.2.3 Channel Improvements: Channel enlargement increases the carrying capacity of

the river such that flood flows are contained by it. It was used in river Arno at Florence, Italy
after the flood of November 1966. They can also be used to divert the water from settlement
and industrial areas.

2.10.2.4 Elevation: Making basements of buildings water-tight and raising the inhabited part
of the building by elevation on stilts.

2.10.2.5 Wet flood proofing – making property resistant to flood damage and allowing water
to enter during floods

2.10.2.6 Dry flood proofing: Sealing property to allow water from entering

2.10.2.7 Floodwalls: building a wall around the property to hold back water

2.10.2.8 Reforestation or reseeding of sparsely vegetated areas to increase evaporative

losses.

2.10.2.9 Mechanical land treatment of slopes such as contour ploughing or terracing to

reduce runoff coefficient,

2.10.2.10 Protection of vegetation from wildfires, overgrazing, cutting of forest and other
bad practices that may increase flood discharges.

2.10.2.11 Construction of farm ponds, clearance of sediment and other debris from
headwater, grading of building plots and creation of parklands is also another mitigation
measure.

N.B. „Artificial channels create visual intrusion and isolate the river from its alluvial plain
which has some consequences for the riparian ecosystem and the functioning of the river
corridor‟ (Keith, 2004:203).

30
2.10.2.12 Relocation and demolition of structures in vulnerable areas, land use planning,
forecasting and warning are among other flood mitigating measures.

FLOOD MITIGATION

Before the Disaster During the Disaster After the Disaster

• Learn warning signs and During a flood watch: • Don't return home until
community alert systems authorities express express it
If indoors: is safe to do so
• Stockpile emergency
building materials • Turn on battery operated radio • Help neighbors whom may
to get latest emergency need assistance
• Install check valves in information
sewer traps to prevent flood • Get pre-assembled emergency • Use extreme caution when
waters from backing up in supplies entering buildings
sewer drains • If told to leave, do so
• Inspect foundations for
immediately.
• Plan and practice an cracks or other damage and
evacuation route If outdoors: examine walls, floors, doors,
and windows to make sure
• Have disaster supplies on • Climb to high ground and stay that the building is not in
hand there danger of collapsing
• Avoid walking through any
• Develop an emergency
floodwaters. • Watch out for animals,
communication plan in case
• If in a car, turn around and go especially poisonous snakes,
of separation
another way; if your car stalls, that may have come into
your home with flood waters
• Ask an out-of-state relative abandon it immediately and
to serve as the "family climb to higher ground.
• Watch for loose plaster and
contact"
During an evacuation: ceilings that could fall

• Teach family members

• If advised to evacuate, do so • Take pictures of damage
how and when to turn off the
immediately to avoid flooded for insurance claims
gas, electricity, and water
roads, being sure to follow
and teach children how and
recommended evacuation routes

31
when to call 9-1-1 and listen to radio for • Look for fire hazards
evacuation instructions
• Ask your insurance agent • Throw away all food
about flood insurance (including canned) that has
come in contact with flood
waters

• Pump out flooded

basements gradually (~ 1/3
amount of water per day) to
avoid structural damage

• Service damaged septic

tanks, cesspools, pits, and
leaching systems ASAP -
damaged sewage systems are
health hazards.

Source: FEMA

2.11 Droughts and Thermal Extreme Temperatures

Droughts are „creeping‟ disasters that affect extended areas and set in because of extended
periods without rainfall. In 2012 all the countries in the Horn of Africa experienced severe
droughts especially in the northern regions. Droughts related diseases are fatal and some
types of droughts are famine, agricultural, hydrological and meteorological droughts.
Thermal temperature (extreme heat) is caused by the depletion of the ozone layer.

2.11.1 Mitigation of Droughts

2.11.1.1Disaster aid
Disaster aid should not be limited to food which de Waal (1989) described as a „blunt
instrument‟. Curbing drought related diseases should also be prioritized in the economy of
disaster aid. According to the Chinese government, 90 per cent of the 30,000 deaths from the
floods in 1954 were as a result of infectious diseases such as dysentery, typhoid and cholera

32
2.11.1.2 Sustainable Development and Self-Help Projects

Self-help projects (cash-for work schemes) such as repairing feeder roads, digging pit,
fetching of water by the youths and volunteers, digging of pit latrines, drilling boreholes and
wells and constructing tanks for cattle are also mitigating measures.

2.11.1.3 Artificial Stimulation of Rainfall: Rain can artificially be stimulated through cloud
seeding. However, cloud seeding is successful only with clouds which have natural
precipitation potential and are scarce to find. In traditional societies, rain makers could also
be consulted.

2.11.1.4 Dams, Pipelines and Reservoirs for water storage: Switching to low-flush toilets
or alternative septic systems in residential areas can be a plausible approach for saving water.
Most importantly, imposing a higher unit price for excessive water use (increasing block rate)
promotes conservation and efficiency.

2.11.1.5 John Paul II Foundation for the Sahel Countries

The John Paul II Foundation for the Sahel Countries was launched in 1984 and is
headquartered in Burkina Faso. Because of the very arid nature of the Sahel region, the
Foundation carries out projects such as digging of wells and boreholes and other sustainable
projects aimed at mitigating the regular droughts experienced by countries in the Sahel.

2.11.1.6 Other Measures include:

 weather forecasting and early warnings,

 appropriate land use planning,
 planting of drought resistant crops,
 harvesting of rain water, crop insurance,
 aqueducts for water transportation,
 stone walls and trenches made to contain water flow in order to make the soil moist
and prevent soil erosion,
 evacuation of persons to fertile grounds,
 -government subsidies for people to install tanks and other storage facilities.

33
EXTREME HEAT MITIGATION
Before the
During the Disaster After the Disaster
Disaster

• Install window • Protect windows that First Aid for conditions after a drought/extreme
air conditioners receive sun by hanging heat:
draperies or shades
• Install • Sunburn (skin redness and pain, possible
temporary • Conserve electricity swelling, blisters, fever, headaches) - shower
reflectors to using soap to remove oils that may block pores.
• Stay indoors as much
reflect heat If blistering occurs, apply dry, sterile dressings
as possible; eat well-
outside and get medical attention.
balanced light meals and
• Consider drink water regularly • Heat Cramps (painful spasms in leg and
keeping storm abdominal muscles) - Place firm pressure on
windows up year • Limit intake of cramping muscles or gentle massage to relieve
alcoholic beverages
round spasm. Give sips of water, however if nausea
occurs, discontinue.
• Dress in loose fitting
• Check air-
clothes
conditioning • Heat Exhaustion (heavy sweating, weakness,
ducts for proper skin cold, pale, and clammy, weak pulse, fainting
• Allow body to get
insulation and vomiting may occur) - lay victim down in a
acclimated to the heat
cool place, loosen clothing and apply cool, wet
w/in the first few days
cloths. Give sips of water, however if nausea
of a heat wave, avoid
occurs, discontinue. Seek medical attention if
sunshine and use
vomiting occurs.
sunscreen if needed

• Heat/Sun Stroke [high body temperature

• Avoid extreme
(+106?) , hot and dry skin, rapid pulse, possible
temperature changes
unconsciousness, no perspiration] - Call 9-1-1
• Reduce, eliminate, or immediately to get victim to a hospital
reschedule strenuous immediately. Delay can be fatal.
activities

34
Source: FEMA

2.12 Impediments to Disaster Mitigation

2.12.1 Denial

Some persons are not willing to accept the fact that their communities are vulnerable and
exposed to certain hazards. Others even try to beat the odds and refuse to vacate unsafe
locations knowing that the government will help them out should disasters strike. The picture
of a desolate woman literally soliciting the government of President Kibaki to assist her after
the floods in Budalangi in 2012 was a staple of various media houses. She is famous for
incanting „serikali utusadie, hata bwana yangu amepotea.....) {Please government help me,
everything has disappeared including my husband}.

2.12.2 Political Will and Vision

Former U.S Speaker of House of Representatives, Tip O‟Neill, once said „all politics is
local‟. Likewise, all mitigation is local. However, developmental pressures take a toll on
politicians and county governments at the expense of expensive mitigation measures which
could lie unutilized for years.

2.12.3 Costly nature of Mitigation

Unlike the activities of other phases of disaster management, mitigation measures are very
expensive and that explains why mitigation has become a forgotten phase. More still, disaster
mitigation is proactive unlike the reactive nature of response and recovery. Politicians and
some national governments prefer to deal with some urgent needs or pass on the problems to
future generations than invest in precautionary mitigation measures.

2.12.4 The Mitigation Effect (False Hope)

Structural mitigation schemes such as dams and levees sometimes give people a false sense
of security and make them unwilling to cooperate with disaster management authorities
thereby ironically making them more vulnerable to disasters.

35
2.12.5 The politics of Disaster Aid

Foreign aid is sometimes used as an instrument of foreign policy. Dambisa Moyo

sarcastically, referred to foreign aid as „Dead Aid‟. Uncoordinated aid and delays in the
delivery are also problems in mitigating the effects of disasters. Sometimes some food aid
and other items may be unfamiliar to victims.

2.12.6 Mitigation as the Forgotten Phase

Traditionally, there have been exaggerated tendencies for various stakeholders to respond and
recover from the effects of disasters than to invest in disaster mitigation. However, many
units have come to the realization that disaster mitigation could be cheaper than response.
Numerous governmental and nongovernmental organizations have started shifting priorities
to mitigation.

In this era of globalization (one village), the interests of all countries extend worldwide.
Disasters in one part of the globe could inevitably affect life in other parts of the globe. For
example, the Mount Pinatubo eruption caused direct losses to the United States of more than
$1 billion and triggered a change in U.S. strategic presence in the western Pacific with the
loss of air and naval bases. A proactive international program by the United States to reduce
natural disaster losses is clearly justified for humanitarian purposes and to further foreign
policy interests. Thus, disaster mitigation is becoming an international priority.

LESSON
Summary

Among the themes discussed in this lengthy LESSON are the understanding, objectives
and forms of disaster mitigation, strategies for mitigating the various types of natural
disasters and the impediments to effective and successful disaster mitigation.

Review Questions

1. What is Disaster Mitigation?

2. Distinguish between Structural and non-Structural Mitigation

3. Examine some of the measures that the Kenyan Government can use to mitigate the
effect of floods and droughts in the Country.

36
 4. Could the fire which engulfed Jomo Kenyatta International Airport in August 2012
been averted had the government invested on fire mitigation?

5. Discuss impediments to effective disaster mitigation.

References for further Reading

John Butler (1976). Natural Disasters. Sydney: Heineman Educational Australia. Pp.5-126

Keith Smith (2004). Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster. New\
York: Routledge. Pp.54-267

George D. Haddow, Jane Bullock and Damon Coppola {2011}. Introduction to Emergency\
Management. Tokyo: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pp.30-95

Louis Comfort (ed). (1988). Managing Disaster: Strategies and Policy Perspectives.\
London: Duke University Press. P.40-53

37
 LESSON THREE

DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

LESSON Objectives: Upon completion of this LESSON, you should be

able to:

a. Define disaster preparedness,

b. Discuss the main activities of disaster preparedness,

c. Distinguish between disaster mitigation and disaster preparedness.

3.1 Introduction

This LESSON discusses the second phase of the disaster management cycle. The key
functions and characteristics of preparedness and disaster preparedness education are
discussed. The LESSON also looks at the key differences between mitigation and
preparedness.

3.2 Disaster Preparedness

Disaster preparedness refers to actions taken before the onset of a disaster so that successive
units can successfully discharge emergency management responsibilities. It also involves
equipping people who may be impacted by a disaster or who may be able to help those
affected with the tools to boost their resilience or minimise losses. Preparedness entails
having everything and everybody set to respond to an impending emergency event. It is a
state of readiness to respond to a disaster, crisis, or any type of emergency event.

Preparedness reflects the extent to which an individual or community is alert to an impending

disaster. It is famously said that failure to plan is planning to fail. Disaster preparedness is
planning on how to respond to an anticipated actualized hazard. It involves preparing people
and essential service providers for actions that they will take in case of disasters.
Theoretically, disaster preparedness is a pre-disaster discipline of disaster management.

In disaster preparedness, the various stakeholders develop clear plans to save lives, minimize
disaster damage, and enhance disaster response operations. Formal responders of disasters
are police and fire services, emergency medical services personnel and the military.

38
According to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, disaster
preparedness requires global, national, community and individual inputs. Disaster
preparedness encompasses all activities that will enhance the efficiency, effectiveness and

39
impact of emergency response mechanisms in the local communities and the wider societies.
Disaster Risk Reduction forms the pillar of disaster preparedness.

3.3 Objectives of Disaster Preparedness

The ultimate objective of disaster preparedness is to achieve a satisfactory level of readiness

(logistical readiness) to respond to any emergency situation through programs that strengthen
the technical and managerial capacity of individuals, communities, governments and
organizations.

3.4 Disaster Preparedness Measures

1. Exercises and mock exercises,

2. Training,
3. Equipping people with tools to deal with disasters,
4. Early warning,
5. Installation of emergency communication systems,
6. Evacuation plans,
7. Evaluation and improvement,
8. Mutual aid agreements,
9. Public information and education,
10. Training of first-aid workers and emergency personnel,
11. Strategic reserves of food, water and medicine,
12. Enhancement of disaster response operations,
13. Clear demarcation of emergency exits,

14. Establishment of fire extinguishers and disaster alarms.

3.5 Mitigation vs. Preparedness

Is there any difference between mitigation and preparedness? Do their functions, missions
and activities overlap? Yes both are pre-disaster management disciplines and their activities
may overlap. The exact point at which mitigation ends and preparedness commences in the
disaster management cycle is not easily decipherable. However the mission of their actions
distinguishes them. Preparedness seeks to improve the abilities of agencies and individuals to

38
respond to a disaster event. Preparedness assumes the occurrence of an event, whereas
mitigation attempts to prevent the event altogether. Disaster preparedness may include
implementation of mitigation measures.

LESSON
Summary

Disaster preparedness seeks to equip and improve the abilities and capacities of people to
respond to any emergency event. It is planning on how to respond to an actualize hazard so
that losses are minimised. Unlike disaster mitigation that aims at preventing disasters from
occurring, preparedness assumes the actualization of hazards. Some of the key activities of
preparedness are evacuation plans, training of emergency personnel, reservation of food and
other stocks, identification of exit routes and training inter alia.

Review Questions

1. What is Disaster Preparedness?

2. Identify five activities of Disaster Preparedness

3. Is there any difference between Preparedness and Mitigation?

References for further Reading

George D. Haddow, Jane Bullock and Damon Coppola {2011}. Introduction to Emergency

Management. Tokyo: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pp 97-131

Damon Coppola and Erin Maloney (2009). Communicating Emergency Preparedness:

Strategies for Creating a Disaster Resilient Public. London: Taylor and Francis
Group. Pp.1-42

39
 LESSON FOUR

DISASTER RESPONSE AND RECOVERY

LESSON Objectives: At the end of this LESSON, you should be able

to:

a. Define disaster response and disaster recovery

b. Discuss the activities of disaster response and recovery
c. State the principles that should inform disaster response

4.1 Introduction

LESSON four of this module examines the disciplines of disaster response and recovery. The
LESSON opens with the definition and understanding of disaster response. The key activities
of disaster response and recovery are outlined. The principles that inform disaster response
and disaster recovery are also discussed.

4.2 What is Disaster Response?

Disaster response is the sum total of actions taken during or immediately after the occurrence
disaster to alleviate the suffering of the affected persons, modify and spread the losses. It
commences with the warning of an imminent emergency event or with the event itself in the
case of rapid onset disasters. The goal of response is to ensure the provision of basic needs of
victims until more permanent and sustainable solutions are realised. Humanitarian
organizations such as the Red Cross are a visible actor in this phase. A basic requirement for
effective disaster response is efficient disaster preparedness.

Disaster response activities are often undertaken by multiple government organizations,

institutions, local communities, individuals with each having their own roles and
responsibilities although there could be duplication of services by the stakeholders.

4.3 Objectives of Disaster Response

a. Survivability of maximum number of victims

b. Provision of essential, basic and immediate services and needs of affected populations
and communities.
c. To repair damaged infrastructure and regenerate viable economic activities.
40
 d. Security of civilian populations and humanitarian agencies considering the
haphazardness and insecurity characteristic of epicenters of disasters events.

4.4 Disaster Response Activities

4.4.1 Search and Rescue: This is a process of locating disaster victims that may be trapped
or isolated in collapsed buildings and bringing them to safety and medical attention. Rescuers
sometimes use sniffer dogs to locate such victims.

4.4.2 Relief: It is the provision of material aid and emergency medical care such as first aid
services, temporary shelter, clothing, water, transportation of refugees and food. Relief
supplies are usually provided free of charge in the days and weeks after the disaster and could
be extended for longer periods depending on the magnitude of the disaster.

4.4.3 Warning: Warnings about the consequences of perceived disasters and mediums used
in alerting the public could include radio, television, cell phone and the print media.

4.4.4 Evacuation and Migration: It is the re-location of persons to safer areas to ensure their
safety and treatment of those badly injured.

4.4.4.1 Pre-requisites for Effective Evacuation

a. A timely and accurate warning system,
b. Clear identification of escape routes,
c. Policies that obliges the evacuation of everyone in the dangerous areas,
d. A public education program to make the community aware of the plan.

4.4.4.2 Crisis-Induced Migration

Unlike evacuations which are customarily imposed on persons and communities, crisis
induced migration is the voluntary relocation of persons to safer areas due to awareness of an
impending emergency event. Crisis induced movements are not officially organized and
coordinated but are a spontaneous response by the migrants that food and/or security can be
obtained elsewhere.

41
4.4.5 Rapid Disaster Assessment (RDA): RDA aims at providing a clear, concise picture of
the post-disaster situation, to identify relief needs and to develop strategies for recovery and
alleviation of suffering.

4.4.6 Logistics and Supply: The delivery of emergency relief requires logistical facilities,
capacity and organization which look into account procurement, storage, and dispatch of
relief supplies for distribution to disaster victims.

4.4.7 Communication and Information Management: Proper communication (information

flow and management) is important in the face of disasters. Information flow is done through
the radios, telephones, and other forms of the social media. Information management
encompasses the protocol of knowing who communicates what to whom, and how it is to be
disseminated and interpreted and heed to.

4.4.8 Security: In disaster situations, security is typically handled by the police and the
military. In the turmoil of disasters, the protection of human rights and safety of displaced
populations and refugees is of paramount importance requiring international monitoring. This
explains why civilian protection is an essential mandate of UN peace support missions.

4.4.9 The Kenyans for Kenyans Initiative: The Kenyans for Kenyans initiative is an
example of local disaster response activities. In 2012, countries in the Horn of Africa
experienced severe droughts with undesirable consequences. Under the auspices of Safaricom
and various media houses, Kenyans generously assisted the victims of the disaster in cash and
kind. It was a huge success (local solutions to local problems).

4.5 Disaster Recovery

There is no distinct point at which relief and disaster response change into short and long
term disaster recovery. Recovery commences immediately after the occurrence of a disaster
and continues until conditions in disasters environment return to normalcy. The aim of
disaster recovery is to help affected communities return to normalcy and pre-disaster states or
better. Disaster recovery must make a delicate balance between returning the community to
normalcy and establishment of mitigation measures. Disaster recovery is emotionally and
financially expensive and provides opportunity to improve overall safety. Recovery could be
short term and long term.

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4.5.1 Short-term Recovery
The activities of short-term disaster recovery commence a few days after the occurrence of a
disaster and tend to overlap with disaster response. Disaster recovery should be well planned
out with stakeholders knowing their clear roles. Some activities include:
a. Provision of food and medicine,
b. Temporal shelters,
c. Demolition of severely damaged buildings,
d. Temporary Evacuation,
e. Health and safety education,
f. Counselling Programs,
Although called short-term, some of the activities may last for weeks.

4.5.2 Long-term Recovery

Long term recovery includes some of the activities in short term recovery and may continue
for months, or years after the disaster depending on the severity of the damages. The goal is
for the community to return to a state that is even better than before the emergency event.

4.5.3 Activities of Long-term Recovery

4.5.3.1 Post-disaster Reconstruction and Rebuilding is the permanent construction or

replacement of severely damaged physical structures, the full restoration of all services and
local infrastructure, and the revitalization of the economy. The damaged structures may not
necessarily be restored to their previous states or locations. It could also include the
rebuilding of institutions, policies and legislatures of reforms.

4.5.3.2 Rehabilitation seeks to restore a disaster affected community to its former living
conditions, establishing counselling services for the bereaved or to make necessary
adjustments to the changes caused by the disaster.

4.5.3.3 Re-settlement of IDPs and refugees,

4.5.3.4 Disarmament, Demobilization and Re-integration (DDR) of former combatants into

the communities,

4.5.3.4 Resumption of employment and businesses,

43
4.6 Disaster Recovery and Mitigation
Disaster recovery stage is an ideal opportunity to implement new mitigation measures so that
the community is better prepared to deal with future threats. Helping the community take new
mitigation steps is a goal of long term recovery. Reconstruction must now take into account
future disaster risks through the incorporation of appropriate mitigation measures.

4.8 Basic Principles in Disaster Response and Recovery

There are a couple of principles which must inform effective disaster response.

4.8.1 Principle 1: Recognize and integrate the Coping Mechanisms of Disaster Survivors
and Local Agencies

Survivors and local agencies are integral components to disaster response. They might be
aware and informed of the coping mechanisms within their locality. For instance survivors of
famine in Garrisa might be better informed of how they coped with previous famines and
such insights might be dollar million value info for disaster response team.

4.8.2 Principle 2: Be Aware of Local Customs, Traditions and Diets

Disaster responders must be cognisant of local cultures and diets. For instance, it is advisable
not to give culturally unacceptable foodstuffs, spoiled or tainted food or shelter designs that
increase vulnerability in the long run. Response teams should be sensitive to local customs
and not engage in activities which are considered as taboos by the disaster victims.

4.8.3 Principle 3: Be Aware of Commercial Exploitations

One man‟s disaster is another man‟s marketing opportunity. Therefore, manufacturers can
sometimes jeopardize disaster response by selling inappropriate items to the relief agencies so
as to ensure that the effects of the disaster continue.

4.8.4 Principle 4: Avoid Relief Dependency

Disaster relief ought to be provided in a manner that enhances community self-reliance and
sustainability and enables the victims make key decisions about their future welfare. The
victims and communities should be active participants in disaster response if possible. For

44
instance, food for work programs would be a sustainable response than continued hand-outs
of relief food.

4.8.5 Principle 5: Recognize Disasters as Political Events

Disasters are sometimes hijacked by politicians for diversionary tactics and political capital.
Politicians can also misappropriate disaster relief for political gains.

4.8.6 Principle 6: Recognize Pre-Disaster Constraints

Disaster response teams should be cognisant of certain factors that precipitate the escalation
of disasters. Cultural perceptions and stigmas of HIV/AIDS might be the reason for the
rampant spread of virus. Identifying such constraints will help in prioritizing activities when
responding to a disaster and ensure responding to root causes and not symptoms.

4.8.7 Principle 7: Balance Reform and Conservation (Avoid Changing Lifestyle of Disaster
Victims.

Though disasters have always been seen as occasions for initiating change in the social,
political and economic arena, caution should be taken to ensure that the society is not totally
changed. Continuity with the past still remains important. For instance, a traditional Masai
pastoralist community might resist relocating to the environs of Mombasa and to become
modern fishermen and women.

4.8.8 Principle 8: Accountability is Key

Disaster response can be more fruitful if responders are subjected to evaluation, monitoring,
auditing and accountability to benefactors, donors and other stakeholders.

4.8.9 Principle 9: Relocation of Persons should be a Last Resort

History shows that relocation of disaster victims has many associated challenges. Resettling
large populations can be destabilizing and might lead to more disasters. Proper ground work
and analysis should be done before disaster managers settle on relocating victims of disasters.

LESSON
Summary

Disaster response refers to the actions taken when a disaster strikes so as to reduce the
suffering of victims, modify and spread losses and ensure the provision of immediate needs
45
and services of the victims. Recovery commences immediately after the occurrence of a
disaster and continues until conditions return to normalcy. A number of principles guide the
activities of successful and fruitful disaster response and recovery.

Review Questions

1. What is Disaster Response?

2. Discuss some of the activities of Disaster Response
3. What is the difference between crisis-induced migrations and evacuations?

4. List five principles guiding the activities effective Disaster Response and Recovery

References for further Reading

George D. Haddow, Jane Bullock and Damon Coppola {2011}. Introduction to Emergency
Management. Tokyo: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pp.214-250
Linda Polman (2010). The Crisis Caravan: What’s Wrong with Humanitarian Aid? New
York: Metropolitan Books.

46
 LESSON FIVE

COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACH TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT

LESSON Objectives: Upon completion of this LESSON, you should be

able to:

1. Discuss the rationale informing community-based approach to disaster management

2. Examine the pros and cons of involving local communities in emergency management

3. Identify the methods used in creating public awareness of risks and hazards that a
particular community may be susceptible to

5.0 Introduction

This LESSON examines the meaning and context of community-based approach to disaster
management. The advantages and disadvantages of engaging the local inhabitants in the
economy of disaster management and the different methods used in creating public awareness
of certain hazards that a community is susceptible to are also discussed.

5.1 Understanding Community-Based Approach to Disaster Management

There is no country, community or individuals who are completely safe from the
consequences of disasters. A country can successfully mitigate, prepare for, respond to and
recovery from a disaster if her citizens are accurately informed about different types of
disasters they are susceptible to. The local communities must also be aware of how they can
effectively participate in the management of disasters. Public awareness programs at the
community level are an important disaster management activity.

Public awareness in disaster management is a process of educating and empowering local

communities through equipping them with knowledge and information about the various
types of disasters, their potential consequences and appropriate measures to take when
disasters strike. Community based approach to disaster management is the process of
involving local communities in the management of disasters.

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5.2 Rationale for a Community-Based Approach

5.2.1 The Hyogo Declaration

In January 2005, the United Nations General Assembly convened a World Conference on
Disaster Reduction in Hyogo, Japan. The conference was a follow up of the progress made in
international disaster risk reduction since the Yokohama Conference of 1994. The Hyogo
Declaration of 2005 states that „strengthening community level capacities to reduce disaster
risk at the local level is especially needed, considering that appropriate disaster reduction
measures at that level enable the communities and individuals to reduce significantly their
vulnerability to hazards‟.

5.2.2 International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction

The United Nations declared 1990-1999 as the International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction. The UN identified four major objectives of the decade for natural disaster
reduction. Among them was the importance of increasing public awareness of, and public
participation in, activities intended to reduce their vulnerability to natural hazards. The fourth
objective advocated the stimulation of inter-disciplinary and inter-sectoral partnerships
between agencies involved in disaster management (governments and local authorities,
community based and environmental civil organizations).

5.2.3 Knowledge of Local Surroundings

Members of a community are the immediate victims of disasters. They have informed
knowledge about their local surroundings, the disaster –prone areas, demography of their
community, escape routes and history of the disasters their communities are prone to.

5.2.5 Confidence and Self-Reliance

Community participation in disaster management makes the locals more confident in their
capabilities to act in the face of a disaster and thus leading to self-reliant communities.

5.2.6 Local Solutions to Local Problems

President Thabo Mbeki of South Africa is famous for the statement African solutions to
African Problems. A former speaker of the US House of Representatives said all politics is
local and the same could apply to disaster management. Getting the local communities

48
involved in mitigating, responding to and recovering from disasters could bear more lasting
fruits than only involving aliens.

5.2.7 Educating Ignorant Community Members

There are community members who are culpably ignorant about certain disasters especially
those that seldom occur. Getting local residents who speak the vernaculars and who the other
community members can easily connect with may attract other locals to the education and
awareness programs.

5.3 Stakeholders in Community-Based Approach

There are many stakeholders involved in effective community-based approach to disaster
management. Their roles ought to be clearly mapped out in order to avoid duplication of
functions and services. Among the stake holders are:

5.3.1 National Governments

National governments have the primary responsibility to manage disasters within their
territories and ensure local involvement is incorporated in the disaster management structure
of their country. This could be done through certain forms of decentralization such as
devolution as is the case in Kenya.

5.3.2 Non-Governmental Organizations

Many projects carried out by non-governmental organisations relate to involving the local
people in the management of disasters. There are thousands of NGOs responding to disasters
worldwide.

5.3.3 Regional and International Organizations/Donor Agencies

Some organizations assist local communities in initiating public awareness programs. They
provide financial assistance and resource persons to train the local communities.

5.3.4 Community Workers/County Rep/Counsellors

Community workers are reliable and informed arms of local governments. They are quite
versed with their localities and have experience in handling disasters, hazards and emotional
problems in the various areas.
49
Other stakeholders in community based approach to disaster management are community
disaster management agencies and the people at the grass roots themselves.

5.3 Methods used in Creating Community Awareness

5.3.1 Disaster Maps

It is a map of the local area which points out safe routes and locations as a guide to where
people can run to or assemble when a hazard actualizes. However, illiterate persons cannot
easily read and interprets the hazard maps.

5.3.2 Community Theatre

Community theatres offer entertainment and platform for raising public awareness about
hazards and disasters. Theatre groups dramatize disaster management awareness message.
Theatres are useful in developing countries with big numbers of illiterate population with
limited access to newspapers and television. In Kenya, prior to the March 4, 2013 elections,
the Peace Caravan went around the country spreading messages of peace. The Peace
Caravans project, provided entertainment to local communities since they were accompanied
by some artists.

5.3.3 Informal Training and Workshops

Informal training may take place in informal settings such as under a tree or community
fields. Such trainings target community leaders and covers important information for people
in disaster prone communities. The local leaders are expected to educate the community
members on the danger of potential disasters.

5.3.4 Mock Exercises

Local leaders are encouraged to organize occasional mock exercises so as to familiarize their
communities with escape routes, safe areas and assembly places. Practice makes perfect.

5.3.5 Mass Campaigns

Mass campaigns to educate the public could be led by church groups, women associations,
youth and civil society groups. Posters and leaflets could be used in the process.

50
5.4 Advantages of Community-Based Approach

5.4.1 Ownership and Sustainability

Involving the locals in disaster management would likely give them a sense of ownership
and sustainability of the various projects. Through ownership comes sustainability.

5.4.2 Addresses immediate needs of communities

The community members are better aware of their needs than foreign organisations.

5.4.3 User Friendly

Community based approach is user friendly since local languages and symbols could be used
in educating the public. More still, some of the community members will easily relate to
projects after seeing their own community members involved in the process

5.4.4 Provides Knowledge and Skills

The community based approach empowers or equips people with the necessary knowledge
and skills to help themselves in the face of disaster before foreign assistance sets in.

5.5 Disadvantages
5.5.1 Fear
Communities will logically be reluctant to expose their vulnerabilities to outsiders since that
will dis-incentivise potential investors and tourists.

5.5.2 Lack of Resources and Misleading Information

Resource constraints may affect the quality of community public awareness programs. When
public awareness is not carried out properly at the community level, there is the danger
misleading information being disseminated to the rest of the community. It can lead to
chaotic situations and loss of lives at the onset of a disaster.

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5.5.3 Gender Bias
In many traditional societies are patrilineal. The participation of women is largely overlooked
in community projects. Public awareness programs are dominated by men who may overlook
certain aspects that can easily be identified by women or youth.

LESSON
Summary

Involving local communities in the management of disasters could yield fruitful dividends.
Community members should be involved in the planning and implementation phases of
awareness programs as it makes them more receptive to new ideas and appropriate responses
to a disaster. However, involving the local communities in the management of disasters is not
without some disadvantages.

Review Questions
1. What is community-based approach to disaster management?

2. Identify and describe the pros and cons of the Community-Based Action Plan.
3. What are some of the instruments used in educating the public on the dangers of
hazards and disasters?

References for further Reading

Newport, J.K. & Jawahar, G.G.P..(2003). “Community Participation and Public Awareness in
Disaster Mitigation”. Disaster Prevention and Management, 12(1), pp.33-36. Emerald
Group Publishing Limited

52
 LESSON SIX
MEDIA AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

LESSON Objectives: Upon completion of this LESSON, you should be

able to:
1. Identify types of mass media
2. Discuss the role of the media in disaster management
3. Explain why 21st century media play an increasing role in disaster management

6.0 Introduction
In years past, disaster preparedness information were published in brochures, leaflets and
pamphlets or distributed in post offices. With the development and advancement in
information technology, the media is becoming an important player in disaster management.
The CNN EFFECTS or the Aljazeera Phenomenon which is the instantaneous relay of
information from one part of the globe to another is having a magnanimous effect in disaster
management. Disaster management information are now disseminated more rapidly through
all sort of social sites, networks and virtual embassies.

One cannot watch news for ten minutes without seeing pictures and stories generated by
disasters. The rise of the internet (social media) as a source for disaster related information
and news has been meteoric. In the past, people got to know about disasters outbreaks days
after their occurrences. Laptops, smart phones, digital cameras and the internet have
immensely altered the gathering and flow of information undermining the monopoly of the
governments in disbursing certain information. John McDonald and Diamond Louisse
classified the media as Track Nine Diplomacy. The genesis of media diplomacy could be
traced back to the Paris Peace Conference (1919) when President Woodrow Wilson called for
publicity of treaties and „covenants openly arrived at‟.

6.1 The Media and Disaster Management

The media plays an important role in disseminating vital information to the public before,
during and after disasters. The media educate the public about the effects of disasters and
hazards. Respectful relations between the media and disaster management agencies are

53
absolutely important. The role of the media in disaster management is to provide accurate and
timely information to the public in both disaster and non-disaster situations. However,

54
traditionally, the relationship between disaster managers and the media has been strained.
There has been conflict on the need for the disaster manager to respond quickly and the need
of the media to obtain information on the response so that it can report it just as quickly and
instantaneously.

Inaccurate, biased and exaggerated reporting exacerbates the tension between the media and
disaster management agencies and some national governments. Following the toppling of
President Morsi, good number of bloody demonstrations took place in Egypt. The military
backed government accused the foreign media for being sympathetic to the Muslim
Brotherhood and supporters of the deposed President. Albeit the intermitting conflicts,
disaster managers cannot do without the media. After the unfortunate outbreak of fire at Jomo
Kenyatta airport on August 8, 2013, disaster managers and the government of Kenya had to
depend on the media for platform to update the citizens and the international community
about the disaster. Scholars such as Burkholder-Allen and Stephen Rattien have carried out
fruitful research on the role of the media in disaster management.

6.2 Types of Media

6.3 The Electronic Media

6.3.1 Radio: It is the most popular and widespread information tool used in disaster
management due to its affordability and widespread reach. Radios are available in schools,
cars, homes and workplace. The radio takes information to people in even very remote areas.
Satellite radios have the ability to educate people in areas not covered by normal radio
channels.

6.3.2 Television: The visual impact of the television provides tremendous opportunity for
public education on disaster management especially since it combines pictures and sound and
is an ideal source of information to illiterate persons.

6.3.3 The Print Media (Newspapers, Magazines, Books and Journals). Examples of the print
media in Kenya are the Daily Nation, The Standards and Nairobi Law Monthly inter alia.

55
6.3.4 The Social Media: The Face Book and Twitter are examples of the social media.

6.4 Does the Media play a Special Role in Disaster Management?

The media provides tremendous visibility for disaster-related issues and can aid in spreading
information about disaster affected areas, alerting government officials, relief organizations
and the public to specific needs of victims of disasters and facilitating discussions about
disaster preparedness and response and recovery for continuous improvement. The role of the
media in the management of disasters could be positive and negative.

6.5 Positive Role of the Media in Disaster Management

6.5.1 Increased Lobbying and Call for Actions

The media increases lobbying for political commitment and put pressure on leaders to be
more responsive and accountable to the vulnerable communities by broadcasting various
hazards and disasters. By putting pressure on public officials, the media can help effect
positive change since the leaders may be forced to act. In September 2011, the Sinai fire in
Nairobi led to loss of life and property. In August 2013, Citizen Television did a good report
and highlighted that people are still living in the dangerous areas of Mathare slums where the
Sinai Fire occurred. The media house is asking the government to take actions.

6.5.2 Aid Prioritization of Disaster Risk Issues

The media may influence governments to prioritize disaster risk issues at the expense of some
selfish political activities. The media may expose irresponsible acts of governments
relocating persons from vulnerable areas just before a general election with the aim of
securing their votes while little attention is giving to disaster preparedness and mitigations
and relief response in the event of a disaster.

6.5.3 Increase International Aid

Through the instantaneous relay of information and pictures from one part of the globe to
another, the media can trigger donations from the international community. After the
unfortunate earthquake that hit Haiti in January 2010, many nations promptly responded by
sending donations in kind and cash because of the comprehensive coverage of the event by
the international media.

56
6.5.4 Facilitate Creation of Early Warning Systems
The media warns the public on oncoming disaster by providing information on risks and
hazards and highlighting technologies that can aid in preventing emergency events.

6.5.5 Accountability
Dan Gillmor and Sanjana Hattotuwa (2007) wrote, „these technologies create new ways for
citizens to be heard, governments to be held accountable and the state to answer to failures of
governance. Ordinary citizens are increasingly using technology, through devices such as
mobile phones, to support powerful frameworks of transparency and accountability that
citizens can be use to hold decision makers responsible for the action, and indeed, inaction.

6.5.6 Public Awareness

The media is usually the premier institution to define adverse events as disasters. The media
plays a crucial role in informing the public about disasters. It is through the public awareness
promoted by the media that relief agencies identify particular disasters and priority areas

6.6 Negative Effects of Media in Disaster Management

6.6.1 Exaggeration: The media sometimes exaggerates in reporting disaster events and thus
creating unnecessary tension and panic. Some „prophesies of doom‟ by the media do not get
to see the light of the day. For instance, before the March 4, 2013 General Elections in
Kenya, many Western media predicted that the elections would be characterised by violence
of similar magnitude to what the country experienced in 2007/2008. On the contrary the
elections were conducted without marked widespread violence across the country.

6.6.2 Inaccurate Broadcasting

One of the main reasons for the perennial tension between disaster managers and the media
hinges on the accusation of inaccurate broadcasting on the part of the former. For instance,
footage of people looting after a disaster may appear on all news networks, and most viewers
may not realize that all the networks are covering the same looting story. The media may
choose to concentrate on the pockets of violence in a country after elections to buttress the
fact that the elections were marred by violence. On the other hand, some government media

57
stations may even portray footages to convince the general public that the government is in
control of events in a country.

6.6.3 Manipulation of Media by Influential Politicians

Politicians may hijack disaster events for political gains and capital. Politicians may use
disasters as diversionary tactics to distract the citizens from the domestic problems they are
facing. For example, Hurricane Dean significantly affected Jamaica before the 2002 general
elections. The electronic media consistently showed members of a particular political party
issuing relief items to the poor passing across the message that that particular party was more
responsive to the needs of the people. That party went on to win the elections.

6.6.4 Irresponsible Journalism (biased coverage)

The media may decide to selectively capture devastation on a street and ignore others. It may
lead to the deployment of unnecessary and inappropriate resources to moderately affected
areas thereby depriving the more severely affected areas of well needed aid.

6.6.5 Media Converging on High Profile

The media‟s obsession of high profile events and persons may create congestion and
stampede in already affected areas leading to complex humanitarian emergencies. Such
congestions may hinder search and rescue operations, hamper the provision of care needed by
the injured. The media may concentrate on stars and celebrities visiting disaster hit areas than
focussing on the victims who need help.

LESSON
Summary
The media is an instrument and tool in disaster management. The media plays a very positive
and important role in times of disaster but can likewise hinder response and recovery
processes. The relationship between the media and disaster management agencies has
sometimes been tensed.

58
Review Questions
1. Do the media play a role in the management of disasters?
2. Why has the relationship between the media and disaster managers not always cordial
and respectful
3. Identify the different types of media used in facilitating public awareness of hazards
and disasters

References for further Reading

George D. Haddow, Jane Bullock and Damon Coppola {2011}. Introduction to Emergency

Management. Tokyo: Butterworth-Heinemann. 134-163

Damon Coppola and Erin Maloney (2009). Communicating Emergency Preparedness:

Strategies for Creating a Disaster Resilient Public. London: Taylor and Francis Group.
181-198

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 LESSON SEVEN

DISASTERS, DEVELOPMENT AND ANIMALS

LESSON Objectives: Upon completion of this LESSON, you should be

able to:

a. Discuss the symbiotic relationship between disasters and development.

b. Explain the predicament of animals in disaster situations
c. Explain why developing countries are more prone to disasters than developed
countries.

7.0 Introduction

LESSON seven examines the complicated relationship between disasters and development
and explores reasons why poorer regions in the world are more susceptible to disasters than
the developed ones. The LESSON also discusses the place and predicament of animals in
the face of disasters.

7.1 Disasters and Development

Disasters and developments have a symbiotic and destructive relationship. Thus, links
between disaster and development must be taken into account for sustainable socio-economic
development. Disasters are created out of natural hazards, rather than existing as an
immutable feature of human interaction with nature (Blaikie et.al, 1994). The capacity of
disaster-affected states especially in Africa to address social concerns which exacerbate
disasters such as fragile environment, poverty and inadequate social and institutional
structures is through sustainable development programs.

7.2 Disasters Destroy Years of Development

Disasters destroy years of developmental projects. The human, emotional, socio, economic
and environmental consequences of disasters cannot be overemphasized. Development
initiatives can be seriously disrupted by disasters due to loss of human capital and resources,
logistical interruptions and the like.

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7.3 Disasters Create Development Opportunities

Disasters could be whistle blowers by highlighting vulnerable areas thus calling for better
measures to be taken. Disasters can spur a society towards radical and beneficial change.
Secondly after the onset of a disaster, the political environment may favour a much higher
rate of economic and social change than the status quo before the disaster in order to avoid
future disasters in areas such as land reforms, housing improvements, new job training among
others. Small Island economies which previously depended on one crop may diversify after
the disaster.

Some bi-products of disasters are used for developmental purposes. For instance, volcanic
eruptions provide resources for development by supplying energy, building materials and
touristic attractions. The areas around Mount Etna, Fujiyama and Mount Cameroon are
renowned touristic sites because of volcanic activities. After the eruption in the Icelandic
island of Heimaey in 1973, the volcanic ash was used as foundation material to extend the
airport runway and geothermal heat was extracted from the volcanic core (Keith Smith:
2004:21). Rebuilding after a disaster can provide numerous opportunities to initiate
development programs which decrease the susceptibility levels of local people and mitigate
the potential impact of natural hazards.

7.4 Development Schemes Increases Susceptibility to Disasters

Urban development often leads to an influx of low-income groups such as large-scale

settlements on marginal land or in high densities with poor quality housing. High human
concentration is one of the factors that can increase the magnitude of disaster. For instance,
Nairobi has many densely populated slums because of its metropolitan development when
compared with other cities in Kenya. Development initiatives can makes disasters more
likely, worsen their effects and have the potential to constitute a direct causal element in their
occurrence. Increased employment due to development programs can lead to rapid
urbanization which increase, or generate new vulnerabilities for migrants.

7.5 Development Initiatives reduce Vulnerability and Increase Resilience

The use of modern technologies, structural measures such as building dams, windbreaks, and
wooden beams, pendulum, retrofitting can decrease an area susceptibility to disasters and
61
their negative consequences. The world‟s largest earthquake-proof building is Istanbul‟s
Sabiha Gökçen International Airport. The 2 million square-foot structure is capable of not
only withstanding a magnitude 8.0 earthquake – it‟s also designed to remain completely
operational afterwards. This is all due to new seismic building technology and advanced
computer simulations that are able to predict how a building will react in order to keep it.
Frederick Cuny once said „disasters are not unforeseen events, and the technology now exists
to identify the hazards that threatened a community and to estimate the areas and the
settlements that will be affected‟.

7.6 Disaster Management in Developing Countries

According to Phil O‟keefe‟s research, most disasters occur in poor countries, few in middle-
income nations, and many disasters in developed nations due to „property damage‟ in wealthy
countries. According to Gunnar Hagman, most disaster victims are found in poor countries,
the highest number of disasters occurs in middle-income countries and most property damage
is caused in rich nations. Middle-income nations experience most of the disasters because of
aggressive economic development policy which includes deforestation and other forms of
environmental degradation. Although developed countries equally experience disasters their
people are not as vulnerable to disasters as those in the developing countries. Disasters seem
to be most frequent in very poor and very rich areas because disasters are often defined by
property damage and loss of life: the poor countries suffer the most from human casualties
and the rich incur the highest property damage.

Developing nations suffer most from disasters or nature‟s fury and anger. Countries ranked
low on development indices have relegated disaster management to the bottom of their
budgetary priority. Governments in developing countries have more pressing issues like
feeding their populations, importing ARVs and educating the masses rather than building
expensive structures to mitigate the effects of things which may not even occur. Some of the
developing countries have delegated disaster management to the military.

Many developing nations don‟t have established disaster management agencies or authorities.
For instance, it was only after the country suffered great losses due to severe floods in 2013
that deputy president William Ruto talked of the creation of an institutionalised disaster
management body for Kenya. International response is fast becoming rapid because of the
CNN Effect or instantaneous relay of information. Three types of disasters which easily spur
61
international humanitarian response: natural disasters, technological disasters and complex
humanitarian emergencies (CHE).

Three major processes which dominate disaster processes in the developing world are: human
vulnerability resulting from poverty and inequality, environmental degradation owing to poor
land use and rapid population growth especially among the poor.

Poor societies/nations which suffer a fragile physical environment, weak economies and
inadequate social and institutional structures are disproportionately likely to make a disaster
out of a natural hazard.

7.7 Animals and Disaster Management

Animals are the often-forgotten victims of disasters. Animals ought to be entitled to physical
safety just like human beings. Governments focus in the management of disasters is largely
directed towards the minimisation of the impacts on humans. Animals are vulnerable to
disasters and hazards because they are often penned or caged and can‟t escape during
disasters. Animals play a role in the management of disasters but could also be hazards.

7.8 Animals as Hazards

7.8.1 Animals kept in captivity could be hazards when they find themselves in unfamiliar
conditions. They can kill people like the Lions in Maasai land in Kenya. They could also
constitute a disaster once there is an outbreak of some diseases that lead to their death
especially life stock. The animals can even cause vehicle accidents.

7.8.2 Zoonosis are diseases of animals transmissible to human beings by animals. Zoonotic
diseases could be increased during disasters because the normal protective measures are
absent. Rabies that is spread by dog bites is a common disease in Africa.

7.8.3 Animal carcasses are a very common source of water contamination after disasters and
a viable plan to minimise animal deaths during a disaster will greatly reduce human
infections during the recovery period.

7.8.4 A forest fire on an uninhabited mountain-aside may not destroy houses and property;
but may drive out large numbers of poisonous snakes into nearby human inhabited areas.

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7.8.5 Ownership of animals can increase the vulnerability of their human owners to
disasters. Livestock owners in many places in Africa will not respect evacuation orders to
abandon their goats and cows and board rescue boats.

7.9 Animals in Disaster Management

Some animals help during disasters in many ways. In New Zealand a woman cling to a cow
during a disaster. Dogs and cats can even alert their owners to imminent earthquakes
especially when they are properly trained. In places where persons are trapped under
collapsed buildings, trained dogs can differentiate persons who are still alive and those that
are already dead in collapsed buildings. Thus, many lives could be saved in that regard.

7.10 Welfare of Animals in Disaster Situations

Human safety is paramount during disaster and emergency situations, but sometimes
decisions can be taken which are not for the welfare of animals due to lack of knowledge or
training. For example, it is cruel to casually abandon animals in their pens during disasters as
human beings run for their safety during disaster events.

LESSON
Summary

There is a symbiotic relationship between disasters and development. Disasters destroy

developmental initiatives and simultaneously provide ideals situations for developments.
Developing peoples are more prone to disasters because of factors such as poverty, densely
populated areas and financial constraints. Animals can help save lives during disasters or are
hazards.

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Review Questions

1. ‘The relationship between disasters and development is simultaneously symbiotic and

destructive’. Discuss

2. Why do developing regions of the world suffer most from the impacts of disasters?

3. ‘Animals are hazards’. Discuss

References for further Reading

Alpaslan Ozerdem and Tim Jacoby (2006). Disaster Management and Civil Society:

Earthquake Relief in Japan, Turkey and India. New York: Tauris. P.94-105

Mark Pelling and Ben Wisner (eds) (2009). Disaster Risk Reduction: Cases from Urban

Africa. London: Earthscan.

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 DISASTER MANAGEMENT

End of Semester Examination 1

INSTUCTIONS

QUESTION ONE IS COMPULSORY

ANSWER QUESTION ONE AND TWO OTHER QUESTIONS

QUESTION 1 (6 marks each)

Distinguish between the following concepts as used in Disaster Management:

A) Hazard vs. Hazard Portfolio

B) Risk vs. Resilience
C) Disasters vs. Vulnerability
D) Human-conceived Disaster vs. Human-made Disasters
E) Natural Disasters vs. Complex Humanitarian Emergencies
F) Human Induced Migration vs. Evacuations

QUESTION 2

A. Identify and describe impacts of disasters (10marks)

B. Give a brief history of disaster management as a practise and academic discipline
(10marks)

QUESTION 3

A. What is Disaster/Emergency Management? (4marks)

B. Identify and describe the four Disciplines of Disaster Management (8marks)
C. Discuss three Disaster Response activities carried out by the people of Kenya and the
international community during the 2012 droughts and famine in Kenya (8Marks)

QUESTION 4

A. What is Community-Based Approach to Disaster Management? (3marks)

B. Why should the people of Budalangi be involved in the management of Disasters in
Western Kenya? (8Marks)

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 C. Discuss some instruments used in facilitating disaster management awareness
(9marks)

QUESTION 5

A) What role does the media play in the management of Disasters in Kenya (10marks)
B) Identify and discuss the various phases of a Disaster (10marks)

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 DISASTER MANAGEMENT

End of Semester Examination 2

INSTUCTIONS

QUESTION ONE IS COMPULSORY

ANSWER QUESTION ONE AND TWO OTHER QUESTIONS

QUESTION 1 (6 marks each)

Write short notes on the following:

A. History of Disaster Management

B. Animals as Hazards
C. Human-Induced migration
D. Counselling
E. Disaster Management

QUESTION 2

A. Why are Developing countries more susceptible to disasters than the Developed ones?
(10marks)
B. With the aid of examples, describe the four phases of disaster management (10marks)

QUESTION 3

C) What role does the media play in the management of Disasters in Kenya (10marks)
D) Examine six factors that can increase or lessen the level of trauma a person
experiences after a disaster (10marks).

QUESTION 4

A. Identify and describe the phases of a disaster (10marks)

B. What must the government of Kenya and the Kenya Airport Authority do to prevent
future outbreaks of fire in Jomo Kenyatta Airport? (10marks)

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QUESTION 5

A. Why should the people of Eldoret be involved in the management of Disasters in

Western Kenya? (4Marks)
B. „Disasters simultaneously destroy years of development and provide opportunities
for developmental initiatives‟ Discuss (6marks)
C. „Development increases the susceptibility of a community to disasters‟ Discuss
(5marks)
D. „Development increases the resilience of a community in the face of a disaster.
Discuss (5marks)

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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Keith Smith (2004). Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster. Ne
York: Routledge.
Mary Anderson (1999). Do No Harm: How Aid Can Support Peace-Or War. London: Lynne
Rienner.

Alexander, D. (1993). Natural Disasters. London: UCL Press.

John Butler (1976). Natural Disasters. Sydney: Heineman Educational Australia

Burton L et.al (1993). The Environmental Hazard. New York: The Guilford Press.

Cahill, K.M (2003). Emergency Relief Operations. New York: Fordham University Press

Damon P. Coppola and Erin K. Maloney, {2009}. Communicating Emergency Preparedness:

Strategies for Creating a Disaster Resilient Public. London: Auerbach Publications.

George D. Haddow, Jane Bullock & Damon Coppola {2011}. Introduction to Emergency

Management. Tokyo: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Keith Smith {1991}. Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster.

Toronto: Routledge.

Anders Wijkman and Lloyd Timberlake (1988). Natural Disasters: Acts of God or Acts of

Man? Philadelphia: New Society Publishers.

Hal Sheets & Roger Morris, (1974). Disaster In The Desert: Failures of International Relief

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Pierre Boissier (1963). History of the International Committee of the Red Cross: from

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Pam Browm (1988). Henry Dunant: The founder of the Red Cross-his compassion has saved
millions. Watfford: Exley Publications Ltd.

Alpaslan Ozerdem and Tim Jacoby (2006). Disaster Management and Civil Society:

Earthquake Relief in Japan, Turkey and India. New York: Tauris

69
Lee Davis (1998). Environmental Disasters: A Chronicle of Individual, Industrial, and

Governmental Carelessness. New York: VB Hermitage

Louis Comfort (ed). (1988). Managing Disaster: Strategies and Policy Perspectives. London:

Duke University Press.

West, R. (2005). Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and Acute Stress Disorder. Content

posted at www.witnessjustice.org.

National Center for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (2006). Effects of Traumatic Stress
in Disaster Situations. A National Center for PTSD Fact Sheet. Content posted at
http://www.ncptsd.va.gov/facts/disasters/fs_effects_disaster.html.

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