Chapter 4 – Forest Society and Colonialism

Why Deforestation?
Deforestation means the disappearance of forests and is not a recent problem. It began many
centuries ago, but under colonial rule, it became more systematic and extensive.
Land to be Improved
Over the centuries, as the population grew and the demand for food went up, peasants started
clearing forests and breaking new land. British encouraged the production of commercial crops like
jute, sugar, wheat and cotton. In the 19th century, the demand for these crops increased. The
colonial state thought that forests were unproductive in the early 19th century. So between 1880 and
1920, cultivated areas and the expansion of cultivation showed a sign of progress.
Sleepers on the Tracks
In England, by the early nineteenth century, oak forests were disappearing. Search parties were sent
to India to explore the forest resources. Railways spread from the 1850s. Railways were essential for
colonial trade and for the movement of imperial troops. From the 1860s, the railway network
expanded rapidly. Trees started falling as the railway tracks spread through India. The government
gave out contracts to individuals to supply the required quantities. Forests around the railway tracks
started disappearing.
Plantations
Large areas of natural forests were cleared to make way for tea, coffee and rubber plantations to
meet Europe’s growing need for these commodities. The forests were taken over by the colonial
government, which gave vast areas to European planters at cheap rates to plant tea or coffee.
The Rise of Commercial Forestry
British were worried that the reckless use of trees by traders and the use of forests by local people
would destroy forests. Dietrich Brandis, a German expert, became the first Inspector General of
Forests in India. He realised that a proper system had to be introduced to manage the forests, and
people needed to be trained in the science of conservation. But it needed legal sanction. In 1864,
Indian Forest Service was set up in Dehradun in 1906. In scientific forestry, natural forests, which
had lots of different types of trees, were cut down. In 1906, the Forest Act was enacted, which was
amended twice, once in 1878 and then in 1927. The Act of 1878 divided forests into three categories:
reserved, protected and village forests. The best forests were called ‘reserved forests’.
How Were the Lives of People Affected?
Villagers wanted forests with species of different types to satisfy their needs for fuel, fodder and
leaves. On the other hand, the forest department wanted trees like teak and sal suitable for building
ships or railways. Roots, leaves, fruits and tubers were used for many things. In the forest, almost
everything was available such as herbs, yokes, ploughs, bamboo, etc. From the fruit of the mahua
tree, oil was extracted for the purpose of cooking and lighting lamps. The Forest Act meant severe
hardship for villagers across the country. People were forced to steal wood from the forests. Forest
guards used to take bribes if they got caught. Police constables and forest guards harass people by
demanding free food from them.
How Did Forest Rules Affect Cultivation?
The practice of shifting cultivation or swidden cultivation was introduced during European colonialism
or swidden agriculture. It is a traditional agricultural practice in many parts of Asia, Africa and South
America. In shifting cultivation, parts of the forest are cut and burnt in rotation. After the first monsoon
rains, seeds are sown in the ashes, and the crop is harvested by October-November. For a couple of
years, such plots are cultivated and then left for 12 to 18 years. On these plots, a mixture of crops is
grown. According to European foresters, this practice is harmful to the forests. This type of cultivation
also made it difficult for the government to calculate taxes. So, the government decided to ban
shifting cultivation.
Who Could Hunt?
People who lived near forests survived by hunting deer, partridges and a variety of small animals.
The practice was prohibited by the forest laws, and those who were caught hunting were punished
for poaching. In India, hunting of tigers and other animals is a part of the culture of the court and
nobility for centuries. The scale of hunting increased under colonial rule to such an extent that
various species became almost extinct. Rewards were given for killing wild animals. Some areas of
the forest were reserved for hunting.
New Trades, New Employment and New Services
New opportunities opened up in trade. In India, forest trade was not new. It existed from the medieval
period when Adivasi communities used to trade elephants and other goods like hides, horns, silk
cocoons, ivory, bamboo, spices, fibres, grasses, gums and resins through nomadic communities like
the Banjaras. But, trade was completely regulated by the government, which gave many large
European trading firms the sole right to trade in the forest products of particular areas. New
opportunities for work did not improve the well-being of the people.
Rebellion in the Forest
Forest communities rebelled against the changes that were being imposed on them. Some of the
leaders of these movements are the Siddhu and Kanu in the Santhal Parganas, Birsa Munda of
Chhotanagpur or Alluri Sitarama Raju of Andhra Pradesh.
The People of Bastar
Bastar is located in the southernmost part of Chhattisgarh and borders Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and
Maharashtra. The Bastar central part is on a plateau, and to the north is the Chhattisgarh Plain and
to its south is the Godavari Plain. Different communities live in Bastar, such as Maria and Muria
Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras and Halbas. The people of Bastar believed that each village was given its
land by the Earth, and in return, they looked after the Earth by making some offerings at each
agricultural festival. Local villagers look after all the natural resources within their boundaries, and
people pay a small fee called devsari, dand or man in exchange if they want to take some wood from
the forests of another village.
The Fears of the People
In 1905, the colonial government proposed to reserve two-thirds of the forest and stop shifting
cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce. Some people used to stay in forests by working
for free for the forest department, and these are called forest villagers. Villagers, in the long run,
suffered from increased land rents and frequent demands for labour and goods. People started
discussing these issues in their village councils, bazaars, and festivals. Dhurwas of the Kanger forest
took the initiative where reservation first took place. Bazaars were looted, the houses of officials and
traders, schools and police stations were burnt and robbed, and grain was redistributed. British
troops were sent to suppress the rebellion. After Independence, the same practice of keeping people
out of the forests and reserving them for industrial use continued.
Forest Transformations in Java
Java is famous as a rice-producing island in Indonesia. But, there was a time when it was covered
mostly with forests. In Java, the Dutch started forest management. Villages existed in the fertile
plains, and there were also many communities living in the mountains and practising shifting
cultivation.
The Woodcutters of Java
The Kalangs of Java were skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators. They are experts in
harvesting teak and for the kings to build their palaces. When the Dutch began to gain control over
the forests in the eighteenth century, they tried to make the Kalangs work under them. In 1770, the
Kalangs resisted by attacking a Dutch fort at Joana, but the uprising was suppressed.
Dutch Scientific Forestry
In the nineteenth century, the Dutch enacted forest laws in Java, restricting villagers’ access to
forests. Wood could only be cut for making riverboats or constructing houses. Villagers were
punished for grazing cattle, transporting wood without a permit, or travelling on forest roads with
horse carts or cattle. Firstly, the Dutch imposed rents on land being cultivated in the forest and then
exempted some villages from these rents if they worked collectively to provide free labour and
buffaloes for cutting and transporting timber. This was known as the blandongdiensten system.
Samin’s Challenge
Surontiko Samin of Randublatung village, a teak forest village, questioned the state ownership of the
forest and argued that the state had not created the wind, water, earth and wood, so it could not own
it. Soon a widespread movement developed. Some of the Saminists protested by lying down on their
land when the Dutch came to survey it, while others refused to pay taxes or fines or perform labour.
War and Deforestation
The First World War and the Second World War had a major impact on forests. In Java, the Dutch
followed ‘a scorched Earth policy’, destroying sawmills and burning huge piles of giant teak logs.
After the war, it was difficult for the Indonesian forest service to get this land back.
New Developments in Forestry
Conservation of forests has become a more important goal. In many places, across India, from
Mizoram to Kerala, dense forests have survived only because villages protected them in sacred
groves known as sarnas, devarakudu, kan, rai, etc.
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Chapter 5 – Pastoralists in the Modern World

Pastoral Nomads and their Movements
In the Mountains
In the nineteenth century, Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir migrated to the mountains in
search of pastures for their animals. During the winter, they moved to the low hills of the Siwalik
range. By the end of April, they began their northern march for their summer grazing grounds. This
journey is known as a kafila. Again, they started their march by the end of September, this time back
to their winter base. The Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh also had a similar cycle of seasonal
movement.
The Gujjar cattle herds from the further east came down to the dry forests of the Bhabar in the winter
and went up to the high meadows – the Bugyals – in summer. This pattern of cyclical movement
between summer and winter pastures was typical of many pastoral communities of the Himalayas,
including the Bhotiyas, Sherpas and Kinnauris.
 On the Plateaus, Plains and Deserts
Pastoralists were also found in the plateaus, plains and deserts of India. In Maharashtra, Dhangars
were an important pastoral community that were mostly shepherds, blanket weavers, and buffalo
herders. During the monsoon, they used to stay in the central plateau of Maharashtra. By October,
the Dhangars harvest their bajra and move to the west. After they reached Konkan, they were
welcomed by Konkani peasants. After the Kharif harvest was cut, the fields had to be fertilised and
made ready for the rabi harvest.
In the state of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, the dry central plateau was covered with stone and
grass, inhabited by cattle, goats, and sheepherders called Gollas herded cattle. The Kurumas and
Kurubas reared sheep and goats and sold woven blankets. During the dry season, they moved to the
coastal tracts and left when the rains came. Banjaras were yet another well-known group of graziers
found in the villages of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
Raikas lived in the deserts of Rajasthan. During the monsoons, the Raikas of Barmer, Jaisalmer,
Jodhpur and Bikaner stayed in their villages, where pasture was available. By October, they moved
out in search of other pastures and water and returned again during the next monsoon.
Pastoral groups’ life was sustained by a host of factors. They had to judge how long the herds could
stay in one area and where they could find water and pasture. They needed to calculate the timing of
their movements and ensure that they could move through different territories. They had to set up a
relationship with farmers on the way so that the herds could graze in harvested fields and manure the
soil.
Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life
Pastoralists’ life changed completely under colonial rule. Their movements were regulated, grazing
grounds shrank, and the revenue they had to pay increased. Even their agricultural stock declined,
and their trades and crafts were adversely affected. It happened due to the following reasons:
1. Land revenue was one of the main sources of finance for the colonial state. So, the colonial government wanted to
transform all grazing lands into cultivated farms through which they could expand cultivation and increase their
revenue collection. All uncultivated land was seen as ‘wasteland’. From the mid-nineteenth century, Waste Land
Rules were enacted in various parts of the country. Under these rules, uncultivated lands were taken over and
given to select individuals.
2. By the mid-nineteenth century, various Forest Acts were being enacted in different provinces. According to these
Acts, forests which produced commercially valuable timber like deodar or sal were declared ‘Reserved’, and other
forests were classified as ‘Protected’. These Forest Acts changed the lives of pastoralists as they were prevented
from entering many forests.
3. British officials were suspicious of nomadic people. The colonial government wanted to rule over a settled
population. In 1871, the colonial government in India passed the Criminal Tribes Act. By this Act, many
communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as Criminal Tribes. They were stated to be
criminals by nature and birth.
4. Taxation was imposed on land, canal water, salt, trade goods, and even on animals. In most pastoral tracts of India,
a grazing tax was introduced in the mid-nineteenth century. In the decades between the 1850s and 1880s, the right
to collect the tax was auctioned out to contractors. By the 1880s, the government began collecting taxes directly
from the pastoralists.
How Did These Changes Affect the Lives of Pastoralists?
Due to these measures, there was a shortage of pastures. When grazing lands were taken over and
turned into cultivated fields, the available area of pastureland declined. As pasturelands disappeared
under the plough, the existing animal stock had to feed on whatever grazing land remained. When
restrictions were imposed on pastoral movements, grazing lands came to be continuously used and
the quality of pastures declined. This, in turn, created a further shortage of forage for animals and the
deterioration of animal stock.
How Did the Pastoralists Cope with These Changes?
Pastoralists reacted to these changes in various ways. They reduced the number of cattle and some
discovered new pastures. After 1947, the new political boundaries between India and Pakistan
stopped the camel and sheep herding Raikas to graze their camels on the banks of the Indus. Over
the years, some richer pastoralists bought land and settled down, giving up their nomadic life. Some
became peasants by cultivating land, others indulged in trading. On the other hand, poor pastoralists
borrowed money from moneylenders to survive. They still continued to survive and in many regions,
their numbers have expanded. In many other parts of the world, new laws and settlement patterns
forced pastoral communities to alter their lives.
Pastoralism in Africa
In Africa, even today, over 22 million Africans depend on some form of pastoral activity for their
livelihood. Like pastoralists in India, the lives of African pastoralists have changed dramatically over
the colonial and post-colonial periods.
Where Have the Grazing Lands Gone?
Before colonial times, Maasailand stretched over a vast area from north Kenya to the steppes of
northern Tanzania. In 1885, it was cut into half with an international boundary between British Kenya
and German Tanganyika. After the cut, the best grazing lands were gradually taken over for white
settlement and the Maasai were pushed into a small area in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania.
From the late nineteenth century, the British colonial government in East Africa encouraged local
peasant communities to expand cultivation. In pre-colonial times, the Maasai pastoralists had
dominated their agricultural neighbours both economically and politically. The loss of the finest
grazing lands and water resources created pressure on the small area of land that the Maasai were
confined within.
The Borders are Closed
In the nineteenth century, African pastoralists could move over vast areas in search of pastures. But,
from the late nineteenth century, the colonial government began imposing various restrictions on
their mobility. White settlers and European colonists saw pastoralists as dangerous and savage. The
new territorial boundaries and restrictions imposed on them suddenly changed the lives of
pastoralists, which adversely affected both their pastoral and trading activities.
When Pastures Dry
Pastoralists’ lives were affected by drought everywhere. That is why, traditionally, pastoralists move
from place to place to survive bad times and avoid crises. But from the colonial period, the Maasai
were bound down to a fixed area, confined within a reserve, and prohibited from moving in search of
pastures. As the area of grazing lands shrank, the adverse effect of the droughts increased in
intensity.
Not All Were Equally Affected
In Maasailand, not all pastoralists were equally affected by the changes in the colonial period. In pre-
colonial times Maasai society was divided into two social categories – elders and warriors. The
elders formed the ruling group and met in periodic councils to decide on the affairs of the community
and settle disputes. The warriors consisted of younger people, mainly responsible for the protection
of the tribe and defended the community and organised cattle raids.
The British introduced a series of measures that had important implications for administering the
affairs of the Maasai. They appointed chiefs of different sub-groups of Maasai, who were made
responsible for the affairs of the tribe. Restrictions were also imposed on raiding and warfare. These
chiefs managed to survive the devastations of war and drought.
But the life history of the poor pastoralists was different. In times of war and famine, they lost nearly
everything. They had to go looking for work in the towns. Some used to work as charcoal burners,
and some did odd jobs to earn their living.
The social changes in Maasai society occurred at two levels. First, the traditional difference based on
age between the elders and warriors was disturbed, though it did not break down entirely. Second, a
new distinction between the wealthy and poor pastoralists developed.
Conclusion
Pastoral communities in different parts of the world are affected in different ways by changes in the
modern world. Their pattern of movement was affected by new laws and new borders. Pastoralists
find it difficult to move in search of pastures and grazing becomes difficult. During the time of
drought, cattle die in large numbers. Yet, pastoralists do adapt to new times. They change the paths
of their annual movement, reduce their cattle numbers, press for rights to enter new areas, exert
political pressure on the government for relief, subsidy and other forms of support and demand a
right in the management of forests and water resources