Dravidian Religion

The people of ancient Kerala followed Dravidian practices which were not
based on any particular religious philosophy. Their way of life was an
incongruous mixture of primitive rites and practices. The people worshipped
totem gods and innumerable spirits inhabiting rivers, trees, hills, etc. They
had also many local deities guarding the borders of their villages and demons
that caused diseases. The Dravidians worshipped these Gods and Goddesses
by the offering of food to the accompaniment of music and dancing. It has already been stated
that in the Sangam age both the Chera kings and their
subjects offered elaborate sacrifices to the War Goddess Kottavai (Dravidian
Durga) in order to propitiate her and win favours. Kings like Palyanai Sel Kelu Kuttuvan are said
to have offered meat and toddy to propitiate this Goddess. The early Dravidians also believed in
ancestor-worship as is evidenced by their reverence for departed heroes for whom they erected
memorial stones and offered worship. Tree worship was also common among them. The
banyan tree was looked upon as the abode of the Gods and it was worshipped with great
devotion. There is no evidence of Naga worship in Kerala in the Sangam age. Till the 7th century
A.D. there is no evidence of Ganapati worship either.

While the people were thus following Dravidian practices of worship, the
religions from the north, viz., Jainism, Buddhism and Brahmanism entered
Kerala in the centuries prior to the beginning of the Christian era. These
religions gradually got recruits from among the people, but we have the evidence of the Sangam
works that the vast majority of the population still continued to observe Dravidian practices in
the early centuries of the Christian era. The people were, however, so catholic in their outlook
that they had no objection to worshipping in Jain or Buddhist shrines and performing Vedic
sacrifices at the same time. In course of time all these three religions made steady progress
within the framework of a free and open society and left their indelible impress on Kerala culture.

Jainism

The Jain religion might have come to Kerala in the 3rd century B.C. The Jains believe that it was
Chandragupta Maurya and Bhadrabahu who introduced the Jain religion in South India during
their sojourn there. Though Chandragupta Maurya came only up to Sravanabelgola, his followers
visited different parts of South India. Their main object was not to obtain converts but to find a
haven of peace where they could meditate in tranquility and quiet. Jainism must have got itself
introduced also in Kerala under these circumstances. It had considerable hold on the people in
the
early centuries of the Christian era and had its own royal patrons as well.

Ilango Adikal, the author of the Tamil Epic, Silappadikaram, was a Jain prince who lived at Trikana
Matilakam (the Kunavayikottam of Tamil literature) and in those days Matilakam was a famous
centre of Jain religion and learning.
There were several Jain shrines and temples in ancient Kerala and a few of
them continue to exist even today as Hindu shrines after undergoing a process of
transformation. In Matilakam was a famous Jain temple to which several other temples in
the vicinity were subordinate but it later became a Hindu shrine. According to the Malayalam
work Kokasandesam Brahmins never used to enter the temple of Matilakam even as late as
1400 AD., the reason for which was perhaps that it was once a Jain temple. According to some
scholars the Kudalmanikkam temple at Irinjalakuda, dedicated to Bharata, the brother of Sri
Rama, was once a Jain shrine and it was converted into a Hindu temple, during the period of the
decline of Jainism. It is argued that the deity originally installed in the Kudalmanikkam temple
is a Jain Digambara, in all probability Bharateswara, the same Saint whose statue exists at
Sravanabelgola in Mysore.
In the days of the decline of Jainism the genius of the people of Kerala for synthesis might have
made them convert the Jain shrine dedicated to Bharateswara into a Hindu shrine and dedicate
it to Bharata, the brother of Sri Rama, so as not to offend the sentiments of the orthodox Jains
and at the same time please the Hindus.

Moreover, Kallil near Perumbavur, has an old Jain shrine even today in a natural rock-cut cave
and the place must have been a centre of Jainism in the past. In the shrine are set up images
of Parswanatha, Mahavira Tirthankara and Padmavathi Devi (Pattini). The temple is today
worshipped by Hindus as a Bhagavathi temple and the Pujas are conducted by Namboothiri
Brahmins. But Jains do visit the shrine even today assuming that they are worshipping Jain Gods
and not Hindu ones. Ganapati Vattam or Sultan’s Battery, Manantoddy and other places in the
Wynad area were also important centres of Jainism in ancient Kerala. In the Edakkal cave near
Sultan’s Battery may be seen Jain inscriptions of the Kadambas and Hoysalas. The Bhagavathi
temple located on the top of the Edakkal hill might have been a Jain centre in the past. An
old Jain temple in complete ruins, with images in granite of Mahavira and Parswanatha, was
discovered in Kavassery Amsam, Alathur
taluk in 1959. At Bangra Manjeswar in Kasaragod taluk are two old Jain bastis even now
catering to the spiritual needs of a few Jain families of the locality.
Raghava Varier located a number of Jain centers in Palakkad district. Material remains of
Jainism were found in the places like Jainmedu, located near the Palakkad town,Iswarankotta in
Kongadu and Paruvassery in the Palakkad- Trissur road. There was a well preserved Jain temple
at Jainamedu. All these Jain centers are closely linked with the major trade- cultural routes in
South India.

Vikramaditya Varaguna (885-925), the Ay king, made several gifts to this temple. By the 14th
century this Jain temple became transformed into a Bhagavati temple. The Nagaraja temple at
Nagercoil was till the 16th century a Jain temple. Bhutalavira Udaya Marthanda (1516-1535), the
Venad
King, donated lands to this temple early in the 16th century. By 1589 it had become the
Nagaraja temple. Perhaps, Parswanatha himself changed into Ananta.
The existence of these Jain relics in Kerala furnishes convincing proof of the hold that Jainism
had on the people in the ancient past.

The decline of Jainism in Kerala started in the 8th century A.D. when the Saivite and Vishnavite
movements made their impact, but it seems to have lingered till the 16th
century A.D., and then almost disappeared. Jainism has not left much of a lasting impress on
Kerala culture. It is said to have influenced the architecture of the temples and mosques of
Malabar. Logan has drawn pointed attention to the fact that Hindu temples and even Muslim
mosques of Malabar have been built in the style peculiar to the Jains. There is a view that Naga
or Snake worship which is popular in Kerala is the result of the impact of Jainism.

Bhagavati as a Hindu deity is also alleged to have been assimilated from the Jain pantheon.
There are some old Jain families in the Wynad and Kasaragod
areas of north Kerala even today and a few families of Gujarathi businessmen
professing the Jain faith live in such commercial centres as Alleppey and
Mattancherri.

Buddhism

Like Jainism, Buddhism also held sway in Kerala in the ancient period.
It may be assumed that Buddhism came to Kerala during the reign of Asoka in the 3rd century
B.C. itself. The Tamil works of the Sangam age contain several references to the efforts of
Buddhist missionaries to spread the message of the Buddha. The Manimekhalai is pre-eminently
a Buddhist work and it contains a detailed discussion of the tenets of Buddhism.

There was a Buddhist Chaitya at Vanchi.

Many prominent Hindu temples of the present day like the Kurumba Bhagavathi temple,
Cranganore, are believed to have been at one time Buddhist shrines. In the Durga temple at
Paruvasseri, 21 miles east of Trichur, has been discovered an image of the Buddha sitting in
meditation.Five Buddha images had been discovered from certain villages of Karumadi,
Bharanikavu,.Mavelikkara, Pallikkal and
Marudurkulangara.On the basis of architectural features, it is assumed that these belonged to
8th-9th centuries. All these located in the Alappuzha- Kottayam region which was considered as
a strong pocket of Buddhism in Kerala The large
number of Buddha images found in the Kunnathur and Karunagappally taluks of Quilon district
and Mavelikara and Ambalapuzha taluks of Alleppey
district clearly indicate the prevalence of the Buddhist faith in this area. The
most notable of these Buddhist images is the famous Karumadi Kuttan near
Ambalapuzha. The Buddhist faith was firmly established in this area in a place called Sri
Mulavasam which is now under the sea. Sri Mulavasam was at one time the most famous centre
of Buddhist pilgrimage in South India.
The famous Paliyam Copper Plate of the Ay king, Vikramaditya Varaguna
(885- 925 A.D.), bears evidence of the patronage extended by the ruler to the
temple of Sri Mulavasam. There are also references to Sri Mulavasam in the
Sanskrit work Mushakavamsa. Sri Mulavasam was a famous Buddhist pilgrim centre in ancient
days. The centre perished after the 10th century A.D.

The Hindu rulers of ancient Kerala followed a policy of enlightened religious toleration and they
patronised Buddhist temples without reservation.
The Buddhist religion began to decline from the 8th century A.D. when it
came to be subjected to the vigorous propaganda onslaughts of Hindu
reformers like Sankaracharya. Nevertheless, it lingered on for some time
more and finally disappeared in the 12th century A.D.
Though Buddhism disappeared from Kerala, it left its lasting impact on Kerala society. In reality
Buddhism was only absorbed in Hinduism along with some of its impressive ceremonies and
forms of worship. The images, processions, utsavams, etc., associated with popular worship in
Hindu temples in Kerala are said to be a legacy of Buddhism. Special mention may be made of
the impressive festivity called Kettukazhcha or Kutirakettu associated with temple utsavams or
festivals in Quilon and Alleppey districts. A feature of the Kettukazhcha festival is that
people from different karas (territorial divisions) adjoining the temples bring
huge rathams or cars varying from 25 to 150 feet in height. The Kettukazhcha
festival is supposed to bear traces of Buddhist influence, for there is very close
resemblance between it and the Buddhist festival which Fahien, the Chinese
traveller of the 5th century A.D., witnessed in the city of Pataliputra.

Some scholars believe that the famous deity Sastha or Ayyappan is the
Hinduised version of the Buddha and that the pilgrimage to the Sastha shrine
at Sabarimala contains traces of Buddhist influence. The Sabarimala pilgrims
observe strict vows of non-violence, vegetarianism and abstinence from
worldly pleasures for about two months prior to their pilgrimage and this is
considered to be a practice reminiscent of the Buddhist doctrine of Ahimsa.
Further, the pilgrims do not observe caste distinctions during the period of
their Vow and this also accords well with the Buddhist emphasis on
castelessness and cosmopolitanism. The sing-song repetition of Saranam
Ayyappa by the lakhs of Hindu pilgrims who go to the shrine of the Dharma
Sastha at Sabarimala also reminds one of the triple Saranam formula of the
Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha of the Buddhists. The location of the
famous Sastha temples of Kerala like those of Sabarimala, Achencoil and
Aryankavu in the interior of the forests is cited as additional support to the
Buddhist theory because it is believed that the Buddhists preferred to live in
far away secluded places. Some scholars also point out that there is a striking
resemblance between the figures of the Sastha and the Buddha in posture as
well as in form. Though the above arguments advanced in support of the
Buddhist theory of the Sastha are not accepted by all scholars, it cannot be
denied that Buddhism had exercised its own influence on the development
of the Sastha cult in Kerala. There is also a view that Naga worship which is
prevalent in Kerala might also have been a relic of Buddhist influence. It is
pointed out in support of this contention that Buddhists in several parts of
the world such as Burma and Malaysia were believers in Naga worship.

The impact of the Buddhist faith may be seen in other fields as well. The
extensive popularity of the Ayurvedic system of treatment in Kerala is believed
to be a gift of Buddhism. Many of the Buddhist monasteries had dispensaries
where free medical aid was given. The practice which now prevails in some of
the Hindu temples such as the Siva temple, Tiruvizha and the Sastha temple,
Takazhi of giving medicinal preparations or oils to the mentally and physically
sick devotees who visit them is believed to be a survival of the influence
which Buddhism, with its concern for the sick and the suffering, had in this
area in the ancient past. The immense popularity in Kerala of Ashtangahridaya
written by Vagbhata, a Buddhist scholar, is also significant in this context.

The contribution of Buddhism to the spread of learning and literacy in

Kerala was undoubtedly great. The Buddhist monks were pioneers in the
field of education. The Buddhist Viharas contained schools or colleges For
offering instruction and hence they served as centres for the dissemination
of learning as well. The Ezhuthupalli, the Malayalam term for the elementary
school, seems to be a legacy of the Buddhist period, for the Buddhists used to
call their Viharas by the term Pallis. In later days the people of Kerala copied
the Buddhist example of running educational institutions along side their
temples. Buddhism also influenced the development of the arts and literature
of Kerala. The Kerala temples bear some traces of Buddhist influence in their
artistic and architectural styles. Amarasimha the author of the Amarakosa
which is popular in Kerala was a Buddhist. The large number of Pali words
which we find in Malayalam show traces of the contact which the people had
with Pali speaking Buddhists in ancient days. Buddhism has supplied themes
to the poets and writers of Kerala even in modern times. The great poet,
Kumaran Asan, was considerably influenced by Buddhism. His works Karuna,
Chandala Bhikshuki and Sri Buddha Charitam may be specially mentioned
in this connection. Thus the impact of Buddhism on Kerala life and culture
has indeed been deep and profound.

Christianity

Christianity was introduced in Kerala in the first century A.D., i.e., three
centuries before it gained official recognition in Europe or became the
established religion in Rome. Legend has it that Apostle St. Thomas landed at
Maliankara, a place adjoining Muziris, in 52 A.D., converted several Brahmins
and others and founded seven churches on the Malabar coast, i.e., at
Maliankara itself, Palayur, Kottakkavu, Kokkamangalam, Quilon, Niranam
and Nilakkal. The belief in the St.Thomas tradition is firm and widespread
among the Christians of Kerala, though many modern historians have rejected
the evidence on which it rests. The traditional accounts preserved
by the Jews who came to Cranganore in 68 A.D. contain a reference to the
existence of a Christian community at the place. Since its introduction in Kerala the Christian
faith, though alien in its
origin, came to be accepted as an indigenous faith and it made steady progress.
The number of Christians on the Kerala coast was reinforced in 345 A.D. by an influx of Syrian
immigrants consisting of 400 Christians from 72 families belonging
to seven tribes in Baghdad, Nineveh and Jerusalem under the leadership of
the merchant Kanayi Thoma (Thomas of Cana). The Christians became gradually prominent in
the field of trade and commerce and before long they
received several privileges and favours at the hands of the ruling monarchs.

During the age of the Second Chera Empire (800-1101 AD.) they were a prominent business
community in the land. The Terisapalli Copper Plate executed in 849 A.D. by Ayyan Atikal
Tiruvatikal of Venad during the reign of Emperor Sthanu Ravi (844-885 A.D.) confers several
important rights and privileges on the Christians of Quilon. The Tazhakad church inscription of
Rajasimha (1028-1043) refers to two Christian merchants, Chathan Vadukan
and Iravi Chathan, who were members of the Manigramam, being conferred
certain privileges. The Copper Plate Grant (1225 A.D.) issued by Vira Raghava
Chakravarti, the ruler of Mahodayapuram to Iravi Kortanan, a Christian merchant of
Mahodayapuram, confers on the latter, the office of Manigramam, i.e., the headship of the
merchants of the place, in addition to
several other rights and privileges. The Christians were treated all along on a
footing of equality with the Hindus and assigned a very important place in
the economic and social life of the land.

In the course of centuries Christianity made rapid progres in Kerala and

the Christian Church became one of the well established institutions in the
country. Its liturgy and organisation were, however, subjected to the impact
of diverse cultural influences. From very early days the Syriac liturgy was
prevalent among the Christians of Kerala. The early Christians (St. Thomas
Christians) were, in fact, called Syrian Christians because they followed the
Syriac liturgy. Syriac, it may be mentioned, was a dialect of Aramaic, the
language of Jesus Christ . It was therefore only natural that Syriac
became the sacred language of the Kerala Church as well. The Latin Christian
Missionaries who visited Quilon in the medieval period introduced the Latin
rite for the first time in Kerala. With the arrival of the Portuguese (1498) and
the establishment of their political influence the Latin rite emerged as an
important and permanent factor and a large community of Latin Christians
also sprang up and grew in Kerala, particularly in the coastal areas. The work
of St. Francis Xavier and the Synod of Diamper (1599) played an important
part in the Latinisation of the Church. A section of the Christians thus came
under the jurisdiction of the Papacy. Towards the middle of the 17th century
the Portuguese power declined in Kerala and was replaced by the Dutch
power. A part of the Christian Church which was under the Pope of Rome
now freed itself from Roman influence and became independent under
local Bishops.

In the beginning of the 19th century when British power established itself
in Kerala the Church Mission Society of London began work in the Syrian
Church. For some time there was close co-operation between the Syrian priests and the C.M.S.
Missionaries. Thus in the course of 19 centuries following the arrival of St. Thomas the Kerala
Church came under the influence of foreign churches and eventually it split itself mainly into five
branches, viz., (1) the Nestorian Church confined mainly to Trichur .and Ernakulam, (2) the Roman
Catholic Church embracing the whole of Kerala and
following three different languages for their rites, viz., Syriac, Latin and
Malayalam (3) the Jacobite Syrian Church also known as the Orthodox
Syrian Church (4) the Anglican Church which is now part of the Church of
South India and (5) the Marthoma Syrian Church. In addition, there are also
a number of minor missions and churches deriving inspiration from some
foreign church or other. The history of the rise and growth of Christianity in
Kerala thus illustrates how different cultural influences have been at work in
moulding the organisation and liturgy of the various churches. Nevertheless,
the Christians have completely assimilated themselves into the community
in which they live by adopting the language, dress and habits of their Hindu
brethren. “Hindu in culture, Christian in religion and Indian in liturgy”,
they are Keralites in all other respects. The movement for Indianisation of
the Church in Kerala has made significant headway in recent times.

Jews

Apart from the Christians, the Jews also have formed part of the community
in Kerala from very early days. According to tradition they came to the Kerala
coast in 68 A.D. in order to escape from religious persecution at home ( Israel). Some 10,000
Jews and Jewesses are said to have come to Kerala and settled at
Cranganore, Palayur, Mala and Pullut. However Kerala country was known to the ancient Jews
even as early 1000 B.C. Hence it is not improbable that the Jews must have come to Kerala in
search of an asylum when they had to face religious
persecution in their homeland. They might have come and established their
first settlement at Muziris or Cranganore in the first century of the Christian
era itself. New batches of immigrants might have come in subsequent
centuries when, with the spread of Christianity, the Jews had to face severe
persecution at home. Apart from the Jewish centres mentioned earlier, such
places as Quilon, Madayi, Pantalayani Kollam and Chowghat are also referred
to in foreign accounts or local traditions as some of the other places where the Jews settled
down after their migration into Kerala. There are no traces of
Jewish colonies in these places today except that there is a ‘Jew’s Hill’ at
Chowghat and a ‘Jew’s Tank’ at Madayi.

The Jewish settlers, like the Christians who preceded them, achieved a
large measure of economic prosperity and secured several valuable privileges
from the native rulers. The famous Jewish Copper Plate Grant of Emperor
Bhaskara Ravi Varman dated 1000 A.D. records the royal gift to the Jewish
Chief, Joseph Rabban, of several rights and privileges in perpetuity. The Jews
continued to enjoy a high standing in society till the arrival of the Portuguese
who persecuted them and compelled them to leave Cranganore for Cochin
in 1565. The White Jews Synagogue, Mattancherri, was built in or about
1567 in the wake of this migration. For centuries thereafter the Jews formed
an important commercial community in Central Kerala. Under the Dutch
and the British they enjoyed full freedom to carry on their commercial and
religious activities.

The birth of the Jewish State of Israel in May 1948 thrilled the Jews of
Kerala and the bulk of them have since migrated to Israel. According to the
Census of 1991 there are only about a hundred and twenty Jews in Kerala and
they form a picturesque community confined to the towns of Mattancherri,
Parur and Ernakulam.

Islam
Islam also found its way into Kerala at an early period of its history. As noted
earlier, there had been considerable trade between Arabia and Kerala even
before the time of Mohammed the Prophet. Like the Christians and the Jews,
the Arabs also settled down in Cranganore and established a separate colony
of their own in a part of the town. The religion of the Prophet might have been
introduced here by these Arab traders in the 7th or 8th century AD. itself. But
the progress of this religion, unlike that of Christianity, was relatively slow.

Mention may be made in this connection of a doubtful tradition prevalent

in Kerala that the last of the Chera Emperors (Cheraman Perumal) became a
convert to Islam and went on a pilgrimage to Mecca and that it was in the
wake of this conversion and pilgrimage that Islam as a religion made headway
in Kerala. The story is also told of the mission to the Kerala coast of Malik Ibn
Dinar and family with the object of spreading the religion of the Prophet.
They are said to have landed first at Cranganore where they were hospitably
received by the local ruler. The first mosque in Kerala, like the first church,
was established at Cranganore itself. In the wake of their success at Cranganore
Malik Ibn Danir and family are said to have visited other parts of Kerala and
established more mosques. Among the mosques which figure in this
connection are those of Quilon, Madayi or Pazhayangadi, Kasaragod,
Srikantapuram, Dharmapattanam, Pantalayani and Chaliyam.
In the course of centuries Islam made progress as a religion and today the

Muslims are, next to the Hindus, numerically the most important community
in the State. The progress of the faith was, in many respects, due to the tolerant
policy pursued by the rulers of Kerala and this was particularly so in North
Kerala where the Zamorins of Calicut patronised Islam in all ways. The
Muslims were a major power to be reckoned with in Calicut in the days when
the Zamorins were in power. They commanded the confidence of the rulers
and had great influence in their court. The Muslims were given special and
favoured treatment by the Zamorins for reasons of enlightened self-interest.
The Zamorin’s navy was manned by Muslims. The heroic exploits of the
Kunjali Marakkars, the Admirals of the Zamorins, in their fight against Portuguese expansionism
form an important chapter in the history of Kerala.

The Muslims of Malabar, otherwise called the Mappilas, were so intensely

pro-Zamorin that the Zamorins had even issued an order that in order to get
sufficient number of Mappilas to man their navy one or more male members
of the families of Hindu fishermen should be brought up as Muslims. This,
perhaps accounts for the relatively high proportion of Muslims in the
population of the Kozhikode and Malappuram districts of Kerala. The Arab merchants financed
liberally for mosques. Calicut was made commercial centre by the Araba. Arabs were given
special privileges, freedom and security. Arabs entered into relations with Hindu women and led
to a new race called Moplahs . They followed Makkathayam and Marumakathayam system. The
Muslims had a royal family in Kannur - Arakkal. The male head was known as Ali Raja and female
head Arakkal Beevi. Mysorean Invasion strengthened Muslims in Kerala. They granted privileges
and converted many Hindus. The arrival of Portugese was a turning point in the history of
Muslims. They disliked Arab monopoly and became enemies which led to a clash between two.
The establishment of British supremacy affected Muslims, British followed pro-Hindu policy.

Aryanisation
The Aryanisation in Kerala was slow but steady process. The date of Aryan
immigration is a controversial one. According to Logan, the Brahmins came to Kerala in the early
8thC AD. Some others says that the process of Aryanisation of Deccan and South India began
about 1000BC. They show the proof from Sangam works about Aryan immigration. Another
view is that the first branch of Brahmins came to Kerala in the 3Century BC following the advent
of Buddhism & Jainism. Many more such batches came in the post-Sangam period.

The domination of South India by powers like Chalukyas, Pallavas, Rashtrakutas in 6,7&8th
centuries must have given an impetus to process of Aryanisation. Western Chalukyas were
Vaishnavites and Rashtrakutas were Saivites. One view is that Panniyur and Chokiram factions
among the Namboothiris derived their inspiration fron Vaishnavite Chalukyas and Saivite
Rashtrakutas. In the 8C AD Aryanisation of Kerala reached its maximum when the major batch of
Brahmins came here and strengthened the existing order.
According to tradition 6 eminent Brahmin scholars came to Kerala and met the
Buddhists in argument and completely defeated them and established the supremacy of
Brahmin faith. Aryan influence increased in 9C.
Rulers of Mahodayapuram- Kulasekharas patronised Hindusim. Kulasekhara Alwar was
Vaishnavite, they also encouraged the school of Bhakti. This paved way for rapid progresd of
Hinduism in society. Far reaching changes took place in the society. A caste system wad foisted
on a castless society. They did missionary activities for the spread of Aryan ideology. Brahmins
impressed local rulers with intelligence of conducting yagas/sacrifices for the sake of their own
longlife & prosperity. They also opened the trade route and centres of N.India to them. Thus
Brahmins formed the superior one in the society.
They also brought changes in food habits of people. The early Sangam age now looked
upon as taboo. Those who used beef had now some social stigma attached to their class. The
continued use of beef by Panas was perhaps one of the factors which brought about decline of
their social status. The caste system also brought decline in overall literacy. The members of
fourth caste Sudras were denied right to education. The status of women underwent changes
viz. denial of education, child marriage, family life was compelled, no equality and freedom, life
of widows was hard.
The increased influence of Aryans had its impact in cultural and religious field. The
Brahmins concentrated on opposing Jainism & Buddhism . So they established Hindu temples
on large scale to popularize Hindu religion and festivals were conducted. The Dravidian Goddess
Kottavai was accepted as Durga, Kãli & Bhagavati and was absorbed into Hindu pantheon.
Ancestoral worship was also accepted as part of Hindu belief. Thus Hindu belief is a synthesis
of Aryan beliefs from North and Dravidian from South.