PHY1202: ATOMIC PHYSICS

Course Description
This is an introductory course to Atomic physics. It covers the following major topics; Planck’s
quantum theory of blackbody radiation, the dual nature of matter, quantum effects, Bohr model
of atom, Rutherford’s nuclear model, Radioactive decay, nuclear binding energy and an
introduction to elementary particles.
Atomic physics is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and
an atomic nucleus. It is primarily concerned with the arrangement of electrons around the
nucleus and the processes by which these arrangements change. This includes ions as well as
neutral atoms and, unless otherwise stated, for the purposes of this discussion it should be
assumed that the term atom includes ions. Atomic physics also help to understand the physics of
molecules, but there is also molecular physics, which describes physical properties of molecules.

Course Objectives
By the end of this course, students should be able to:
i. Explain Planck’s quantum theory of blackbody radiation.
ii. Explain the particle and wave properties of matter
iii. Describe the interaction of radiation with matter
iv. Explain the atomic and nuclear models of atom
v. Describe and classify elementary particles

Course Outline
1.0 Electromagnetic radiations
 Larmor oscillator
 Scattering of light
 Rayleigh and Mie scattering
 Blackbody radiation
 Planck’s quantization of blackbody radiation
2.0 The Bohr’s atom
 Bohr model
 atomic spectra/hydrogen spectra
 X-rays and X-ray spectra
3.0 Quantum effects
 The Photoelectric effect
 Compton Effect
 X-ray and Mosley’s law
4.0 Nuclear structure
 Rutherford’s model
 Alpha – particle scattering
 Nuclear binding energy

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5.0 Radioactive decay
 Nuclear energy
 Fission and Fusion
6.0 Elementary particles
 Description and classification of elementary particles – electrons, quarks, (leptons,
hadrons, etc); their lifetimes and quantum numbers; conservation laws; resonances and
symmetries.

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 Chapter 1: Review of Quantum Effects (Electron & Photon)
1.1 Cathode rays
In 1896, J.J. Thomson discovered the Cathode rays’ (later called electron beams) while
investigating electrical discharge in partially evacuated tubes with two electrodes, a cathode
(negative electrode) and an anode (positive electrode). Thomson noted that these ‘cathode rays’
could be deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

In the diagram above electrons released from the cathode plate C are accelerated along the tube
to the right, towards the anode A, by a high electric potential between them. They then pass
through a small hole at B in order to create a narrow beam which creates a glow on the phosphor
screen on the far right hand side. If an electric field is applied between electrodes D and E, the
electrons can be deflected, the amount allowing insights into their charge and mass.
(i) In an electric field
In an electric field E, the force acts towards the opposite polarity as shown below for a stream of
electrons passing from left to right. The path is therefore parabolic like a projectile falling under
gravity for the period it feels the force.

(ii) In a magnetic field

In a magnetic field B, where B and the particles velocity v are at right angles, the force is also at
right angles to both. The particle therefore travels in a circle since the force is always at right
angles to the motion.

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1.2 Thomson’s experiment to find the charge/mass ratio
In 1896 Thomson used a combination of electric and magnetic fields to measure the charge/mass
ratio of the electron.

The force due to the E field is Felectric  qE , so the vertical acceleration of the electron is
qE L
a . This force acts only while the electron is between the plates, a time t  where v is the
m v
qEL
velocity in the beam direction. So the vertical velocity is vvertical  at  when the electron
mv
exits at x = L.

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After that this vertical velocity does not change, and the electron carries on towards a screen with
constant horizontal velocity. If the distance to the screen is D, (and D>>L), then the time T taken
D
for the electron to travel to the screen is given by T  . In this time the electron will have also
v
had a vertical velocity and so we can say that when the electron hits the screen it has a vertical
qDEL
displacement y given by :- y  Tv vertical  .
mv 2
This expression has q/m in it, but although we can measure y, D, E, and L, we don’t know v. So
we then apply a magnetic field at right angles (into paper) so that the electron experiences a force
in the opposite direction to that from the electric field, increasing B until y = 0 and the forces
therefore balance i.e. Bqv  qE.

E
So now v  and after substituting back into the expression for y we find:-
B
qDEL qDELB 2 qDLB 2 q yE
y   and therefore that  . Thompson showed that
mv 2
mE 2
mE 2
m DLB 2
q
 1.76  1011 C Kg 1 .
m

1.3 Application of cathode rays

An old fashioned television is based around a CRT (cathode ray tube). The screen is coated on
the inside surface with dots of chemicals called phosphors. When a beam of electrons hits a dot,
the dot will glow. These phosphor dots are in groups of three: Red, Green, and Blue. All the
glowing dots together make the picture that you see, the human eye blending the dots to "see" all
the different colors.

1.4 Electron-volts

1.5 Photoelectric effect - electrons and photon

At the end of the 19th century, scientists noted that when some metals are illuminated by a strong
source of light (photon), electrons are emitted from the surface of the metal. This is called the
photoelectric effect and the electrons are called photoelectrons. The kinetic energy of the ejected
photoelectrons was found to depend on the frequency of light and the type of metal used and not,
as expected, on the brightness of the light source.
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Einstein offered an explanation in 1905 by proposing that light was not simply a wave but rather
made up of tiny quanta or packets of energy, the energy of a single photon proportional to the
frequency of light.
E  hf

where h is known as Plank’s constant (6.626×10-34Js) and f is the frequency of the light in Hz.
Einstein proposed that there was a minimum energy E0 required to release a photoelectron from a
metal. He called E0 the work function and suggested that this value was a constant for a
particular metal, but was different for different metals. When a photon is absorbed within a
metal, some of the photon’s energy will be used up in freeing the photoelectron from the metal,
and if there is any energy remaining, then this will appear as kinetic energy of the ejected
photoelectron.

Worked example 1

Worked example 2

1.6 The Compton Effect – particle nature of light

In the last section we saw how Einstein imagined waves of light to be in fact tiny particles called
photons in order to explain the photoelectric effect, and how he linked the energy of the photon
to the frequency of the wave with the equation E photon  hf . Einstein’s most famous equation
relates energy to mass and is written E photon  mc 2 where m is the mass of the photon. The
momentum p of any particle is equal to its mass multiplied by its velocity i.e. p  mc and since

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E photon  hf  mc 2 , we can rewrite this as E photon  hf  pc, and so momentum of a wave can be
h
written as p  . This is called the de Broglie equation.

In 1923, Arthur Compton carried out an experiment by setting up a collision between X-ray
photons and electrons. The experiment showed that the X-ray photons and electrons behaved
exactly like ball bearings colliding on a table top. Because the electron was scattered, the photon
must have transferred both momentum and kinetic energy to it. This can only be explained by
assuming that photons have momentum.

Before the collision, the photon had one wavelength and after the collision its wavelength had
increased. Clearly the electron had been given energy, conservation of energy indicating that the
scattered photon must therefore have lower energy than prior to the collision. The increase in
wavelength, corresponding to a drop in frequency, could then only be explained by assuming the
E photon  hf relationship.

NB: The effect is important because it demonstrates that light cannot be explained purely as a
wave phenomenon, the classical theory of an electromagnetic wave scattered by charged
particles unable to explain any shift in wavelength. Light must behave as if it consists of particles
in order to explain Compton scattering.
1.7 de Broglie and matter waves
In 1923, de Broglie argued that since light can display both wave and particle-like behavior, then
perhaps matter (protons, neutrons, and electrons) could also be thought of as both particles and
waves too. He called this wave-particle duality.
To test this concept he needed to try to get matter to demonstrate wave-like properties such as
diffraction or interference for example using a double slit apparatus. de Broglie said that since
h
p  works for light, why should it not work ‘in reverse’ for matter? Now previously for light


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we defined the energy of a photon using Einstein’s E photon  mc 2 which applies to photons
moving at the speed of light where special relativity needs to be taken into account.

h
Also the de Broglie wavelength is given by   .
mv

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 Chapter 2: Atomic Structure and Spectral Lines
2.1 Atomic Structure
Crucial to an understanding of nuclear technology is the concept that all matter is composed of
many small discrete units of mass called atoms. Atoms, while often viewed as the fundamental
constituents of matter, are themselves composed of other particles. A simplistic view of an atom
is a very small dense nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons (collectively called nucleons),
that is surrounded by a swarm of negatively-charged electrons equal in number to the number of
positively-charged protons in the nucleus.

2.1.1 Atomic Number and Mass Number

The identity of an atom is uniquely specified by the number of neutrons N and protons Z in its
nucleus. Nucleons are bound together in a nucleus by the action of the strong, or nuclear, force.
The range of this force is only of the order of nuclear dimensions, 10–15 m and it is powerful
enough to overcome the Coulomb repulsion of the protons in the nucleus.
For an electrically neutral atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons Z, which
is called the atomic number. All atoms of the same element have the same atomic number. Thus,
all oxygen atoms have 8 protons in the nucleus while all uranium atoms have 92 protons.
However, atoms of the same element may have different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus.
Atoms of the same element, but with different numbers of neutrons, are called isotopes. The
symbol used to denote a particular isotope is;

where X is the chemical symbol and A = Z + N, which is called the mass number.

2.1.2 Atomic Radius

If each proton and neutron in the nucleus has the same volume, the volume of a nucleus should
be proportional to A. This has been confirmed by many measurements that have explored the
shape and size of nuclei. Nuclei, to a first approximation, are spherical or very slightly ellipsoidal
with a somewhat diffuse surface; In particular, it is found that an effective spherical nuclear
radius is;

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Since the atomic radius of about 2 x 10-8 cm is 105 times greater than the nuclear radius, the
nucleus occupies only about 10-15 of the volume of an atom.

2.2 Basic Concepts of Atomic Models

(1) Dalton’s Model of the Atom
 In 1810, John Dalton proposed an atomic model that allowed limited quantitative study of the
atom. Dalton’s model was that “the atoms were tiny, indivisible, indestructible particles, like
billiard balls, and that each one had a certain mass, size, and chemical behavior that was
determined by what kind of element it was”.
 Dalton’s model is silent about the composition and internal structure of the atom.

(2) Thompson’s Model of the Atom: The Plum Pudding Model

 The discovery of radioactivity by Becquerel in 1896 and Thomson's discovery of the electron
in 1898 provided a basis for the first theories of atomic structure.
 Thompson assumed that the electron is a part of the atom and proposed a model for the atom
as a “sphere full of an electrically positive substance mixed with negative electrons.

Thompson’s model
 Thompson explained emission lines by suggesting that electrons radiated as they oscillated
within the ‘positive pudding’. However, this could not explain the precise wavelength
patterns emitted by different elements.

(3) Rutherford’s Model of the Atom

 Sir Ernest Rutherford proposed a model of the atom based on the results of alpha particle
scattering that “the atom consisted mainly of empty space with a tiny, positively charged
nucleus, containing most of the mass of the atom, surrounded by negative electrons in orbit
around the nucleus” like planets orbiting the Sun.

Rutherford's model

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 However, according to Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, a charged particle in circular
motion radiates energy and so an electron in a Rutherford’s atom should continuously lose
energy as it moves in a planetary orbit and eventually should spiral down to the nucleus at
the center of the atom, which does not happen.
 Rutherford’s model though a much improved picture of the atom, but could not explain
stability of the atom.
 Furthermore, according to classical physics, the energy emitted by an electron as it spirals
down to the nucleus should have all frequencies, in other words the emitted spectrum should
be continuous, which is not the case. The emitted spectrum consists of lines in a dark
background.
 Thus, Rutherford’s model could not explain the observed line spectra of elements.
(4) Bohr’s Model of the Atom
Niels Bohr proposed an atomic model that would explain the discrepancies between the observed
line spectra emitted by elements and the spectra predicted by the Rutherford’s atomic model.

Bohr proposed the following postulates

(1) An electron in an atom moves in a circular orbit about the nucleus under the influence of
the Coulomb force between the electron and the nucleus. 
(2) An electron moves in an orbit for which its orbital angular momentum L is an integral
multiple of .
(3) An electron moving in an allowed orbit does not radiate electromagnetic energy. Thus, its
total energy E remains constant.
(4) Electromagnetic radiation is emitted if an electron, initially moving in an orbit of total
energy E i discontinuously changes its motion so that it moves in an orbit of total energy
E f . The frequency of the emitted radiation υ is equal to the quantity Ei  E f / h.

2.3 Atomic spectra/hydrogen spectra

When atoms, molecules or ions absorb radiations, they may become excited or ionized. To
produce an emission spectrum, energy is supplied to a sample by heating it or irradiating it and
the wavelength (or frequency) of the radiation emitted, as the sample gives up the absorbed
energy, is recorded.
An absorption spectrum is like the photographic negative of an emission spectrum. A continuum
of radiation is passed through a sample which absorbs radiation of certain wavelengths. The
missing wavelength which corresponds to the radiation absorbed by the matter, leave dark spaces
in the bright continuous spectrum. Atomic spectra are of great interest in the study of electronic
structure. Each element has a unique line emission spectrum. The characteristic lines in atomic
spectra can be used in chemical analysis to identify unknown atoms in the same way as finger
prints are used to identify people.

Hydrogen Spectra
The Bohr Model can only explain the line spectrum of hydrogen (an atom with only one
electron) adequately. When an electric discharge is passed through gaseous hydrogen, the H2
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molecules dissociate and the energetically excited hydrogen atoms emit electromagnetic
radiation of discrete frequencies.

The hydrogen spectrum consists of several series of lines named after their discoverers. The
series of lines are called Balmer series and are described by the formula;

 1 1 
v  109,677 2  2  cm -1 where n1  1,2...... and n2  n1  1,.n1  2....
 n1 n2 

The value 109,677 cm–1 is called the Rydberg constant for hydrogen. The first five series of lines
that correspond to n1 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are known as Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Bracket and Pfund
series, respectively.
Series n1 n2 Spectral Region
Lyman 1 2,3,… Ultraviolet
Balmer 2 3,4,… Visible
Paschen 3 4,5,… Infrared
Bracket 4 5,6,… Infrared
Pfund 5 6,7,… Infrared

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For hydrogen atom, the electrostatic attraction between the orbital electron and the proton is
balanced by the centrifugal force due to the orbit.

Since we know that the radius of the electron orbit is constant, these forces must balance and so
we can say that:

The total energy of the electron is the sum of its kinetic energy as it circles the nucleus and its
electrical potential energy due to its height above the nucleus. (This is very similar to the total
energy of a satellite orbiting above the earth being the sum of its kinetic energy and gravitational
potential energy).

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The energy difference between one energy level to another can simply be expressed as Ei  E f .

Question 1:
An electron in an excited state (n = 3) falls back to the ground state (n=1). How much energy is
released (emitted)?
Solution

The energy of the electron changes from –1.51 eV to –13.60 eV. Therefore

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(-1.51 eV)-(-13.60 eV) = 12.09 eV is released.
Question 2
An electron jumps from the n=3 orbit to the n=2 orbit. What is the frequency of the light that is
emitted?

Solution
ΔE = E3-E2 = -1.51 eV– (-3.4) eV = 1.89 eV
ΔE is the energy of the photon emitted:
ΔE = h f
f = ΔE/h = (1.89 eV)/(4.136x10-15 eV/Hz) = 4.57 x 1014 Hz (Red, visible light)
NB: For Multi-electron atoms,

2.4 X-rays and X-ray spectra

We have just seen that it is possible to excite the orbiting electrons in an atom to higher energy
levels and that when they subsequently return to lower energy states, they emit photons. The
higher the energy difference between the orbital shells, the higher the energy of the photon
emitted.

Since E photon  hf , we can see that the frequency of the emitted photon also increases with
increasing energy. Looking at the full electromagnetic spectrum below, we see that frequencies
above 1017 Hz correspond to X-rays and gamma rays.

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2.4.1 X-ray production
One easy way to generate high energy X-rays is to bombard atoms with a high energy electron
beam as shown in the diagram below. In the diagram electrons, generated by a hot wire filament,
are accelerated from a cathode towards a metal target anode held at a high positive voltage to
ensure that the incident electrons collide at high velocity.

In reality approximately 90% of the kinetic energy of the incident electrons is converted to heat
energy. The remaining energy excites the orbital electrons of the target atoms which
subsequently de-excite emitting photons. Obviously the range of photon energies produced is
determined by the number of allowed transitions between various orbital shells. By careful
selection of the target atoms and the energy of the incident electrons, a beam of mono-energetic
X-rays or even Gamma rays can be produced.
X-ray generators produce a strange characteristic spectrum which is the result of two different
processes which are explained below.
a) The incident electrons lose energy in inelastic collisions with the target atoms. The lost
kinetic energy is emitted as X-ray photons; the incident electrons are slowed down in this
process and therefore the X-ray are also called Bremsstrahlung radiation (meaning
braking radiation in German). Incident electrons can lose any fraction of their energy in a
collision meaning the X-ray photons emitted cover a continuous range of frequencies
resulting in a continuous spectrum as shown in the figure.

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The spectrum also shows a well-defined minimum wavelength (maximum frequency). The shape
of the continuous Bremsstrahlung spectrum depends only upon the energy of the electrons and
not upon the nature of the target. The same continuous spectrum is therefore seen for all metals.
b) (This is the standard photoelectric effect that we have already met). The incident
electrons lose energy in collisions with the target atoms exciting the orbiting electrons,
which on returning to the ground state emit photons of well-defined energies producing
X-ray line spectra.
If the complete X-ray spectrum created by 40 keV incident electrons is generated, it will show
both the broad Bremsstrahlung spectrum (1) and the emission lines (2) superimposed on it. The
figure above shows this. The wavelengths defined by the line spectra in this figure depends only
on the nature of the target atoms, i.e. the X-ray emission lines are specific to that atom.

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2.4.2 Applications of the photoelectric effect
 Medical and other imaging: it’s well known that short wavelength waves (e.g. X-rays)
pass easily through many solids; nevertheless, there is some absorption of them and
different solids absorb different amounts. Hence bone looks darker than flesh in an X-ray
image.

 Material analysis: the lines are characteristic of the element, so we can find out what an
unknown sample of material contains by firing an electron beam at it and analyzing the
emitted X-ray wavelengths.

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 Chapter 3: Nuclear Binding Energy & Nuclear Forces
3.1 Structure and Properties of the Nucleus (Review)
A nucleus is made of protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons and are collectively called
nucleons. The force that binds the nucleons together is called the strong nuclear force. It is a
very strong, but short-range force. It’s essentially zero if the nucleons are more than about 10-15m
apart. The Coulomb force is long-range; this is why extra neutrons are needed for stability in
high-Z nuclei.

A proton is positively charged. Its mass is:

A neutron is electrically neutral, with mass;

Nuclei with the same Z–so they are the same element –but different N are called isotopes. For
many elements, several different isotopes exist artificially and in nature. Natural abundance is
the percentage of a particular element that consists of a particular isotope in nature.

3.2 Masses of Atoms

Masses of atoms are measured with reference to the carbon-12 atom, which is assigned a mass of
exactly 12u. A u is a unified atomic mass unit.

From the following table, you can see that the electron is considerably less massive than a
nucleon.

3.3 Mass defect

When a nucleus is assembled from its constituent parts, i.e., protons and neutrons, it is found that
the mass of the nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of the protons and neutrons. This
difference of mass is known as the mass defect.

So where has the mass gone?

Einstein discovered that the mass has been converted into energy, such as radiation or kinetic
energy, released during the formation of the nucleus using the common relation; E  mc . This
2

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difference between the total mass of the constituents and the mass of the nucleus is called the
total binding energy of the nucleus.

To calculate mass defect one must add up the masses of the constituent particles then subtract the
known mass of that atom.

Particle Mass (AMU) Symbol

Neutron 1.00866 M
Proton 1.00727 M
Electron 0.00055 Me

If we designate M to equal the mass of the atom, the mass defect equation is:

Mass defect = [Z (M+ Me) + (A-Z) M] -M

Recall: Z = atomic number (number of protons or electrons).

A = atomic mass number (number of protons and neutrons).
(A- Z) = number of neutrons.
This equation can be simplified somewhat by combining the mass of the proton and electron
which becomes equivalent to the mass of a hydrogen atom and is equal to 1.00782 AMU.

Mass defect (Δm) = ZMH + (A-Z) MH + (A-Z) M - M

Example: Calculate the mass defect of 235U. The mass of U-235 is 235.0439 AMU.
Z = 92
A = 235
(A - Z) = 143

Mass defect (Δm) = [(Z)MH + (A-Z) M] - M

Δm = 92 (1.00782) + 143 (1.00866) - 235.0439
Δm = (92.71944 + 144.23838) - 235.0439
Δm = 236.95782 - 235.0439
Δm = 1.91392 AMU

3.4 Binding Energy

An atom's mass defect is not mass which just disappears; that is contrary to the laws of
conservation. The missing mass was converted to energy when the nucleus was formed. Binding
energy of a nucleus is the energy equivalent of its mass defect. That is, binding energy is the
amount of energy liberated when a nucleus is formed from its constituent parts. Conversely,

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binding energy is the amount of energy, which would have to be provided to a nucleus in order
to break it apart into separate protons and it is found that 1 AMU of mass is equivalent to 931
MeV of energy.
The nuclear binding energy determines which combination of N and Z are stable to beta decay.
When there are too many neutrons, the mass of the initial and final nucleus (as determined by
their binding energies) are such that a neutron can change into a proton in beta decay. If there are
too many protons, to have a stable nucleus the proton can change into a neutron in beta decay (to
be seen later). Thus, the binding energies of the neutrons and protons play a crucial role in
determining which nuclei are stable and which are radioactive.

Using E = Δmc2, the binding energy of a nucleus can thus be found by multiplying the mass
defect by 931 MeV/AMU.
For a nucleus of mass m and total binding energy B;

B  Zm p  Nmn  mc 2  mc 2

Using atomic mass M instead of the nuclear mass m;

B  ( Zm p  Nmn  Zme  M )c 2  [ Z M (1 H)  Nmn  M ( Az X N )] c 2

where M(1H) and M(AX) are the atomic masses of the atoms of 1H and isotope AX.

Worked Example:
Calculate the energy to pull one neutron out of 4He to form 3He and a free neutron.

Solution

Energy = [M ( 23 He1 )  mn  M ( 42 He 2 )]c 2  20.58 MeV

Exercise
1. A deuteron consists of a neutron and a proton bound together. Its mass is found to be
2.013553 u. Calculate its binding energy in MeV.
2. What is the energy needed to remove just one proton from 126 C , leaving a nucleus with 5 protons and
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6 neutrons, namely, the nucleus of 5 B?

3.5 Binding energy per nucleon

The binding energy per nucleon, B / A, is another important quantity. This is also called the
average binding energy or binding energy ratio. For example, in 4He, binding energy per nucleon
= 28.296/4  7 MeV.

Binding energy per nucleon helps us to compare how tightly bound different nuclei are. The
higher the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable the nucleus. More massive nuclei require
extra neutrons to overcome the Coulomb repulsion of the protons in order to be stable.

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From the figure, we see that the binding energy (BE) per nucleon curve has a maximum around
A = 56. At low mass there is some oscillation, after which the B / A ratio goes smoothly to a
maximum of about 8.8 MeV / A around A  56, and after that falls off gradually. The decrease in
binding energy per nucleon at high A is due to Coulomb repulsion. Coulomb repulsion grows in
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fact as Z , much faster than the nuclear force which is ∝ A.

From the figure, one can also see that if 2 light nuclei with small B / A ratios are combined to
form a nucleus with a larger B / A, i.e., nuclei that are loosely bound (small B / A) form a more
tightly bound (B / A) nucleus, then energy is released  nuclear fusion.

Example:
Fusion of 12C (B / A = 7.68 MeV / A) with 16O (B / A = 7.98 MeV / A) to form 28Si (B / A = 8.44
MeV / A).
BE (12C) = 7.68  12 = 92.16 MeV
BE (16O) = 7.98  16 = 127.68 MeV
Sum = 219.84 MeV
BE (28Si) = 8.44  28 = 236.32 MeV
The energy released in this case is 16.48 MeV.

At the other end, if a heavy nucleus like 235U splits (fission) into 2 lighter ones with larger B / A
ratios, then again energy is given off. Thus, so-called nuclear energy is the energy that is released
when the nuclear binding energy is increased and the total nuclear mass decreases.

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3.6 Nuclear Stability
The predominant factor in nuclear stability is the neutron to proton ratio. The n/p ratio is
important to stability because of the tendency of protons to repel each other even though bound
into a nucleus by nuclear forces. As mass of the nucleus increases, there have to be more
neutrons than protons to produce a stable nucleus. Because of their like charges, the protons will
tend to separate. To take up the nuclear space, neutrons will be required since neutrons will
provide nuclear force without charge repulsion.

Protons on opposite sides of the nucleus will experience no direct nuclear force, but will exert
electrostatic repulsion on each other. This electrostatic repulsion is not sufficient to expel the
protons since they are bound by the nuclear forces of internal nucleons. However, because the
nuclear force is short ranged (the order of the distance between a few nucleons), eventually when
Z exceeds 83 (Bismuth), extra neutrons can no longer provide sufficient extra nuclear force to
produce a stable nucleus. All atoms with Z > 83 are thus radioactive.

When comparing the ratio of neutrons to protons in stable nuclei, a definite pattern is evident.
The figure below plots n/p ratios for stable isotopes. Isotopes, which have too low or too high an
n/p ratio, fall outside the "line of stability" and will undergo radioactive decay in order to adjust
their n/p ratio.

Nuclei above the stability line can lower their ratio and move to the belt of stability by
radioactive decay which converts a neutron to a proton. This increases the number of protons and
decreases neutrons and gets the nuclide on the jagged line. The opposite also can happen when
the nuclide has too many protons. In this sort of decay, protons are converted to neutrons.
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 Chapter 4: Radioactivity
Radioactivity is defined as the spontaneous decay or disintegration of heavy unstable nucleus
into smaller and stable daughter nuclei. Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable
nucleus spontaneously loses energy by emitting ionizing particle and/or photon radiations. This
decay, or loss of energy, results in an atom of one type, called the parent nuclide, transforming to
an atom of a different type, named the daughter nuclide. Nuclides that undergo radioactive decay
are called radionuclides or radioisotopes.
Radionuclides can occur naturally in the soil, rocks, cosmic rays, food, and plants. The discovery
of artificial, or induced, radioactivity started a new line of nuclear research and hundreds of
artificial nuclei have been produced by many different nuclear reactions. These may include
among others iodine-131 used for cancer, cobalt-60, technetium-95, promethium-146 etc.
One of the most important natural radionuclide is K-40, which has an isotopic abundance of
0.0118% and a half-life of 1.28 x 109 years. Potassium is an essential element needed by plants
and animals, and is an important source of human internal and external radiation exposure. Other
naturally occurring radionuclides are of cosmogenic origin. Tritium (H-3) and C-14 are produced
by cosmic ray interactions in the upper atmosphere, and also can cause measurable human
exposures. C-14 (half-life 5730 years), which is the result of a neutron reaction with N-14 in the
atmosphere, is incorporated into plants by photosynthesis. By measuring the decay of C-14 in
ancient plant material, the age of the material can be determined. Other sources of terrestrial
radiation are uranium, thorium, and their radioactive progeny. All elements with Z > 83 are
radioactive. Uranium and thorium decay into daughter radionuclides, forming a series (or chain)
of radionuclides that ends with a stable isotope of lead or bismuth.
In all nuclear interactions, including radioactive decay, there are several quantities that are
always conserved or unchanged by the nuclear transmutation. The most important of these
conservation laws include:

 Conservation of charge, i.e., the number of elementary positive and negative charges in
the reactants must be the same as in the products.
 Conservation of the number of nucleons, i.e., A is always constant
 Conservation of mass/energy (total energy). Although, neither rest mass nor kinetic
energy is generally conserved, the total (rest-mass energy equivalent plus kinetic energy)
is conserved.
 Conservation of linear momentum. This quantity must be conserved in all inertial frames
of reference.
 Conservation of angular momentum. The total angular momentum (or the spin) of the
reacting particles must always be conserved.

4.1 Decay rate

If we call the number of radioactive nuclei N, the number of decaying atoms per unit time (decay
rate) is dN/dt. It is found that this rate is constant in time and it is proportional to the number of
nuclei themselves;

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The negative sign is needed because N decreases as the time t increases. λ is a constant
characteristic of that particular nuclide, and it’s called the decay constant.

We can also rewrite the above equation as;

where the RHS is the probability per unit time for one atom to decay.

4.2 Activity
The rate of decay or transformation of a radionuclide is described by its activity (A), that is, by
the number of atoms that decay per unit time. The unit of activity is the Becquerel (Bq), defined
as one disintegration per second: 1 Bq = 1 s–1. The traditional unit of activity is the curie (Ci),
1Ci = 3.7×1010 Bq.
The decay rate or activity, A, is given by;
dN
A  N
dt
Separating variables in the above equation,
dN
 dt
N
Integration of both sides gives,
In N  t  c
where c is an arbitrary constant of integration, fixed by the initial conditions. If we specify that
N0 atoms of the radionuclide are present at time t = 0, then c = lnN0.
 In N  t  In N 0

 N  N
 In    t or  e  t
 N0  N0

Equation above describes the exponential radioactive decay law. Since the activity of a sample
and the number of atoms present are proportional, activity follows the same rate of decrease;

A
 e t
A0
where A0 is the activity at time t = 0. The dose rate at a given location in the neighborhood of a
fixed radionuclide source also falls off at the same exponential rate.

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4.3 Half-life
The half-life is the time it takes for half the nuclei in a given sample to decay. It is related to the
decay constant:

In 2 0.693
T 
 
Proof
During successive times T, called the half-life of the radionuclide the activity drops by factors of
one-half as shown below.

A
To find T in terms of λ, we write from equation  e t at time t = T,
A0
1
 e  T
2
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides gives,
1
 T  In   In 2
2
and therefore;
In 2 0.693
T 
 
4.4 Decay Types
The three principal modes of decay are called the alpha, beta and gamma decays. Radioactive
decays are a way for unstable nuclei to reach a more energetically favorable (hence stable)
configuration. In α and β decays, a nucleus emits a α or β particle, trying to approach the most

26
stable nuclide, while in the γ decay an excited state decays toward the ground state without
changing nuclear species.

4.4.1 Alpha decay

In alpha decay, the nucleus of a proton-rich heavy parent atom ZA P emits an alpha particle as a
possible mode of decay to a more stable state. This occurs when the strong nuclear force cannot
hold a large proton rich nucleus together. The resulting nucleus of the daughter atom ZA 42 D then
has two fewer neutrons and two fewer protons. The fast moving double negatively-charged alpha
particle quickly loses its kinetic energy by ionizing and exciting atoms along its path of travel
and acquires two orbital electrons to become a neutral 42 He atom. Since the atomic number of the
daughter is different from that of the parent, the daughter is a different chemical element. The
alpha decay reaction is thus represented by;

Radium-226 undergoes alpha-decay to radon-222.

Kinetic Energies of the Products

The disintegration energy Q  equals the kinetic energy of the decay products. How this energy is
divided between the daughter atom and the α-particle is determined from the conservation of
momentum. The momentum of the parent nucleus was zero before the decay, and thus, from the
conservation of linear momentum, the total momentum of the products must also be zero. The
alpha particle and the daughter nucleus must, therefore, leave the reaction site in opposite
directions with equal magnitudes of their linear momentum to ensure the vector sum of their
momenta is zero.
From conservation of energy and conservation of linear momentum requires, kinetic energy of
the emitted alpha particle is given as;

Where;

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The recoiling nucleus carries off the remainder of the available kinetic energy, given as;

Example
What is the initial kinetic energy of the alpha particle produced when 226Ra nucleus undergoes α-
particle decay into 222Rn? (Given that the atomic mass of 226Ra is 226.025402 u, that of 222Rn is
222.017571 u and that of 4He is 4.00260325 u).

Solution
The reaction Q-value can be calculated as;

The kinetic energy of the emitted α-particle that is,

4.4.2 Beta decay

Thus A is constant, but Z and N change by 1. In the process the nucleus emits a beta particle
(either an electron or a positron) and quasi-massless particle, called the neutrino. The electron in
beta decay is not an orbital electron; it is created in the decay. The fundamental process is a
neutron decaying to a proton, electron, and neutrino:

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Decay Energy
The beta-minus decay energy is readily obtained from the Q-value of the decay reaction as;

The beta-plus decay energy is readily obtained from the Q-value of the decay reaction as;

4.4.3 Gamma Decay

In many nuclear reactions, a nuclide is produced whose nucleus is left in an excited state. These
excited nuclei usually decay very rapidly within 10-9 s to the ground state by emitting the
excitation energy in the form of a photon called a gamma ray. However, a few excited nuclei
remain in an excited state for a much longer time before they decay by gamma emission. These
long-lived excited nuclei are called metastable nuclei or isomers.

29
The gamma-decay reaction of an excited isotope of element P can be written as;

From energy conservation and conservation of linear momentum for this nuclear reaction, kinetic
energy of the emitted gamma rays is given by;

This is because the kinetic energy of the recoil nucleus is negligible compared to the energy of
the gamma photon.

Example of gamma decay:

Summary of important types of radioactive decay

Decay type Reaction Description
An excited nucleus decays to its ground state
by the emission of a gamma photon.
An α particle is emitted leaving the daughter
with 2 fewer neutrons and 2 fewer protons
than the parent.

4.5 Absorption of Radiation

 Alpha (α) – absorbed by 2-3 cm air and thin paper
 Beta (β ) – can penetrate paper absorbed by a few mm of metal
 Gamma (γ) – very penetrating absorbed by many cm of Pb and meters of concrete.
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4.6 Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission or splitting of a single massive nucleus into two smaller fragments releases
tremendous amounts of energy. This is the basis of nuclear power generation. Fission can be
spontaneous, but only for very heavy nuclei such as uranium-238, and even then, the rate is very
low. Fission of a heavy nucleus such as uranium-235 can alternatively be induced for example by
the absorption of a neutron, producing krypton-92, barium-141, three neutrons, and 174 MeV of
energy:

When U-235 absorbs neutron, it forms an unstable compound U-236 nucleus which splits into
two daughter products and releases three additional neutrons. These neutrons quickly cause the
fission of other uranium-235 atoms, thereby releasing additional neutrons and initiating a self-
sustaining series of nuclear fissions, or a chain reaction shown below, which results in
continuous release of nuclear energy.

Hello read me also!!! “For the same mass, a single nuclear fission reaction
releases 10 million times as much energy as is released in the burning of fossil fuels. The fission
of 1 kg of uranium-235 releases 18.7 million kilowatt-hours of energy in the form of heat. Put
another way, if you currently use a tank of petrol each week but could use the energy provided
by one tank of uranium-235 fission instead, you wouldn't need to re-fill your car for over 19,000
years!”

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4.7 Nuclear Fusion
The rising of binding energy curve at low mass numbers tells us that energy will be released if
two nuclides of small mass number combine to form a single middle-mass nuclide. This process
is called nuclear fusion.

An example below shows the fusion of a deuterium and a tritium nucleus producing a helium
isotope, a neutron, and 17.6 MeV. (Deuterium and tritium are isotopes of hydrogen with extra
neutrons in the nuclei).

In order to initiate fusion we must raise the temperature of the nuclei so that the particles have
enough energy - due to their thermal motion alone - to overcome their mutual electrostatic
repulsion. This process is known as thermonuclear fusion. Calculations show that these
temperatures need to be close to the sun's temperature of 1.5 X 107K. In fact reactions of this
type provide the Sun’s energy. To date fusion on Earth has only been achieved using a hydrogen
bomb, in which the intense temperature required for the fusion reaction is provided by the
explosion of a fission bomb.

As can be seen, the energy released by the fusion of two nuclei is very much less than that which
results from fission of a uranium nucleus. If we want to know exactly how much energy is
released we calculate the mass defect as before. The masses are given in the table below.

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4.8 Radioactive Dating
Carbon has 14 isotopes ranging from C-8 to C-22. The most abundant and stable form is C-12.
Only one of the unstable isotopes has a half-life longer than 25 mins. This is C-14, with a half-
life of 5730 years. It turns out that C-14 is produced in the upper atmosphere, when neutrons
interact with nitrogen;

Living things are mostly made of carbon, and get their carbon from carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. Therefore in a natural sample of carbon we would expect to find both stable C-12
and unstable C-14. C-14 is unstable and undergoes β- decay with a half-life of 5730 years:

One way of aging igneous rocks, which contain uranium is to use the U-238 (Parent) to lead Pb-
206 (Daughter) decay with a half-life of 4.5 ×109 years. The lead isotope is stable, so once
formed it remains in the rock. The daughter to parent ratio is then found using chemical or mass
spectrometric methods to determine the amount of the isotopes at the present time in the rock.
Uranium-238 has been used to date the oldest rocks on Earth as about 4 billion years old.

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34
 Chapter 5: Fundamental Particles

5.1 Introduction
In particle physics, an elementary or fundamental particle is a particle whose substructure is unknown;
thus, it is unknown whether it is composed of other particles.

Scientists have long wanted to find the most basic building blocks of the universe. They asked, “what are
the fundamental particles of matter that cannot be subdivided into smaller, simpler particles,” and “what
holds these particles together?” Scientists thought they had finally found them when John Dalton
discovered the atom in 1803. The word atom means “indivisible,” and Dalton thought that the atom could
not be divided into smaller, simpler particles. However starting in the late 1890s with the discovery of
electrons, particles smaller and simpler than atoms were identified.

Within a few decades, protons and neutrons were also discovered. Ultimately, hundreds of subatomic
particles which are much smaller than protons and neutrons were found. Protons and neutrons are
therefore not fundamental particles; they are composite particles composed of other smaller particles as
shall be discussed later.

This implies that the physical world is composed of combinations of various subatomic or fundamental
particles which are the smallest building blocks of matter. These subatomic/ fundamental particles are
split into two groups: quarks and leptons – there are six of these, each with a corresponding anti-particle
i.e. antiquarks, and antileptons.

5.2 Leptons
Leptons are matter particles. Leptons are divided into three pairs (making six leptons in total). Each pair
has an elementary particle with a charge and one with no charge – one that is much lighter and extremely
difficult to detect. The best known of all leptons are the electrons and the neutrinos together with their
corresponding anti-particles the positron and anti-neutrino respectively. Leptons are truly fundamental
particles that cannot be broken down into smaller, simpler particles. The six leptons and their
corresponding antiparticles are given in the table below.

Leptons Anti-leptons
Particle Charge Antiparticle Charge
Electron e  , -1 -1  
Positron e  +1
Electron neutrino (νe) 0 Electron antineutrino  e  0

muon   -1  
Antimuon   +1
muon neutrino (νμ) 0  
Muon antineutrino   0

Tau   -1  
Antitau   +1
tau neutrino (ντ) 0 Tau antineutrino    0

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The charged electron is responsible for electric currents. Its uncharged partner, known as the electron-
neutrino, is produced copiously in the sun and these interact so weakly with their surroundings that they
pass unhindered through the Earth. A million of them pass through every square centimeter of your body
every second, day and night.
Electron-neutrinos are produced in unimaginable numbers during supernova explosions and it is these
particles that disperse elements produced by nuclear burning into the universe. These elements include the
carbon from which we are made, the oxygen we breathe, and almost everything else on earth. Therefore,
in spite of the reluctance of neutrinos to interact with other fundamental particles, they are vital for our
existence. The other two neutrino pairs (called muon and muon neutrino, tau and tau neutrino) appear to
be just heavier versions of the electron.
5.2.1 Properties of leptons
- Leptons have an electric charge of either -1 or 0. Electrons, for example, have a charge of -1.
- Leptons have mass, although the mass of electrons is extremely small.

5.3 Quarks
Quarks are the fundamental particles that make up the composite particles called the hadrons. Hadrons
are divided into; baryons (3 quarks) and mesons (1 quark). There are six types of quarks and six
antiquarks. All quarks have mass, and they have an electric charge of either +2/3 or -1/3.

Quarks Anti-quarks
Particle Charge Antiparticle Charge
Up quark (u) 2/3 Up antiquark u  -2/3
Down quark (d) -1/3 Down antiquark d  +1/3

Charm quark (c) 2/3 Charm antiquark c  -2/3

Strange quark (s) -1/3 Strange antiquark s  +1/3

Top quark (t) 2/3 Top antiquark t  -2/3

Bottom quark (b) -1/3 Bottom antiquark b  +1/3

5.3.1 Baryons
Baryons are massive particles which are made up of three quarks in the standard model. This class of
particles includes the proton and neutron. Protons and neutrons are no longer thought to be fundamental
particles. Instead, they are now thought to consist of smaller, simpler particles; the quarks. Protons consist
of 2 up quarks and 1 down quark (uud) whereas neutrons consist of 2 down quarks and 1 up quark (ddu).
Common baryons are shown in the table below.

Particle Quark makeup Rest mass (MeV/c2) spin

Proton uud 938.3 1/2
Neutron ddu 939.6 1/2
Lambda uds 1115.6 1/2

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 Lambda udu 2281 1/2
Sigma uus 1189.4 1/2
Sigma uds 1192.5 1/2
Sigma dds 1197.3 1/2
Delta uuu 1232 3/2
Delta uud 1232 3/2
Delta udd 1232 3/2
Delta ddd 1232 3/2
Omega sss 1672 3/2

All baryons and electrons are fermions. Fermions are particles which have half-integer spin and therefore
are constrained by the Pauli Exclusion Principle. Fermions include electrons and all baryons. The energy
distribution in fermions is described by Fermi-Dirac statistics.

5.3.2 Mesons
Mesons are intermediate mass particles which are made up of a quark-antiquark pair. Examples of
mesons include; pion, kaon, eta, rho, phi, upsilon etc. All mesons are bosons. Bosons are force-carrying
particles which that hold together the leptons and quarks. They have integer spin and which therefore are
not considered by the Pauli Exclusion Principle. The energy distribution of bosons is described by Bose-
Einstein statistics. There are six force carrying particles in nature as given in the figure below.

37
 Examples of bosons

 Photon is a particle of light and is responsible for electric and magnetic fields, created by the
exchange of photons from one charged object to another.

 Gluon produces the force responsible for holding quarks together to form protons and neutrons,
and for holding those protons and neutrons together to form heavier nuclei.

 Three particles named the W+, W- and the Z0 – referred to as intermediate vector bosons – are
responsible for the process of radioactive decay and for the processes in the sun which cause it to
shine.

 A sixth force particle, the graviton, is believed to be responsible for gravitation, but has not yet
been observed.

Worked example
Q: Protons consist of three quarks: two up quarks and one down quark. Neutrons also consist of three
quarks: two down quarks and one up quark. Based on this information, what is the total electric charge of
a proton? Of a neutron?

A: These combinations of quarks give protons a total electric charge of +1 (2/3 + 2/3 – 1/3 = 1) and
neutrons a total electric charge of 0 (2/3 – 1/3 – 1/3 = 0).

5.4 Fundamental forces and exchange particles

The interactions of matter particles are subject to four fundamental forces in nature which are thought to
be transmitted by the six bosons; the force-carrying fundamental particles. The force between two objects
can be described as the exchange of a particle. The exchange particle transfers momentum and energy
38
between the two objects, and is said to mediate the interaction. A simple analogue of this is a ball being
thrown back and forth between two people. The momentum imparted to the ball by one person gets
transferred to the other person when she catches the ball.
The four fundamental forces in nature are;

Force Description Exchange particle

Gravity Gravitational force affects particles with mass. It is the weakest Graviton
interaction but governs the large scale structure of the universe
because of its infinite range and the strength decreases as 1/r2.
Electromagnetic It affects particles with charge. It has an infinite range like Photon
gravity but is much stronger than both it and the weak
interaction. Electromagnetism has an infinite range and its
strength decreases as 1/r2.
Weak force It affects all particles. It is, as its name suggests, very weak and W and Z
its range is extremely short. It is responsible for beta decay and
neutrino interactions with nuclei.
Strong force It’s generally called the nuclear force since it binds quarks Gluon
together to form baryons (3 quarks) and mesons (a quark and an
anti-quark). Therefore, strong force binds the quarks together
and a residual effect of this is to bind the nucleons together in
the nucleus. It is the strongest interaction but it has a very short
range.

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