Title

Name: Khush Kothari

Batch: B1
UID: 2022200070
Experiment No.: 7

AIM: To design and simulate a waveguide in CST software, studying its electromagnetic
characteristics.
Theory: A waveguide is a structure that guides electromagnetic waves from one point to another,
typically used in microwave and RF frequency ranges. Unlike conventional transmission
lines (e.g., coaxial cables), waveguides rely on their geometry and boundary conditions to
confine and direct the energy. They support various modes of propagation, with each
mode having a specific cutoff frequency.
Equations and Characteristics:
1. Waveguide Modes:
o Transverse Electric (TE) Modes: No electric field component along the
direction of propagation (z-axis). The most common is the TE₁₀ mode in
rectangular waveguides.
o Transverse Magnetic (TM) Modes: No magnetic field component along
the z-axis.
The cutoff frequency for TE and TM modes is given by:
𝑐2 𝑚 𝑛
𝑓𝑐 = √( )2 + ( )2
2 𝑎 𝑏
Where:
o c is the speed of light in a vacuum,
o a and b are the waveguide dimensions,
o m and n are mode numbers (TE₁₀: m=1m = 1m=1, n=0n = 0n=0).
2. Wave Propagation: The wavelength inside the waveguide, is longer than the free-
space wavelength, , and is given by:

where f is the operating frequency. Below the cutoff frequency, the wave does not
propagate, while above it, the wave is guided efficiently.
Surface Current:
Surface currents are induced along the walls of the waveguide due to the interaction
between the electric and magnetic fields inside. These currents flow tangentially along the
conductor's surface, driven by the tangential component of the magnetic field. The
strength and distribution of the surface currents depend on the waveguide mode and
operating frequency.
In TE modes, the magnetic field loops around the cross-section, generating surface
currents primarily on the broad walls of the rectangular waveguide. These currents result
in conductor losses due to resistive heating, which can be minimized by using highly
conductive materials (e.g., copper, silver). The skin effect causes the current to
concentrate near the surface of the conductor, leading to increased losses at higher
frequencies.
Power Flow in Waveguides:
Power is transmitted through the waveguide by the electromagnetic fields, and the power
flow is quantified using the Poynting vector, which represents the rate of energy transfer
per unit area. The Poynting vector is given by:
𝑆=𝐸𝑋𝐻
where E is the electric field vector, and H is the magnetic field vector.
The total power flow through the waveguide is obtained by integrating the Poynting
vector over the cross-sectional area A:
⬚

𝑃 = ∫ 𝑆. 𝑑𝐴
𝐴
The efficiency of power flow depends on the mode and frequency of operation. TE modes
generally allow efficient power transfer, with the dominant TE₁₀ mode being the most
common for rectangular waveguides.
S-Parameters (Scattering Parameters):
S-parameters are essential for describing how signals behave at the input and output of
the waveguide, particularly when it is connected to other components or devices. They
describe the reflection, transmission, and interaction of waves at the ports of a network.
• S11: The reflection coefficient at the input (how much of the input signal is
reflected).
• S21: The transmission coefficient (how much of the signal is transmitted from the
input to the output).
For a well-matched waveguide, S11 should be minimal (low reflection), and S21 should be
close to 1 (high transmission). Mismatches cause reflections that increase S11 and reduce
the transmission power.
Z Reference (Characteristic Impedance):
The characteristic impedance of a waveguide, 𝑍0 defines the relationship between the
electric and magnetic fields for a given mode of propagation. For a rectangular waveguide
operating in the dominant TE₁₀ mode, the characteristic impedance is:
𝑍0 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑍0 =
2 2
√1 − 𝑓𝑐
𝑓
𝑍0 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 =377 Ω is the free-space impedance.
The characteristic impedance varies with frequency, increasing as the operating frequency
approaches the cutoff frequency.
VSWR
VSWR is measure of how efficiently radio-frequency (RF) power is transmitted from the
source to the load through the waveguide. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum to the
minimum voltage in the standing wave pattern formed by the superposition of the
incident and reflected waves. Mathematically, VSWR is related to the reflection coefficien
1 + |𝛾|
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 =
1 − |𝛾|
• Gamma 𝛾 is the magnitude of the reflection coefficient, which depends on the
impedance mismatch.
• If the impedance of the waveguide and the load are perfectly matched (no
reflection a 𝛾 = 0 and
VSWR = 0
This indicates perfect power transfer and no reflections.
• If there is a mismatch, ∣Γ∣> 0 , and the VSWR increases above 1, indicating the
presence of reflected power.

Electric and Magnetic Fields:

 Inside a waveguide, the electric and magnetic fields form standing waves due to the
boundary conditions imposed by the conducting walls. For the dominant TE₁₀ mode in a
rectangular waveguide:
• The electric field Ey varies sinusoidally along the width of the guide, with no
component along the direction of propagation (z-axis).
• The magnetic field Hx and Hz form loops, with the magnetic field varying
sinusoidally along the height of the waveguide.
The field distributions depend on the mode, and higher-order modes (like TE₁₁ or TM
modes) have more complex field patterns.

Problem Waveguides are essential components in microwave and RF systems, used to direct
electromagnetic waves with minimal loss. The challenge is to design a waveguide
Definition: structure that operates efficiently within a specific frequency range, ensuring proper
mode propagation and minimizing reflection. The goal is to study the key characteristics
like cutoff frequency, field distribution, and mode behaviour using CST software
simulations to optimize waveguide performance.
Experimentation:

This is the waveguide that I created in CST software by taking a big block and further
subtracting a smaller block from it, to create the hollow waveguide.

Here we can see some of the characteristics followed by the standard parameters
of WR90. 22.86 mm x 10.16 mm are typically used for frequencies in the 8.2 GHz to
12.4 GHz range.
The material used is copper.
Result S-parameter
𝑆11 helps to know how much of the input signal is reflected.

𝑆21 /𝑆12 represents the reverse transmission coefficient, which indicates how much
power is transmitted between ports in a two-port network, such as a waveguide system.
S21 should be close to 1 (high transmission).

In the above graphs, we can see that between our desired frequency range which was set
to 8 to 13 kHz 𝑆21 /𝑆12 is almost 1. Indicating good matching between the waveguide
and the load in this range.

𝒁𝒓𝒆𝒇

The fact that the impedance remains almost constant between 8 kHz to 13 kHz suggests
that the waveguide is operating in a stable mode, and the frequency range falls well above
the cutoff frequency of the dominant mode. Indicates good match between the
waveguide and the load in this range.

VSWR:
A stable characteristic impedance usually means minimal reflection of signals,
leading to a lower reflection coefficient Γ and, hence, a low VSWR.

which can be observed in the range of 8 to 13 kHz.

Electric and Magnetic field

In a waveguide, the electric field is confined and guided by the conducting walls,
forming specific patterns based on the mode of propagation.
In a waveguide, the magnetic field (H-field) is also confined by the conducting
walls and forms patterns based on the propagation mode. In the TE₁₀ mode, the
magnetic field circulates around the electric field, with components oriented
primarily along the length of the waveguide and varying sinusoidally along the
width.
Surface current:

In a waveguide, surface currents are induced on the conducting walls due to the
interaction of the electromagnetic fields with the material. These currents flow primarily
along the walls where the magnetic field (H-field) is strongest.
 Power loss:

The power loss is typically maximum at the centre of the waveguide due to the
concentration of the electric and magnetic fields in that region

Conclusion: