Chapter 1 Basics of Fermented Foods

Genus name:Lacticaseibacillus, Tetragenococcus

Lactic
Typical fungus:Lacticasebacillus casei,
acid bacteria Tetragenococcus halophilus

Bacteria with which the history of fermentation began

Lactic acid bacteria is the generic name bacteria to milk to cause fermentation. unique to pickles. Tetragenococcus
for bacteria that consumes sugar to Lactic acid bacteria are also indispensable halophilus is a salt-tolerant lactic acid
produce lactic acid, and exist everywhere for producing miso, soy sauce, and pickles. bacterium that is indispensable for
in the world of nature, as with yeasts. It is For example, in the pickle-making process, producing salty fermented foods such as
believed that the history of fermentation lactic acid bacteria adhering to the surface miso and soy sauce. Lactic acid bacteria
begins with livestock milk fermented by of vegetables take sugar contained in the are facultative anaerobic (they dislike
lactic acid bacteria thousands of years ago. vegetables, and yeasts adhering to the oxygen), and lactic acid fermentation
Dairy products such as yogurt, cheese, and vegetables also take part in fermentation. takes place inside foods.
butter are produced by adding lactic acid This combination produces flavors

Genus name:Bacillus
Bacillus subtilis natto Typical fungus:Bacillus subtilis

Tough bacteria that survive special environments

Bacillus subtilis natto is a bacterium cells.

that inhabits rice straw, dry grass, and A typical fermented food produced by
fallen leaves, and has high propagating Bacillus subtilis natto is itohiki (stringy)
power. When exposed to high or natto. The substance that makes viscous rice straw and kept at a certain
low temperatures, dry conditions, itohiki natto is a high polymer comprised temperature, Bacillus subtilis natto
undernourished, or placed in other of γ-glutamic acids, a type of amino acid, inhabiting in the rice straw propagates
severe environments, it forms a special connected in a specific way, which makes and produces highly nutritious itohiki
cell structure called a spore and goes Japanese natto what it is. The umami of natto. The wisdom of taking advantage
into a dormant state. When placed in an natto is produced by a strong enzyme in of the characteristics of Bacillus subtilis
environment suitable for propagation, the Bacillus subtilis natto during fermentation. natto was discovered through experience
spores can germinate back into vegetative When boiled soybeans are packed in by the Japanese.

Genus name:Acetobacter
Acetic acid bacteria Typical fungus:Acetobacter aceti

Unusual bacteria that like oxygen and alcohol

Acetic acid bacteria is the generic name use oxygen to oxidize alcohol to acetic
for bacteria that change alcohol into acetic acid. Acetic acid bacteria are acid resistant acetic acid bacteria and forms a thick
acid, and are indispensable for producing and produce acetic acid to create an film in the process of fermentation. This
vinegar. The strong acidic taste and acrid acidic environment. This prevents characteristic can be used to make the
smell of vinegar come from acetic acid. other microorganisms from entering milky, jelly-like nata de coco, which is
Acetic acid bacteria adhere to flowers the environment and enables dominant made by fermenting coconut water with K.
or fruits, and float in the air. Generally, fermentation. Japanese rice vinegar is xylinus. The solids floating in Kombucha,
fermentation does not require oxygen, but made by fermenting sake with acetic a lightly carbonated drink made by
acetic acid bacteria cannot grow without acid bacteria. Wine vinegar is made by fermenting tea, are also made by the same
oxygen. Acetic acid bacteria carry out fermenting wine with acetic acid bacteria. characteristic of K. xylinus.
acetic acid fermentation, in which they Komagataeibacter xylinus is a type of

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Chapter 2 Learn about the History and Culture of Fermented Foods

2-1 History of fermented foods

It is believed that the world’s first fermented food is a yogurt-like food, made unexpectedly in Central Asia approx. 6,000
years ago from milk left out in a dry grass field. Having obtained knowledge of fermentation, human beings produced
various fermented foods in different countries around the world by taking advantage of the local climate and foodstuffs
grown there through trial-and-error processes. Following the discovery of microorganisms by Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch
lens polisher, in the 17th century, fermented foods underwent a revolution through the power of science. Let’s trace the
history of fermented foods until this revolution and the discovery of microorganisms.

Birth of fermented foods looking at various regions

around the world, regions
Fermented foods can be seen in various with an alcohol culture
regions around the world, and have produced vinegar made
been produced and developed through from the same foodstuffs
experience, influenced by the local climate as the alcoholic drinks
and the technologies for preserving they produced.
foodstuffs grown there. In Europe, where Originally, fermented
dairy farming was popular, many of their foods were born from
fermented foods were made of milk. It techniques for preserving
is said that the phenomenon of curdling valuable foods. If foodstuffs
milk was found unexpectedly by a desert are not properly preserved,
traveler, who noticed that the milk had putrefactive bacteria grow. Bread making depicted on the tomb of Ramses III (circa 1221-1156 B.C.)
curdled in a water flask made of a goat If they are preserved by https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ramses_III_bakery.jpg?uselang=ja
stomach. Europe’s cool climates and adding salt added, the osmotic pressure that rot is caused by an invisible factor
abundance of milk lead to the development effect prevents putrefactive bacteria from (microorganisms in the air). He also
of technologies that make use of this inhabiting the food. However, salt-tolerant established the pasteurization technology
phenomenon to produce cheese and yeast or lactic acid bacteria, which are not and contributed to the production of
yogurt. In grape-growing regions, wine was commonly seen, can grow in the presence safe-to-drink wine (*2). In addition,
born, and in island countries surrounded of high salt concentrations, and thus, another of Pasteur’s big achievements is
by the sea, fermented foods using fishery continue to carry out fermentation. As that he succeeded in separating acetic acid
products commonly appeared. In Japan, a result, a unique flavor that is different bacteria from wine that turned sour, or
where rice growing has been popular, from the original foodstuff is produced, wine vinegar, as the responsible bacteria
various fermented foods using rice were changing the taste. Fermented foods for the first time.
born. were born from these experiences of our Koch, a German known to have
Ancient Egyptian wall paintings show ancestors. discovered cholera bacteria and tubercle
that bread making had already taken bacteria, is another great contributor.
place at that time. It is unknown whether Discovery of microorganisms Koch succeeded in separating pathogens
the fermentation there was carried out and beginning of zymology from animals infected with anthrax.
intentionally. However, considering that Koch’s method for separating
kneaded flour swells via fermentation In the 17th century, Leeuwenhoek, a microorganisms has been used as an
by the action of yeast in the air, which Dutchman, discovered the existence of important method in subsequent
changes sugar into alcohol and carbon microorganisms. This discovery provided microbial studies. Hansen, a Dane, and his
dioxide, it is supposed that the ancient a great opportunity for human beings associates invented a pure culture method
Egyptians had naturally experienced the to come to know the involvement for yeast by applying Pasteur’s theory, and
phenomenon of fermentation. It is also of microorganisms in fermentation. achieved the innovation of separating and
believed that grape juice was naturally Leeuwenhoek observed various microscopic culturing beneficial yeasts for beer
fermented into wine. It can be assumed organisms with a microscope he had made production based on this method.
that sweet juice left to stand came to himself and shared his findings. Owing to Thanks to the discoveries and inventions
produce alcohol and was found to have his observation, human beings came to by these great figures, human beings can
a pleasant flavor and make people feel know for the first time that microscopic today safely eat fermented foods.
pleasant when drunk, and that is how organisms exist in the world. This is the
alcohol culture was born. It is believed beginning of microbiology. *1 A flask with a thin and long neck extending in
a lateral direction. By bending the neck like a
that wine had already been brewed in It is Pasteur, a French microbiologist, who swan neck in the middle, the flask can prevent
the country of Georgia around 7000 to greatly contributed to the development of microorganisms in the air from entering it.
*2 In the presence of alcohol, just keeping grape juice
5000 B.C. Every country in the world zymology. Pasteur scientifically explained at a low temperature for a short period of time has
has its own alcohol culture based on the the phenomenon of fermentation. He a bactericidal effect. This technology is the same
as hiire, a process in brewing sake in Japan where
foodstuffs grown in their local climate. demonstrated in an experiment using a the sake is gently heated to sterilize the liquid
When wine is fermented with acetic acid well-known swan neck flask (*1) that rot is before preservation, and it is believed that this hiire
process had taken place 300 years before Pasteur’s
bacteria, vinegar can be made. Similarly, not caused without an external factor and discovery.
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 Chapter 2 Learn about the History and Culture of Fermented Foods

2-2 The Japanese and

Fermentation
Japan is sometimes called one of the world’s largest producers of fermented foods. Japan
has a unique fermentation culture born from the fusion of a humid climate specific to
East Asia, the varied topographies and abundant nature surrounded on all sides by the
sea, and the sharp eyes of our ancestors. This unique culture is based on Aspergillus Inside the koji room, where koji is made
Courtesy of: Fukuoka Soy Sauce Shop
oryzae, a mystical mold, and koji made by this mold. Here, let’s look at the background (Iga City, Mie Prefecture)
and characteristics of Japanese fermentation culture from a historic perspective.

Asian regions with a hishio eating, kokubishio and uobishio had been mold, which may be Rhizopus or mucor
culture used since a long time ago. Fermented inhabiting in China. For this reason, this
seasonings similar to miso that have been koji is called [mochi koji]. In Japan, on
Fermentation technologies introduced handed down until today include Chinese the other hand, Aspergillus oryzae is used
from China have played an important role hishio seasonings such as doubanjiang for koji. Aspergillus oryzae is cultivated
in the background of Japan’s fermentation (chili bean sauce) and tianmianjiang on rice grains to make bara (granular)
culture. Soybeans originated in China, (sweet bean paste), and South Korean koji. This difference is that bara koji
where there are many soybean-based gochujang (Korean red chili paste). Thai takes advantage of the characteristics of
fermented foods. Around 700 B.C. (in the nam-pla and Vietnamese nuoc mam are the fungus used. The mochi koji style is
Zhuo Dynasty period), [hishio], which kinds of uobishio. In addition to Japanese suitable for Rhizopus and other molds of
are salted and fermented foods and is soy sauce and miso, these are seasonings the same genus, which grows its elongated
considered to be the original form of soy that exactly represent Asian regions with roots deep into the mochi, drawing
sauce, had already been made (Hishio is a fermentation culture. nutrition from it and easily propagating
generally written as “ ” in kanji, and inside the mochi. However, Aspergillus
is also written as “ ”). There are Koji and the Japanese oryzae cannot easily propagate on mochi.
different types of hishio: kusabishio Aspergillus oryzae likes rice, and attaches
(salted and fermented vegetables), In Japan, where rice farming was to the rice surface and grows elongated
kokubishio (salted and fermented cereals), popular, fermented foods using rice spores there rather than elongated
uobishio (salted and fermented fishes), were developed using fermentation roots deep into the rice. In Japan, the
and shishibishio (salted and fermented technologies introduced from China. bara koji style takes advantage of these
meat). Basically, when foodstuffs are The underlying technology for producing characteristics of the mold to develop a
salted, water is carried out of the cells by these fermented foods is [koji], and rice method to make koji from rice grains.
the osmotic effect of salt. It is thought koji, made of rice, was used to make sake In Japan, efforts have been made to
that these salted foodstuffs would begin and soy sauce. The process of making pursue safer and more stable fermentation.
to ferment with time and the resultant soy sauce, miso, sake, vinegar, or other As a result, our ancestors found that to
infusion had been used as a fermented fermented foods by applying fermentation make quality koji, it was important to
seasoning. Then, kusabishio evolved into is called [brewing], and Japanese brewing use a quality fungus, and then, [seed koji
pickle-like foods and kokubishio into soy technologies are characterized by its use of dealers] appeared as a type of business
sauce and miso. koji. The importance of koji in the process which handled quality Aspergillus oryzae.
It is said that hishio was introduced of brewing can be seen in the procedures If wood ash is added to Aspergillus oryzae
to Japan around the 4th to 6th century. for brewing soy sauce, miso, and sake. In spores, the potassium in charcoal helps
Miso was called “hishio” and was like brewing soy sauce, [koji making comes the fungus to propagate while undesirable
salted soybeans at that time. Rice miso first, stirring comes second, and heating bacteria that dislike alkaline environments
was born by using koji, and then spread comes third]. In brewing miso, [koji can be controlled. Our ancestors found
across the country. The origin of the word making comes first, boiling comes second, that pure Aspergillus oryzae spores could
[miso] was written as [ ] in kanji. “ and brewing comes third]. In brewing be obtained by this method based on the
” means yet-to-be, and [ ] means sake, [koji making comes first, sake mash knowledge of these characteristics of the
yet-to-be-completed [hishio]. It was making comes second, and brewing comes fungus and charcoal.
probably changed to [ ] and then to the third]. Koji is an epoch-making invention Aspergillus oryzae sp. molds in the
present kanji characters [ ]. Soy sauce by Japan, and forms the backbone of natural world are toxic. Experientially,
was the liquid collected from the surface Japan’s fermentation culture. our ancestors stored quality Aspergillus
of miso (called “tamari”) at that time, Originally, [ ], the kanji character for oryzae used for producing sake, and
and was a by-product of making miso. koji, was created in China, and refers to succeeded in growing it as a pure culture
This liquid was developed into soy sauce rice, barley, wheat, soybeans, or other and successfully separating the safe
using koji. Uobishio was made by salting cereals inoculated with a fermentation Aspergillus oryzae. This is how Aspergillus
small fishes and fermenting them over mold. In Japan, the Japanese original oryzae was [domesticated], and only
a long period of time into a liquid, and kanji [ ] is also used, where “ ” means safe, beneficial fungi came to be used
production declined since after the Heian rice, and refers to rice inoculated with for producing fermented foods in Japan.
era. However, some uobishio products, Aspergillus oryzae. This provides evidence Technologies that form the basis for
such as Shotsuru in Akita Prefecture, that rice koji was born in Japan. today’s biotechnologies have been handed
Ishiru in Ishikawa Prefecture, and Ikanago Koji in China is made by grinding wheat, down to us continuously since ancient
soy sauce in Kagawa Prefecture, have been barley, or other cereals into powder, times in Japan.
handed down until today. kneading it together with water, molding
In not only Japan but also other Asian the mixture into a mochi (rice cake) shape,
regions based on rice farming and fish and cultivating a fermentation
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Chapter 2 Learn about the History and Culture of Fermented Foods

2-3 Diversity of fermentation cultures –

Difference between the East and the West
Fermentation is closely related to the climate of the region, the microorganisms inhabiting it, and foodstuffs harvested
there. Bread, cheese, wine, and Japanese soy sauce, miso, and sake are all fermented foods, but are made by using
different microorganisms and different methods. Japanese miso and soy sauce were developed based on fermentation
technologies introduced from China, and are deeply related to Chinese fermentation culture. Different countries make
different fermented foods, but the fermentation cultures behind them can be divided roughly into the fermentation
culture of the East and that of the West, which have their own respective characteristics.

Multiplication-based and by using molds can be found in each of Similarly, when the sugar in grapes is
addition-based fermentation these regions, such as cereal-based changed by yeast to produce alcohol, wine
cultures alcoholic beverages including sake, can be made. By using a certain fungus
Shaoxing rice wine, and makgeolli, and or bacterium with a certain foodstuff,
The eastern areas of the world, including seasonings including doubanjiang, a certain fermented food can be made.
East Asia’s China and Southeast Asia, gochujang, soy sauce, and miso. By Based on this idea, clear and theoretical
has hot and humid climates, where involving molds as well as other fungi and fermentation cultures have developed.
putrefactive bacteria easily grow and bacteria such as lactic acid bacteria, acetic Generally, food cultures in the West are
foodstuffs easily rot. For this reason, acid bacteria, and yeast in fermentation, based on the idea of extracting the positive
the technology of salting foodstuffs, unique, complex, and sometimes peculiar qualities of foodstuffs and blending them,
such as vegetables and fishery products, tastes that combine saltiness, sourness, which can be said as the idea of addition.
had developed to preserve them for and umami are produced. On the other hand, food cultures in the
longer periods of time. During long-time On the other hand, in the western areas East are based on the idea of making the
preservation, fermentation is started of the world, including Europe and the most of or bringing out the natural tastes
by fungi or bacteria that act even in areas around the Mediterranean Sea, and flavors of foodstuffs, and involving
the presence of salt, such as lactic acid which have relatively dry climates, there different kinds of fungi and bacteria in the
bacteria. Various pickles, such as Japanese was no need to salt foodstuffs to prevent process, which can be said as the idea of
pickles, Chinese Szechuan pickles, and putrefactive bacteria from growing. multiplication. People in the West may
Korean kimchi pickles, and various kinds Typical fermented foods made in these think that fermentation cultures in the
of fish sauce (present form of uobishio) areas include bread and beer made from East are kind of mysterious, especially the
used in Southeast Asia are fermented wheat and barley, respectively, alcohol way in which the molds used are largely
foods made by combining salting and beverages made from fruits, and dairy invisible. This shows that fermented foods
fermentation. products such as cheese and yogurt, and are inseparable from the climates where
What is also important to note about the production of these foods involves they are produced. Savor wine and feel the
fermentation in the East is fermentation relatively fewer kinds of fungi and bacteria climate of the region where it was made.
using [molds]. The East has hot and humid and is based on simple fermentation. For Savor pickles and think about the living
climates that are suitable for molds to example, when the sugar in milk is of people in the region where they were
propagate, and is abundant with rice, decomposed by lactic acid bacteria, sour made. Every fermented food has a story.
barley, wheat, soybeans, and other cereals lactic acid is produced. When the lactic
molds are fond of. Fermented foods made acid is left to stand, it curdles into yogurt.

Column
Tradition of fermentation in Japan

Microorganisms act on materials to change them into other which god was the father, paddy fields were made and sake was
materials beneficial to human beings. This is fermentation. brewed. When offered the sake, the child poured it for one of gods
Fermentation in Japan has a deep history, and its strong footprints gathered. Thus, they could find the father].
have been left in Japan’s oldest history books. [Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters)] has a story saying, [Susanoo
[Harima no Kuni Fudoki (topography of Harima Province)] has a no Mikoto, a god, let Yamata no Orochi (big snake with eight heads),
story saying, [Dried boiled rice offered to Iwa no Okami (great god) which was extremely fond of sake, drink sake to eliminate it. The god
got wet and moldy. Sake made by brewing it was presented as niwaki cut off the eight heads and tail of the mortally drunk and sleeping
(sacred sake), and a drinking party was held]. This story is considered big snake]. The sake that the snake drank was [Yashiori no Sake],
to be the most widely believed theory about the origin of koji used in which is written as “ ” in kanji. “ ” means many, “ ”
Japan. The setting of this story is believed to be present Niwata-jinja means matured moromi soup, and “ ” means repeat. A description
Shrine located in Shiso City, Hyogo Prefecture, and legend has it that that the process of brewing was repeated 8 times can be found in the
sake was made using warm water present behind the main shrine. history book, and it can be assumed that the sake was very tasty. Koji
The same book also has a story saying, [Michinushihime no Mikoto, in Japan has such an ancient origin, and has been handed down the
a goddess, gave birth to a child whose father was unknown. To find ages, which lets us realize how great fermentation is.

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 Chapter 3 Learn about Typical Japanese Fermented Foods

3-1 Fermented seasonings and sake

Miso and soy sauce are two seasonings indispensable to dining tables in Japan. They are both fermented seasonings that
are made mainly of soybeans and originated from technologies introduced from the Chinese continent. Over their long
histories, various kinds of miso and soy sauce have been produced to suit the climates and taste preferences of various
regions in Japan, and they are today world-renowned seasonings. Sake, which is called “seishu” under the Liquor Tax Act, is
based on the Japanese people’s rice-eating culture and Aspergillus oryzae, which are combined with delicate technologies
for manipulating microorganisms that our ancestors developed. It is worthy to be called the [national drink] of Japan. Here,
details about these fermented products, including their histories and methods for producing them, are introduced.

(fermented black beans) in China and

Miso (Soy paste) gochujang (Korean red chili paste) in South
Korea.
Infinite variations produced by In Japan, a food modeled after hishio and
the different climates of different kuki was introduced through the Korean
regions Peninsula approx. 1300 years ago. It was
like today’s soybean miso, represented
Miso is a solid salty fermented seasoning by the kanji characters “ .” This is
made by fermenting soybeans in the believed to be the origin of miso. It is said the one soup plus one dish (or three-dish)
presence of a high concentration of salt. In that the kanji characters “ ,” which meal style comprised of cooked
the Japanese Agricultural Standards (Act is pronounced “miso,” started to be used miscellaneous cereals, miso soup, and a
on Japanese Agricultural Standards) (*), in the Heian era. The kanji character [ pickle, was established in this era.
miso is defined as a [semisolid material ] was created in Japan, and is only used In the Sengoku period (1467 – 1573),
made by adding koji based on rice, in the kanji characters “ ,” indicating military commanders around the country
barley, or another cereal (or koji made of that miso is Japan’s own food. After that, used miso as army provisions because of its
soybeans) to steamed soybeans, mixing Japan’s own rice miso using rice koji was good keeping quality and nutritiousness,
salt, and allowing the mixture to ferment developed in the Japanese rice-eating and thus, miso came to be made widely
and mature]. culture, and spread across the country. around the country under the leadership
In the Heian era (794 – 1185), miso of feudal loads. [Oensogura], built in the
The history of miso was eaten as-is, as a side dish, or used castle town of Sendai Aoba by Masamune
as a seasoning put on tofu (bean curd) Date, is believed to be Japan’s first miso
It is believed that miso originated from or vegetables, and was considered as an factory. The taste of miso produced in the
hishio and kuki (boiled and mashed expensive food habitually eaten by the factory has been handed down as [Sendai
soybeans with added salt), which have upper-class. This kind of miso is called miso]. Shingen Takeda, who built the basis
been known from ancient times in China. [name miso (miso eaten as it is)] or [okazu for [Shinshu miso], and Ieyasu Tokugawa,
Hishio refers to salted and fermented miso (miso eaten as a side dish)], and still the founder of the Edo Shogunate, are
foods. There are different types of today, there are various kinds of miso known to have been extremely fond of
hishio, such as kusabishio (salted and eaten in this way. Popular ones include miso soup, which helped to develop the
fermented vegetables), uobishio (salted kinzanji miso, tai miso, iriko miso, and miso culture in Edo.
and fermented fishery products), and sankai miso. These are regional specialties *1 This is a system based on the Act on Japanese
shishibishio (salted and fermented beef, or they reflect regional eating habits. Agricultural Standards (“JAS Act”), an act enacted
in order for the Japanese government to specify
pork, etc.). Asia, with its rice-farming Miso soup was invented in the Kamakura standards on foods and agricultural, forestry, and
culture, saw the development of era (1185 – 1333). Miso soup is said to marine products and on methods for handling
these products (“JAS standards”). Under this
kokubishio (salted and fermented be a great product invented by Japanese system, food products and agricultural, forestry,
beans or soybeans). Typical seasonings food culture. Unlike soup popular in other and marine products can be labelled with a
that originated from hishio include countries, miso soup is not eaten alone JAS mark, which certificates that they satisfy
JAS standards, or advertisements of businesses
doubanjiang (chili bean sauce) and touchi but always eaten with rice. [Ichiju-issai], handling these products can contain a JAS mark.

Process of producing rice miso and barley miso

Different kinds of miso with different
tastes, colors, and many other
characteristics are produced
Making koji depending on the length of the
Water and salt maturing period.

Steam rice or barley Rice koji or barley koji Fermentation

and Miso
Aspergillus oryzae maturation
Lactic acid bacteria
Steam and mash soybeans Yeast

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Chapter 3 Learn about Typical Japanese Fermented Foods

At least 1300 years have passed since Amakuchi miso is also called “chuama unique flavor, with a robust and rich
hishio and kuki were introduced, during (medium-sweet) miso.” [Aijiro miso] umami and a slightly astringent taste.
which various kinds of miso that use made in Shizuoka Prefecture and [Gozen Soybean miso is produced only in Aichi
or reflect different local ingredients, miso] made in Tokushima Prefecture are Prefecture, Gifu Prefecture, and Mie
climates, and eating habits in different well-known miso of this kind, and miso of Prefecture, and miso produced there is
regions in Japan have been produced, and this kind is also produced in the Setouchi named “Haccho miso,” “Nagoya miso,”
have played a great role in creating local seashore region. “Sanshu miso,” “Tamari miso,” etc.
food cultures. Karakuchi miso is made over a long In addition to these three kinds of miso,
brewing period, and the rice miso that other kinds of miso collectively called
Variety of miso is produced in the largest amounts blended miso are also subject to the
is karakuchi miso. Karakuchi miso quality labeling standards under the Act on
Miso is roughly divided into four kinds: comes in light and red colors. The color Japanese Agricultural Standards. Blended
[rice miso], [barley miso], [soybean shade depends on the method used for miso includes miso made by mixing rice
miso], and [blended miso]. These are processing the soybeans used as the miso, barley miso, and/or soybean miso
categorized into [ordinary miso]. [Rice ingredient and the flavor depends on the as well as miso made by mixing rice
miso] is classified into the three kinds length of the aging period. Represented by koji, barley koji, and/or soybean koji and
of ama (strongly sweet) miso, amakuchi [Shinshu miso], light-colored karakuchi brewing the mixture.
(moderately sweet) miso, and karakuchi miso is bright light yellow, and has a Miso other than ordinary miso is called
(salty) miso by the amount of koji and salt refreshing flavor unique to fermentation, [processed miso], and is divided into
used, and into three more kinds by color: and a light and plain taste. Represented [brewed name miso], which includes
white miso, red miso, and light-colored by [Sendai miso], red karakuchi miso has Kinzanji miso and hishio miso, and
miso (medium-colored miso). a vivid brownish-red color and a pleasant [processed name miso], which includes
Ama miso is made in a short period of 5 to flavor resulting from a long period of tekka miso, tai miso, and yuzu miso,
20 days, and is very sweet due to the sugar aging, and presents a robust and strong according to the production method.
content derived from rice koji. Ama miso taste produced by a harmony of umami [Brewed name miso] is made from dehulled
is divided into two types by color: white and saltiness. soybeans, barley, salt, vegetables, and
ama miso and red ama miso, which is due [Barley miso], which is also called “inaka other ingredients by fermentation and
to the difference in the method used for (country-style) miso,” was originally made maturation. [Processed name miso] is
processing the soybeans. by farmers for their own consumption, made by adding other ingredients, such
[Red ama miso] is brownish-red, glossy and its industrial production takes place in as vegetables, fishery products, sugar, and
miso represented by [Edo-style ama miso], limited areas such as the Kyushu, Shikoku, spices, to ordinary miso and heating and
and has a unique flavor produced by the and Chugoku regions and some parts of the kneading the mixture, and is available in
combination of the savory aromas of koji Kanto region. many varieties.
and soybeans. On the other hand, [white It is [soybean miso] that is made the same
ama miso] is a vivid light yellowish-white, way as the earliest kinds of miso, and it
and is characterized by a unique flavor that is considered the original form of miso.
comes from rice koji. [Saikyo miso] made Soybean miso does not use rice or barley,
in Kyoto is typical miso of this kind, and and is made by turning all ingredient
[Sanuki miso] made in Kagawa Prefecture soybeans into koji. Other kinds of miso
and [Fuchu miso] made in Hiroshima use bara (granular) koji while soybean
Prefecture are also well-known miso of miso uses molded koji made by pounding
this kind. Ama miso is commonly used for steamed soybeans into a ball. It contains
miso-based dishes or miso sauce rather salt at a concentration of 10% to 11%,
than for miso soup, and has a short shelf which is somewhat lower for salty miso. It
life. is dark brownish-red, and presents a Soybean koji, vital for making soybean miso
Courtesy of: Marukajozo (Toyota City, Aichi Prefecture)

Classification of miso and major areas of production Typical miso colors

Classification by Percentage Salt

Type of miso Major areas of production
taste or color of koji concentration Rice miso
(salty/red)
White 15~30 5~7 Kinki region, Chugoku region, Setouchi
Ama miso
Red 12~20 5~7 Tokyo
Rice miso
Amakuchi Light-colored 8~15 7~12 Shizuoka, Kyushu
(light-colored)
Rice miso
miso Red 10~15 11~13 Tokushima and other regions

Light-colored 5~10 11~13 Kanto-Koshinetsu, Hokuriku and other regions of the country
Karakuchi Rice miso
miso Red 5~10 11~13 Kanto-Koshinetsu, Tohoku region and other regions of the country (sweet/white)

Amakuchi Light-colored Kyushu, coastal areas of Japan Sea in the

15~25 9~11 Chugoku region
miso
Barley miso Soybean miso
Karakuchi
Red 8~15 11~13 Kyushu, Shikoku, northern part of Kanto
miso

Barley miso
Soybean miso Karakuchi
Whole
Red 10~12 Chukyo (Aichi, Mie, and Gifu Prefectures)
miso quantity

[Nihon no Dentoshoku Jiten] (Encyclopedia of Japanese Traditional Foods)(Edited by Nihon Dento Shokuhin Kenkyukai (study group),
Asakura Publishing Co., Ltd.)The figure in page 249 was partially changed.

11
 Chapter 3 Learn about Typical Japanese Fermented Foods

the early 6th century, the technique for

Shoyu (Soy sauce) producing the original form of shoyu, or
the supernatant of mamebishio (salted and
fermented soybeans) called “Dou Jiang
Magical liquid that contains 300 Qing”, is described.
Although there are various stories
kinds of flavors in a single drop
regarding the origin of shoyu in Japan, it is
said that it was introduced together with
Buddhism. According to the Taiho Code
Shoyu is a fermented seasoning in the (701), it is recorded that various kinds of
Shoyu blends well with foods, whether through cooking or
form of a clear liquid. It is made by soaking hishio were made of soybeans in Shoin, a by dipping. It also works to eliminate the fishy scent of raw
koji made of soybeans in salt water to facility for producing and storing hishio, seafood.
allow fermentation and maturation to take established by the Imperial Household shoyu in Edo until then, and became one of
place. Since shoyu is rich in glutamic acid, Department. [Engishiki], a book for codes Edo’s major seasonings.
an umami component, and other amino and procedures on national rites and In the Kanto region, Noda and Choshi
acids, it can be used in cooking to add a prayers written in the Heian era, which is in Chiba Prefecture developed as Japan’s
salty taste as well as umami to dishes and approx. 200 years after that, refers to soup largest producers of shoyu partly due to
make them tasty. Of these different kinds separated from hishio called “saisho,” their convenience for transportation and
of shoyu, koikuchi shoyu has the richest which is today’s tamari (thick) shoyu. other favorable geographical conditions.
flavor. There are more than 300 known On the other hand, there is another story Shoyu brewers were concentrated in
flavor components of shoyu, which include that shoyu originated from tamari soup certain production areas such as Noda,
caramel, vanilla, rose flower, banana, from miso spread by a Zen priest named Choshi, Tatsuno (Hyogo Prefecture), and
apple, matsutake mushroom, smoky Kakushin in the Kamakura era. Kakushin Shodo-shima Island (Kagawa Prefecture),
flavors, and many other flavors. Pouring went to China, practiced ascetic exercises and competed with each other on quality
only a single drop of shoyu on a dish wraps in the Kinzan-ji Temple, and learned how and developed shoyu into the staple of
it in a soft shoyu flavor. The pleasant flavor to produce miso. After coming back to Japan’s food industry that it is known for
increases the tastiness of the dish. Shoyu Japan, he founded a temple, which later today.
contains flavor elements from various became Kokoku-ji Temple, in Yurasho, Shoyu is sold not only in Japan but also
foodstuffs, and thus goes well with various Kii Province, and spread the method in more than 100 countries around the
dish flavors. for producing miso while performing world, and now is one of the world’s
missionary work. It is also said that the best-known seasonings. For example, the
The history of shoyu soup accumulated at the bottoms of vats word soybean originated from shoyu bean.
in the process of miso production was It is also said that Louis XIV, the former
Shoyu originated from hishio (jiang in found to be tasty and suitable for flavoring king of France, who was well-known as a
Chinese) and kuki (chi in Chinese) in the simmered dishes, and this soup is the gastronome, habitually used shoyu as a
Qin period in China or as early as over 2000 origin of shoyu. secret ingredient.
years ago. In [Qi Min Yao Shu] written in In the Muromachi era (1336 – 1573), Shoyu has been internationalized owing
industrial production of shoyu began in to efforts of leading shoyu manufacturers
the Kansai region, which was the center of including Kikkoman Corporation, which
culture at that time. Until the beginning penetrated the U.S. market earlier than
of the Edo era, shoyu made in the Kansai others. Shoyu became familiar to Japanese
region was called kudari shoyu (shoyu Americans, American soldiers who was
brought from the capital), and became stationed in Japan and then returned to
available in Edo. With the development the U.S., and other people living there,
of the city of Edo, Edo-style culture and came into general use in the country.
emerged, and koikuchi (dark-colored) Shoyu was also integrated into American
shoyu that goes with tempura, eel kabayaki food culture as the base for teriyaki sauce.
(broiled/grilled eels basted with a sweet
Shoyu moromi Courtesy: Fukuoka Soy Sauce Shop
(Iga City, Mie Prefecture)
sauce), foods boiled down in shoyu, and Variety of shoyu
other Edo-style dishes was invented. Then,
[Moromi] is created by combining salt and water to koji.
Salt-tolerant lactic acid and yeast grow and koikuchi shoyu replaced kudari shoyu, Under the Act on Japanese Agricultural
fermentation occurs to develop the unique flavor of shoyu. which had accounted for the majority of Standards, shoyu is divided into five kinds:

Process of producing koikuchi soy sauce

Fermentation
Making koji Moromi and Pressing
maturation
Different kinds of soy sauce with
Roast and grind wheat Soy sauce koji Water different tastes, colors, and many other
characteristics are produced depending
and salt Lactic acid bacteria on the length of the maturing period.
Yeast
蒸す
Steam soybeans Aspergillus oryzae Sterilization
Soy sauce by heating

12
Chapter 3 Learn about Typical Japanese Fermented Foods

koikuchi (dark-colored) shoyu, usukuchi for koikuchi shoyu is used. Usukuchi the production process, saishikomi shoyu
(light-colored) shoyu, tamari (thick) shoyu was developed with the intent to uses slightly less salt than koikuchi shoyu,
shoyu, saishikomi shoyu (shoyu brewed keep the natural flavors and colors of has a thick taste and color, and is viscous.
in another finished shoyu product), and foodstuffs used in dishes. It originated in It is used as shoyu for sushi or sashimi or
white shoyu. Tatsuno, Hyogo Prefecture, and developed in sauces for eels.
Koikuchi shoyu accounts for more than in close connection with kaiseki ryori (tea White shoyu is made by using a mixture of
80% of shoyu produced across the country, ceremony dishes), vegetarian dishes, and a small amount of soybeans and wheat as
and thus, shoyu generally refers to other traditional Japanese dishes. the ingredient of shoyu koji, and strongly
koikuchi shoyu. Koikuchi shoyu is made by Tamari shoyu is made by using shoyu koji controlling the appearance so that it looks
cultivating Aspergillus oryzae in a mixture that does not use wheat but is made almost less dark-colored and less glossy through
of soybeans and wheat in equal amounts to only of soybeans. Tamari shoyu originated the production process. It originated in
produce shoyu koji, and soaking it in salt in the Tokai region of Aichi, Gifu, and Mie Hekinan City, Aichi Prefecture approx.
water to allow fermentation to take place. Prefectures, and tamari shoyu made in 200 years ago, and is still now produced
The enzymes in Aspergillus oryzae cause the Tokai and Hokuriku regions accounts in this region. It has an extremely light
the ingredients to decompose, and the nearly 80% of the nationwide shipment color, tastes very sweet, and presents a
shoyu koji melts into a sticky substance. volume. Tamari shoyu requires a longer unique koji flavor and amazake flavor. It
Then, umami is produced. During this maturation period than koikuchi shoyu, is used for foods that should be plain or
process, lactic acid bacteria grow and yeast and has a rich and unique flavor. It is often light-colored. For example, it is used for
carry out alcohol fermentation, producing used as shoyu for sashimi or kabayaki, and hot pot dishes, soup dishes, and needle
a rich flavor. also used widely to flavor a variety of foods soup or to process confectioneries, rice
Usukuchi shoyu is made by using a such as rice snacks, foods boiled down in crackers, fish sausages, and pickles.
mixture of soybeans and wheat in equal shoyu, and noodle soup.
amounts as the ingredients of shoyu Saishikomi shoyu is shoyu made by using
koji. In the production process, steamed a mixture of soybeans and wheat in equal
rice or amazake made of steamed rice amounts as the ingredient of shoyu koji,
is added to prevent the shoyu color adding kiage shoyu (shoyu squeezed from
from becoming dark. Thus, usukuchi moromi) instead of salt water in moromi,
shoyu is characterized by the production and brewing the moromi. Saishikomi
method making the shoyu color as light as shoyu originated from Kanro (nectar)
possible. To slow down the fermentation shoyu from the Yanai region, Yamaguchi
and maturation speed, 10% more salt than Prefecture. Since kiage shoyu is added in Koji for white shoyu
Courtesy of: Hichifukujozo (Hekinan City, Aichi Prefecture)

Characteristics and regions of production of shoyu

Type Production method and characteristics Region Color

Equal amounts of soybeans and wheat are mixed to create shoyu koji, which is soaked
in salt water 1 to 1.2 times the volume of the koji to allow fermentation to take place.
The fermentation and maturing period are approximately eight months. The moromi is
Various regions
Koikuchi shoyu stirred occasionally during fermentation to encourage yeast growth. After fermentation
and maturing is complete, moromi is pressed to squeeze kiage shoyu, which is heat of the country
sterilized at 85 or higher to create shoyu products.
This shoyu is the most flavorful as the yeast has been fermented very well.

Usukuchi shoyu is made by using soybeans and wheat as the ingredients of shoyu koji.
Amazake is added to make the shoyu taste mild. The salt concentration is relatively
high, to suppress fermentation, and some ideas are introduced in the production
Usukuchi shoyu process to prevent the shoyu color from becoming dark. Kansai region
To make good use of the original colors and flavors of foodstuffs, usukuchi shoyu has a
mild color, umami, and flavor, but it contains more salt than koikuchi shoyu.

Tamari shoyu is made by using soybeans and a very slight amount of wheat as the
ingredients. Soybeans are mashed into a sphere, from which koji is made. The koji Tokai region
is then fermented in a small amount of salt water. Tamari shoyu requires a longer
Tamari shoyu (Aichi, Gifu, and
maturing period than koikuchi shoyu.
Tamari shoyu is rich in umami components, and has a rich, unique flavor. Mie Prefectures)
It boasts a rich flavor that works to eliminate the raw smell of fish and meat.

Saishikomi shoyu is made by mixing equal amounts of soybeans and wheat to make Yamaguchi
Saishikomi shoyu koji and brewing (maturing) it in kiage shoyu rather than in salt water for a long Prefecture, Sanin
shoyu period of time (1.5 to 2 years or longer). region to
Saishikomi shoyu has a rich flavor, color, and umami. Kyushu region

White shoyu is made by mixing wheat and soybeans at a ratio of approx. 9:1 to make
shoyu koji and brewing it in water with a relatively high concentration of salt. The
fermentation and maturing period is approx. 3 months. The process for coloring the
White shoyu shoyu does not take place or is completed in a very short period of time. Aichi Prefecture
White shoyu is light-colored, has mild umami and is not so robust, but has a strong
sweet taste and flavor that come from koji. It is suitable for osuimono and chawanmushi
(savory steamed egg custard).

13
 Chapter 3 Learn about Typical Japanese Fermented Foods

yeast carries out alcoholic fermentation

Sake to finally produce sake. The yeast is
allowed to carry out fermentation at a
low temperature to keep a good balance
Product of biotechnology between starch saccharification and yeast
for skillfully manipulating fermentation. There are two types of
microorganisms sake mash: one is yamahaimoto, which is
made by adding yeast after wild lactic acid
Alcoholic beverages are made from a bacteria have grown well after brewing,
sugar-containing foodstuffs by alcoholic and another is sokujomoto, which is made
fermentation using a yeast. Wine is made by adding commercially available lactic
by fermenting grape juice with a yeast, and acid and yeast to morimi at the same
what is important for wine is the quality time during brewing. Both types of sake Yeast used for sake are characterized by
of grapes used as the ingredient. Beer is mash were originated from the wisdom of having a high alcoholic fermentation
made by saccharifying barley with malt allowing yeast to carry out fermentation capacity and producing a fruity flavor like
and then fermenting it with a yeast. On in a pure environment by weeding out apple or banana called “ginjoka.”
the other hand, sake, which is the national bacteria moving from koji, or brewing Rice koji used for sake must have
drink of Japan and is called “seishu” (clear water, to moromi. sufficient amounts of diastatic enzymes
sake) under the Liquor Tax Act, can be The alcohol concentrations of beer to dissolve the rice, saccharify the starch
said to be an alcoholic beverage made and wine are approx. 5% and 12%, in moromi (a fermented pasty mixture
by manipulating microorganisms more respectively, while that of sake is as of ingredients), and produce a large
skillfully. high as 20% (however, the alcohol amount of glucose. This allows the yeast
The basic method for producing sake concentrations of sake products are to actively carry out fermentation. Koji is
is as follows: First, steam appropriately adjusted and decreased to approx. 15%). made by cultivating Aspergillus oryzae on
polished rice, and cultivate Aspergillus The high alcohol concentrations of sake rice grains or solid culture. Liquid culture
oryzae on it to make rice koji. Add a yeast are due to its specific production method, does not allow Aspergillus oryzae to
to small amounts of the rice koji and where high-concentration brewing using produce sufficient amounts of enzymes.
water, add a small amount of steamed a very small amount of water or only a Especially, the genes of diastatic enzymes
rice, and cultivate the microorganism to 1.2–1.3 water to rice ratio takes place, and have been found by recent studies to be
make sake mash. Further add steamed the yeast is allowed to continue alcoholic switched on only when they are cultivated
rice, rice koji, and water to the sake mash fermentation by adding steamed rice, on a solid medium. The sake production
in three parts, and allow the mixture to rice koji, and other ingredients in three technology developed by our ancestors
brew and ferment at a low temperature. parts (three-stage brewing) and allowing through experience can be said to be
Then, the rice starch is decomposed by the saccharification of rice starch and biotechnology for skillfully manipulating
the Aspergillus oryzae-derived amylase fermentation to take place at the same microorganisms.
into glucose (saccharification), and the time (parallel multiple fermentation).

Column
Tips for exporting fermented foods shared by a long-established shoyu brewery

Since washoku, traditional Japanese food culture, was registered

as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2013, it has been
attracting increasing attention, and people around the world have
come to know that it is nutritionally well-balanced and good for
health. In addition, partly owing to the dissemination of information
by those with a deep knowledge of food cultures through social
media and other channels, Japanese fermented foods have also been
gaining increasing attention. Especially, the export volume of shoyu
increased more than two-fold to 48,090 tons in 2021 from 19,822 tons
in 2012 (*). There has been steadily growing demand for shoyu from
not only the U.S. and European countries, but also other countries.
Although many products on these markets are made by leading
manufacturers, shoyu breweries who still use traditional methods to
produce shoyu are also expanding their business overseas through
their own strategies.
“Unlike mass-produced shoyu products, shoyu brewed in wooden Children learning about making shoyu at [Shoyu Park]. An actual shoyu brewery is open to
vats is a delicate product that directly reflects the tastes and sincerity the public where visitors can observe the shoyu production process and enjoy dishes using
shoyu. In recent years, more and more foreign tourists have been visiting this facility.
of the craftsmen brewer making it. If a brewer goes overseas and
directly conveys the appeal of their products, that will differentiate ingredients. It is important for us to pursue the advantages of
their products from other products,” says Mr. Kichigoro Fueki, the individual products and our strengths as a brewer and convey them,”
head of Fueki Shoyu, a long-established brewery founded more than Mr. Fueki says.
230 years ago (in Saitama Prefecture). Recently, they have been Such sincere attitudes of brewers should let people around the world
operating Shoyu Park, a park where visitors can learn about the know the appeals of shoyu and other Japanese fermented foods and
process of producing shoyu, developing sweets using shoyu, and create new Japanese food booms.
taking on other various challenges while keeping up the tradition of
* The figures are based on the actual exports of agricultural, forestry and fishery products/
shoyu. They have so far sold their products in more than 10 overseas foods (by item) for 2021 announced by the Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries
countries (as of 2022). They intend to further increase their outlets. of Japan.
“One of the advantages of shoyu is that it serves as a secret ingredient https://www.maff.go.jp/j/shokusan/export/e_info/attach/pdf/zisseki-23.pdf
for dishes while keeping the natural tastes and flavors of other

14
Chapter 3 Learn about Typical Japanese Fermented Foods

3-2 Other typical fermented foods

Japanese foods are characterized by its cooking techniques, which preserve the flavors of the ingredients, and the
Japanese diet based on one soup plus three dishes, healthy menus that make good use of umami, and fermented foods are
deeply related to these characteristics. All of the fermented foods introduced here are deeply related to the background
of Japanese food culture, and are indispensable to our daily diets.

and produce the unique flavor, resulting in

Dried bonito the current honkarebushi.

World’s hardest fermented food Production method

responsible for creating the Dried bonito is produced as follows.
umami of Japanese foods First, cut off the head of a bonito, remove
the internal organs, and then fillet it into
Dried bonito is a food made by smoking three parts. If they are large in size, cut
a bonito fillet, drying it well, and then them into the dorsal part and abdominal the processes of roast-drying and mold
spraying a mold on it to allow fermentation part. Put the bonito fillets in a basket, spraying. More than 400 kinds of flavor
to take pace. Thin shavings or powder of place it in a cooking pot, stew*2 them at components, including alcohols, phenols,
this dried bonito is used to prepare soup around 80oC for 60 to 90 minutes, allow and carbonyl compounds, created through
stock for various dishes such as miso soup them to cool, and then manually remove this process have been found.
and simmered dishes, or used as toppings the bones. The fillets roast-dried once Previously, special cutter boxes for dried
for cold tofu, boiled greens with shoyu, etc. after these steps are called namaribushi. bonito were used in general households,
The umami and fragrant flavor produced Repeat roast-drying about 10 times to but today, dried bonito is sold in the form
by dried bonito are indispensable for produce completely black masses covered of shavings. However, the flavor unique to
Japanese foods. with a tarry substance. Shave off the tarry dried bonito is irreplaceable, and it is still
A smoked and dried bonito fillet is called substance on the surface of this arabushi true that dried bonito is indispensable for
arabushi, and a fillet shaped by shaving the to turn it into hadakabushi, and spray it Japanese foods and Japanese people.
surface of arabushi is called hadakabushi. with a beneficial mold*3. Then, the surface
Hadakabushi is then sprayed with a will be covered with the mold in 1 to 2 Other bushi types
mold to make karebushi, which is further weeks. Beneficial molds are characterized Dried bonito has different names
sprayed with a mold several times to make by having strong lipolytic ability, and weak depending on the production area. For
honkarebushi. proteolytic ability. Sun dry the masses with example, it is called “Tosa bushi” or
the mold on the surface, brush the mold “Satsuma bushi” in Kagoshima Prefecture,
The history of dried bonito off the surface, and spray the mold again. or “Izu bushi” or “Yaizu bushi” in Shizuoka
In Japan, bonito has been eaten since By repeating this last process of drying, Prefecture. They have different shapes,
ancient times, and descriptions of dried brushing, and spraying the mold 4 times, flavors, and other characteristics unique to
bonito-like foods such as katsuo (hard fish) honkarebushi can be obtained. It takes the regions. Today, Kagoshima Prefecture
can be found in Kojiki (Records of Ancient 60 to 80 days to make dried bonito from a and Shizuoka Prefecture are the two major
Matters) written in the 8th century, the whole bonito fish. production areas of dried bonito. Dried
oldest existing history book of Japan. In The greatest characteristic of dried bonito fishes other than bonito are also produced
the Engishiki written in the middle of the is its hardness. This hardness is because in various regions. These include dried
Heian era (around the 10th century), boiled its water content has been reduced to soda or bullet tuna (bullet mackerel, frigate
and dried bonito appear as nikatauo (a fish approx. 15% by repeatedly roast-drying mackerel or sumasoda), dried tuna, dried
boiled and dried hard). Nikatauo was dried and spraying it with mold. Drying to the mackerel, dried mackerel scad (mackerel
by the sun in this era. In the Muromachi utmost limit creates an environment where scad or jack mackerel), dried round
era, bonito came to be smoked and dried microorganisms cannot grow, increasing herring, and dried sardines (anchovies).
by using fire and smoke, and called its shelf life. In addition, the sprayed With different color shades and flavors,
katsuobushi, the present Japanese name mold decomposes and removes fat, which these dried fishes are used to make soup
for dried bonito. Shijoryu Hochogaki, a prevents soup stock extracted from dried stock for soup called “osuimono,” miso
cookbook in the Muromachi era, uses the bonito from clouding, as seen in soup stock soup, soba noodles, udon noodles, Chinese
word Hanakatsuo (dried bonito shavings), extracted from chicken or pork bone. noodles, and other various dishes. Thus,
and shows that hanakatsuo was used Dried bonito contains a rich amount of they are supporting the tastes of Japanese
together with shoyu to flavor dishes. 5'-inosinic acid, an umami component. It is food in various ways.
It is said that spraying a mold after the known that the combination of 5'-inosinic *1 Process of drying while smoking used for dried bonito.
process of roast-drying *1 was started in acid and glutamic acid, which is another This process has the effects of concentrating umami,
preventing rot, and killing fishy smells.
Tosa Province (Kochi Prefecture) in the umami component, creates a synergetic
*2 Process of stewing raw bonitos after they are cut and
mid-1600s. Dried bonito made in Tosa was effect and enhances umami. Mixed soup trimmed. While they are stewed, water is poured so
called Tosabushi and was sprayed with stock extracted from both dried bonito and as not to stew in boiling water. This process has the
effects of preventing the bonito from rotting, making
mold only once. Subsequently, the process kombu seaweed is exactly the product of them easier to dry, and locking in the umami.
of spraying a mold came to be repeated to that synergetic effect. The value of dried *3 Eurotium species (Eurotium herbariorum and
reduce the fishy smell, increase umami, bonito also lies in its flavor produced by Eurotium repens) and Aspergillus glaucus, a mold
related to Aspergillus oryzae, are used.
15
 Chapter 3 Learn about Typical Japanese Fermented Foods

Soybean koji is immersed in salt water

Natto to allow it to carry out lactic acid
fermentation, and then dried into shiokara
natto. It is believed that shiokara natto
Well-balanced nutritional food
was modeled after kuki, which is Chinese
with a unique, addictive smell and
salt-cured fermented soybeans and is
flavor
considered as the origin of Japanese miso.
It has a longer history than itohiki natto,
Japanese natto is first associated with and is believed to have already been made
itohiki (stringy) natto put on top of rice. back in the Nara era. Until before the Edo era, natto was made
Natto is a salt-free soybean product It is unknown when people started at homes and eaten as an ingredient in
made by fermenting boiled soybeans with making itohiki natto. Although there soup dishes. In the Edo era, industrial
Bacillus subtilis natto, and is characterized are various stories regarding its origin, production of natto began, and itohiki
by its unique smell and viscous substance all stories commonly indicate that it natto started to be put on top of rice at
produced by fermentation. It is extremely originated in the Asuka era (6th to 7th around this time. Itohiki natto contains
nutritious, and is today eaten together century) or the Heian era (9th to 11th rich amounts of vitamins such as vitamins
with rice across the country on a daily century), and boiled soybeans wrapped in B1 and B2, minerals, and calcium, is easy
basis. Previously, however, it was eaten as straw were unexpectedly found to emit to digest and absorb, and thus, was a food
a valuable source of protein in the frigid an odor and have changed into a viscous, suitable for Japanese people at that time,
Tohoku region. stringy state. In Shojin Gyorui Monogatari, who lived on plain food.
In Japan, there is another kind of natto a tale of vegetables and fishes written in There are salt-free fermented soybean
called “shiokara (salted and fermented) the Muromachi era (14th century), Natto foods similar to Japanese natto in other
natto” (or hama natto or tera natto). Taro Itoshige, a character apparently Asian countries, such as tempeh eaten in
It is made by using soybean koji from considered to personify itohiki natto, Indonesia and kinema introduced in Nepal
inoculating Aspergillus oryzae rather than appears, which suggests that itohiki natto and Bhutan, but it is only Japanese natto
Bacillus subtilis natto in boiled soybeans. was already present at least at that time. that is put on top of rice.

that time, but since very sweet mirin made

Mirin by brewing glutinous rice and rice koji in
shochu like today’s mirin appeared in the
Sake that evolved from a beverage late Edo era, it came to be used as a sweet
into a seasoning seasoning. Many cookbooks published in
the late Edo era carry recipes for various
Mirin is a liquid, sweet fermented dishes using mirin, suggesting that
seasoning containing approx. 45% mirin had become established as a basic
sugar and approx. 14% alcohol. It seasoning at that time. α-ethylglucoside. This gives mirin its
is also considered as one of Japan’s Mirin is made by adding shochu or an complex, elegant sweetness.
national drinks like sake, and is often alcohol for brewing to steamed glutinous Mirin is also called hon (true) mirin.
used in cooking together with shoyu rice and rice koji and allowing the There are seasonings similar to mirin
as an alcohol-based seasoning that is ingredients to ferment for 40 to 60 days. such as seasonings that mimic mirin and
indispensable for giving a sweet taste to For this reason, production of mirin fermented seasonings (cooking sake).
Japanese foods. does not involve the process of alcoholic Seasonings that mimic mirin do not
When used in cooking, mirin has various fermentation. The enzymes in Aspergillus contain alcohol and are made by blending
beneficial effects. For example, it can be oryzae are allowed to act in the presence additional sugars. Fermented seasonings
used to give a sweet taste or a glossy or of alcohol, which serves as a preservative, are made by adding salt to a salt level of
shiny look to dishes, gives a soft but sharp and as a result, sugar is produced by the approx. 2% after alcoholic fermentation
sweetness to dishes, help liquid seasoning saccharification of starch, and amino acids for making the products undrinkable.
components to soak into foodstuffs, are produced by protein degradation. Hon (literally, “true”) mirin falls under
prevents foodstuffs from softening and The reason that glutinous rice is used is the category of alcoholic beverages,
falling apart during boiling, and remove that glutinous rice starch is less prone to but is not suitable for drinking. It is
fishy smells. These effects are mainly due retrogradation compared to non-glutinous used as a seasoning. There is another
to alcohol and sugars contained in mirin. rice starch, and is more susceptible to sweet alcoholic beverage that falls
It is believed that mirin originated in a the action of the enzymes in Aspergillus under alcoholic beverages but is used
sweet alcoholic beverage called nerizake in oryzae. Moromi after fermentation is in cooking like hon mirin. It is called
the Muromachi era (14th to 16th century), pressed into products, and the residue “akumochizake” and is brewed with a
or another sweet alcohol beverage called after the pressing is used as mirin lees for small amount of water and matured with
miirin and introduced from China in the making pickles or in pickling media for wood ash added. As a result, a dark brown,
Sengoku period (15th to 17th century). making pickled fish or meat. sweet alcoholic beverage is produced.
Komai Nikki, a diary of a man named Glucose constitutes 80% to 90% of the Akazake of Kumamoto Prefecture, Jizake
Komai written in 1593, is the first book sweetness components of mirin, but it of Kagoshima Prefecture, and Jidenshu
where the name mirin appears. Mirin was contains other various sugars such as of Shimane Prefecture are well-known
drunk as a sweet alcoholic beverage at isomaltose, kojibiose, maltose, and akumochizake.
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Chapter 3 Learn about Typical Japanese Fermented Foods

Production methods for vinegar

Vinegar In Japan, production methods for vinegar
are roughly divided into two types: one
Driving force behind today’s sushi is the traditional surface fermentation
(static fermentation) method, and
Vinegar is a liquid seasoning made from another is the deep fermentation method
rice, barley, fruits, or other ingredients (fermentation by stirring for aeration)
by fermentation with acetic acid bacteria. used for the industrial production
The origin of the word vinegar is vinaigre of vinegar products. The pot vinegar sake to allow static acetic acid fermentation
(vin+aigre) in French, which means sour production method handed down in some to take place. Grain vinegar made using
wine. As suggested by the word origin, regions, including Fukuyama, a town sake lees obtained as a by-product of sake
vinegar was made as a result of ethanol in Kagoshima Prefecture, is typical of production is called kasuzu (lees vinegar).
contained in an alcohol beverage being the former method. This is the method By maturing sake lees for a certain period
changed into acetic acid by acetic acid of putting rice koji, steamed rice, and of time, adding water, then inoculating an
bacteria and turning sour, and thus has a water in pots and leaving them outside acetic acid bacterial film into the mixture
close relationship to alcohol. for 6 months. In the pots, lactic acid to allow static fermentation to take place,
In the around 4th century, vinegar fermentation and saccharification occur, kasuzu can be produced. As the sugar and
production technology was introduced and then when alcoholic fermentation amino acid content in sake lees increase
from China to Japan together with the starts, acetic acid bacteria soon form a during maturation, sake lees look red,
sake production technology. Rice vinegar thin film on the liquid surface and carries which reflects the progression of the
first became popular in Japan, and the out acetic acid fermentation. This means Maillard reaction (*) during fermentation
method of mixing rice koji, steamed that the enzymes in Aspergillus oryzae and maturation. Dark red kasu vinegar is
rice, and water in a vat and allowing the work as well as lactic acid bacteria, called “red vinegar”.
mixture to ferment in a static state (static yeast, and acetic acid bacteria carry out
fermentation) was used until the Edo era fermentation sequentially in the pots, Uses for vinegar
(the late 19th century). and then vinegar is produced through Among the various kinds of vinegar, it was
In the Heian era, a small dish containing these processes. Acetic acid fermentation rice vinegar that had been mainly developed
vinegar was placed as a seasoning on ends in six months, but the content in until the Edo era in Japan. Since the Meiji
nobles’ dining tables together with the pots is allowed to further mature for era, various kinds of vinegar, including
salt and sake, and they ate dishes six months to three years. During this fruit vinegar, has become popular with the
with these seasonings. It is believed period, the liquid turns a dark golden advancement of vinegar manufacturing
that because there were no effective brown. For this reason, vinegar produced technologies. Rice vinegar mixed with miso,
means of preserving foodstuffs at that by this method is called “kurozu (meaning soy sauce, soup stock, spices, etc. has been
time, foodstuffs had to be disinfected “black vinegar”).” Kurozu is made by using used in Japanese dishes. Rice vinegar is used
with seasonings. In the Kamakura and unpolished rice or rice that is not completely to make vinegared rice, and kasu vinegar
Muromachi eras, vinegared dishes such polished, and using 4.5 times more rice than is especially said to go well with Edo-style
as namasu (thin strips of raw meat or fish general rice vinegar. As a result, kurozu is nigirizushi (small rice balls with a slice of
dressed with vinegar) became popular. especially rich in amino acids. raw fish on them). Kasuzu, which is less
In history books describing the Edo era, On the other hand, the deep fermentation- expensive than rice vinegar, contributed to
there appear many descriptions of vinegar based rice vinegar production method the spread of today’s sushi and has grown in
mixes made of vinegar and spices or miso. involves two fermentation steps. Sake is demand with the development of sushi.
It is the Heian era when a vinegar made from rice first, and then an acetic Vinegar gives dishes a sour taste as well as
production method appeared for the first acid bacterial film is inoculated into the removes unpleasant odors from foodstuffs,
time in a Japanese book, and vinegar makes the colors of foodstuffs look bright, has
described in books published since then a strong disinfectant capability, making and
throughout the Edo era is mostly rice foodstuffs last longer. Thus, it has various
vinegar. When it comes to other kinds of beneficial effects when used in cooking
vinegar, only several descriptions of sake and helps to preserve foodstuffs longer.
vinegar (vinegar that was produced as In addition, recent studies have identified
sake but turned sour) can be found. This various functionalities of vinegar, and it has
suggests that rice vinegar was developed an increasingly wide variety of uses.
Pot vinegar production being conducted through traditional
in Japan since ancient times. surface fermentation (Kirishima City, Kagoshima Prefecture) * A reaction that takes place between sugar and amino acids,
© K.P.V.B etc. when heated and produces melanoidin, a brown substance

or other seasoning liquids for a short time

Pickles to saturate them with the seasoning’s
taste, and are unfermented pickles. On
the other hand, it is said that the root of
Fruit of the wisdom from taking fermented pickles is kusabishio, a kind
advantage of regional climates of Chinese hishio made by salting and
fermenting foodstuffs. Vegetables were
salted to improve their shelf life and
Japanese pickles are divided into fermentation gave them a better flavor.
unfermented pickles and fermented Then, these vegetables came to be eaten
pickles. Asazuke (lightly soaked pickles) as fermented pickles. This technique soon since developed.
and chomizuke (seasoned pickles) are spread across Japan, and local fermented In the process of making fermented
made by soaking foodstuffs in salt, shoyu, foods made by using local vegetables have pickles by salting,etc., lactic acid bacteria,

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 Chapter 3 Learn about Typical Japanese Fermented Foods

etc. adhering to vegetables can grow soak into them to increase sourness or Pickles have developed as the fruit
during salting, which increases the flavor umami, producing a refreshing flavor of the wisdom for preserving valuable
unique to fermentation. First, as lactic unique to fermentation. foodstuffs longer, and it is said that
acid bacteria grow, a decrease in the pH Nukazuke (rice bran pickles) is another there are more than 600 kinds of pickles
due to lactic acid makes it difficult for kind of pickles made by using rice bran produced in various regions in Japan. In
undesirable bacteria to grow. At the same (powder generated in the process of Japan, there are a variety of marinades and
time, the lactic acid bacteria come to lose polishing brown rice into white rice). In pickling beds and a variety of ingredients
their growth power, and acid-resistant a rice bran bed, which is generally used that can be pickled as well as a variety
lactic acid bacteria (of a kind different from repeatedly for long periods of time to of appropriate pickling methods for
the previous lactic acid bacteria) instead create generations of lactic acid bacteria, such marinades and pickling beds. By
start to grow. As fermentation proceeds, yeast, and other various bacteria and combining these elements, Japan became
the cells of the ingredient vegetables are produce the complex microbial flora in one of the world’s largest producers of
broken down to allow them to have a softer nukazuke. For this reason, nukazuke has a pickles.
texture, and the fermentation components complex and unique flavor.

Amazake is made by mixing rice koji for

Amazake making miso and water, or equal amounts
of rice koji, cooked rice, and water, and
Fermented drink called a heating the mixture at 55 to 60°C
drinkable intravenous drip overnight. Cooked glutinous rice is often
used. If rice koji is available, amazake can
Amazake is a very sweet drink made by be made easily at home. However, with the
adding water to rice koji or to rice koji and booming of koji in Japan, many brewers
rice and heating the mixture to cause it to have recently come to sell amazake.
undergo saccharification. “Zake” in amazake In the process of producing amazake, an
means sake, but it is alcohol-free and does Aspergillus oryzae-derived amylase acts
not fall under the category of alcoholic on starch, which is the main component of collagen and hyaluronic acid involved
beverages. rice, to produce a large amount of glucose, in helping our skin retain water, can be
Nihonshoki (Chronicles of Japan), a which is the main component of amazake. expected to provide beauty effects.
history book written in the Nara era, In addition, rice protein is degraded by Amazake may also be made by using sake
contains a description of amanotamuzake, an Aspergillus oryzae-derived protease to lees rather than rice koji, and amazake
which is closer to amazake rather than produce peptides and amino acids. made of rice koji is called koji amazake,
today’s sake, and is considered to have Amazake also contains B vitamins as and amazake made of sake lees sakekasu
been very sweet sake made of rice koji but metabolites of Aspergillus oryzae and amazake. Sakekasu amazake is made by
contained a very small concentration of dietary fiber that composes Aspergillus dissolving sake lees in hot water and
alcohol. It is said that amazake came to be oryzae cells and rice. Since amazake adding sugar, and may contain traces of
drunk by ordinary people in the Edo era, contains a large amount of glucose and some alcohol left in sake lees. The
and especially in summer, many amazake vitamins and minerals necessary for sugar production of sakekasu amazake does not
peddlers were seen on the streets because metabolism, it can be said to be a drink involve a fermentation process, but
people at that time tried to survive the hot that quickly helps us recover from fatigue. sakekasu amazake can also be said to be a
summers by drinking amazake due to its In addition, rice-derived glucosylceramide fermented drink as sake lees is a
high nutritious value, so much so that it and N-acetylglucosamine in Aspergillus by-product of brewing sake.
was called a drinkable intravenous drip. oryzae, which promote the synthesis of

Column
Power of fermented seasonings to bring umami out of foodstuffs

Many basic seasonings used in Japan are fermented seasonings, and are called peptide bonds, and a series of several amino acids
koji is indispensable for producing these seasonings. The main role connected by peptide bonds is a peptide. Peptides are always
of koji is to decompose foodstuff components. For example, in the contained in fermented foods. Proteolytic enzymes from Aspergillus
process of producing amazake, the amylolytic enzymes produced oryzae can break this peptide bond and fragment proteins. These
by Aspergillus oryzae decompose rice starch into glucose, giving 20 amino acids include not only glutamic acid, which produces
amazake its rich, sweet taste. In the process of producing shoyu, umami, but also glycine and alanine, which produce sweetness, and
the proteolytic enzymes produced by Aspergillus oryzae decompose valine and leucine, which produce bitterness. Thus, amino acids
soybean protein and wheat protein into amino acids, which give rich have a variety of tastes, and when they connect to make a chain
umami to shoyu. Generally, protein and starch have no taste. They through peptide bonds, a completely different taste is produced.
are decomposed by enzymes into amino acids or glucose, which Different peptides of amino acids arranged in different sequences
produces umami or sweetness. produce different complex and thick tastes or robust tastes. The rich
However, taste is complex. The 20 amino acids can be arranged and and complex tastes of fermented foods come from peptides, and
bonded in a certain sequence to make straight chains, which is folded Aspergillus oryzae, which produces these peptides, is the source of
into a giant protein molecule. The bonds holding the chain together fermented foods.

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