### 1. What is DBMS? Mention advantages.

• A Database Management System (DBMS) is software that interacts with end-users,

applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. It provides an interface to
perform various operations like insertion, deletion, updating, and retrieval of data efficiently.
• Advantages:
- Data Abstraction and Independence: Simplifies data handling and manipulation.
- Data Security: Ensures only authorized access to the database.
- Data Integrity: Ensures accuracy and consistency of data.
- Backup and Recovery: Provides data backup and recovery solutions.
- Efficient Data Access: Uses indexing and other optimization techniques.
- Concurrency Control: Manages simultaneous data access by multiple users.

### 2. What is a Database?

• A Database is an organized collection of structured information or data, typically stored
electronically in a computer system. It allows for easy access, management, and updating of
data.

### 3. What is a Database System?

• A Database System comprises the database, the DBMS, and the applications that interact
with the database. It encompasses all the components needed to store, manage, and retrieve
data.

### 4. What is RDBMS? Properties.

• A Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) is a type of DBMS that stores data in
tables with rows and columns. It uses SQL for database access.
• Properties (ACID Properties):
o Atomicity: Ensures all operations within a transaction are completed successfully.
o Consistency: Ensures data remains consistent before and after the transaction.
o Isolation: Ensures that transactions are executed in isolation.
o Durability: Ensures that once a transaction is committed, it remains so even in case of
a system failure.
### 5. Types of Database Languages
• Data Definition Language (DDL): Defines database schema (e.g., CREATE, ALTER,
DROP).
• Data Manipulation Language (DML): Manipulates data (e.g., SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE).
• Data Control Language (DCL): Controls access to data (e.g., GRANT, REVOKE).
• Transaction Control Language (TCL): Manages transactions (e.g., COMMIT, ROLLBACK).

### 6. ACID Properties (VVVVV IMP)

• Atomicity: Ensures that each transaction is treated as a single unit, which either succeeds
completely or fails completely.
• Consistency: Ensures that a transaction brings the database from one valid state to another,
maintaining database integrity.
• Isolation: Ensures that the operations of a transaction are isolated from other transactions.
• Durability: Ensures that once a transaction is committed, the changes are permanent, even in
the case of a system failure.

### 7. Difference Between Vertical and Horizontal Scaling

• Vertical Scaling: Involves adding more power (CPU, RAM) to an existing server. It's limited
by the capacity of a single machine.
• Horizontal Scaling: Involves adding more machines to handle the load, offering potentially
unlimited scaling.

### 8. What is Sharding?

• Sharding is a database architecture pattern where data is horizontally partitioned across
multiple database instances. Each instance, called a shard, holds a portion of the data. This
improves performance and scalability.
### 9. Keys in DBMS
• Primary Key: Unique identifier for a record in a table.
• Foreign Key: Establishes a relationship between tables.
• Candidate Key: A set of attributes that uniquely identify a record and can be chosen as a
primary key.
• Super Key: A set of attributes that can uniquely identify a record.
• Composite Key: A primary key composed of multiple attributes.
• Unique Key: Ensures all values in a column are unique.

### 10. Types of Relationships

• One-to-One: Each record in one table is related to a single record in another table.
• One-to-Many: Each record in one table can be related to multiple records in another table.
• Many-to-One: Multiple records in one table relate to a single record in another table.
• Many-to-Many: Multiple records in one table relate to multiple records in another table.

### 11. Data Abstraction in DBMS, Three Levels of It

• Physical Level: How data is stored.
• Logical Level: What data is stored and the relationships between them.
• View Level: How data is presented to users.

### 12. Indexing in DBMS

• Indexing is a technique used to improve the speed of data retrieval operations on a database
table. It creates a data structure, typically a B-tree or hash table, that allows for quick
lookups.

### 13. What is DDL (Data Definition Language)?

• DDL is used to define and modify the database structure.
• Examples include:
o CREATE: Creates a new table or database.
o ALTER: Modifies an existing database object.
o DROP: Deletes an object from the database.
### 14. What is DML (Data Manipulation Language)?
• DML is used for manipulating data within the database.
• Examples include:
o SELECT: Retrieves data from the database.
o INSERT: Adds new data into the database.
o UPDATE: Modifies existing data.
o DELETE: Removes data from the database.

### 15. What is Normalization? Types of Them.

• Normalization is the process of organizing data to minimize redundancy and improve data
integrity.
• Types:
o First Normal Form (1NF): Ensures that each column contains atomic, indivisible
values.
o Second Normal Form (2NF): Ensures that all non-key attributes are fully functional
dependent on the primary key.
o Third Normal Form (3NF): Ensures that all attributes are dependent only on the
primary key.
o Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF): A stronger version of 3NF, where every
determinant is a candidate key.
o Fourth Normal Form (4NF): Ensures no multi-valued dependencies.
o Fifth Normal Form (5NF): Ensures no join dependencies.

### 16. What is Denormalization?

• Denormalization is the process of combining tables to reduce the number of joins, thereby
improving query performance at the cost of increased redundancy and potential data
anomalies.

### 17. What is Functional Dependency?

• A Functional Dependency is a relationship that exists when one attribute uniquely determines
another attribute. For example, in a table with attributes A and B, B is functionally dependent
on A if, for every value of A, there is exactly one value of B.
### 18. E-R Model?
• The Entity-Relationship (E-R) Model is a diagrammatic approach to database design. It
illustrates entities (things), attributes (properties of things), and relationships (connections
between things).

### 19. Conflict Serializability in DBMS

• Conflict Serializability ensures that a schedule (sequence of read/write operations) is
equivalent to some serial schedule (a schedule where transactions are executed one after the
other without interleaving) by ensuring that conflicting operations (e.g., two writes to the
same data item) occur in the same order as they would in the serial schedule.

### 20. Explain Normal Forms in DBMS

• 1NF (First Normal Form): Ensures that the table has only atomic (indivisible) values.
• 2NF (Second Normal Form): Achieved by removing partial dependencies (dependencies on
part of a composite primary key).
• 3NF (Third Normal Form): Achieved by removing transitive dependencies (non-key
attributes depending on other non-key attributes).
• BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form): A stricter version of 3NF where every determinant is a
candidate key.
• 4NF (Fourth Normal Form): Ensures no multi-valued dependencies.
• 5NF (Fifth Normal Form): Ensures no join dependencies.

### 21. What is CCP? (Concurrency Control Protocols)

• Concurrency Control Protocols (CCP) manage simultaneous access to the database to ensure
data integrity and consistency.
• Common protocols include:
o Lock-Based Protocols: Use locks to control access.
o Timestamp-Based Protocols: Assign timestamps to transactions to manage order.
o Optimistic Protocols: Assume minimal conflict and validate transactions before
committing.
### 22. Entity, Entity Type, Entity Set, Weak Entity Set
• Entity: An object or thing in the real world with an independent existence.
• Entity Type: A collection of entities that share common attributes.
• Entity Set: A set of entities of the same type.
• Weak Entity Set: An entity set that does not have a primary key and depends on a strong
entity set for its identification.

### 23. What are SQL Commands? Types of Them

• SQL Commands are used to interact with the database.
• Types include:
o DDL (Data Definition Language): CREATE, ALTER, DROP.
o DML (Data Manipulation Language): SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE.
o DCL (Data Control Language): GRANT, REVOKE.
o TCL (Transaction Control Language): COMMIT, ROLLBACK.

### 24. Nested Queries in SQL

• Nested Queries (subqueries) are SQL queries within another SQL query. They are used to
perform operations that require more than one query to solve.

### 25. What is JOIN? Explain Types of JOINs

• JOIN is an SQL operation that combines records from two or more tables based on related
columns.
• Types of JOINs:
o INNER JOIN: Returns only the records with matching values in both tables.
o LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the left table and matched records
from the right table.
o RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the right table and matched records
from the left table.
o FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records when there is a match in either left or
right table.
### 26. Inner and Outer Join
• INNER JOIN: Returns only the rows where there is a match in both tables.
• OUTER JOIN: Returns all rows from one table and the matched rows from the other table. If
there is no match, the result is NULL on the side where there is no match.

### 28. Difference Between 2-Tier and 3-Tier Architecture

• 2-Tier Architecture: Consists of a client and a server. The client directly communicates with
the server. It's simpler but less scalable.
• 3-Tier Architecture: Consists of a client, an application server, and a database server. It
separates the business logic from the database, making it more scalable and maintainable.

### 29. Difference Between TRUNCATE and DELETE Command

• TRUNCATE: Removes all rows from a table without logging individual row deletions.
Faster, but cannot be rolled back.
• DELETE: Removes specific rows based on a condition. Slower due to logging but can be
rolled back.

### 30. Difference Between Intension and Extension in a Database

• Intension: The schema of a database (structure of the database).
• Extension: The actual data in the database at any given time (content of the database).

### 31. Difference Between Share Lock and Exclusive Lock, Definition of Lock
• Lock: A mechanism to control concurrent access to a database.
• Shared Lock: Allows multiple transactions to read a resource but not modify it.
• Exclusive Lock: Allows only one transaction to modify a resource, preventing other
transactions from reading or writing to it.