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Unit 5 notes

Unit 5 covers integrals in calculus, focusing on their definition as the accumulation of quantities and their relationship with derivatives through the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. It discusses techniques for integration such as the Power Rule, substitution, integration by parts, and handling trigonometric integrals. Additionally, it addresses the application of definite integrals for calculating areas and the concept of improper integrals involving infinite limits or discontinuities.

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6 views

Unit 5 notes

Unit 5 covers integrals in calculus, focusing on their definition as the accumulation of quantities and their relationship with derivatives through the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. It discusses techniques for integration such as the Power Rule, substitution, integration by parts, and handling trigonometric integrals. Additionally, it addresses the application of definite integrals for calculating areas and the concept of improper integrals involving infinite limits or discontinuities.

Uploaded by

Alex Mathew
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Unit 5: Integrals - Key Concepts and Techniques

Unit 5 focuses on integrals, one of the core topics in calculus. The integral represents the
accumulation of quantities, such as area under a curve, total displacement, or the accumulation
of other quantities in real-world problems. This unit builds on the concept of derivatives from
earlier units and establishes the fundamental connection between differentiation and integration.

Definition of an Integral

At its core, an integral is the opposite of a derivative. An integral is the process of finding the
accumulation or total value of a function over an interval. The indefinite integral (antiderivative)
represents a family of functions whose derivative is the original function, while the definite
integral represents the net area under a curve between two specified limits.

The indefinite integral is expressed as:

∫f(x) dx=F(x)+C\int f(x) \, dx = F(x) + C∫f(x)dx=F(x)+C

where F(x)F(x)F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x)f(x)f(x), and CCC is the constant of integration.

The definite integral is written as:

∫abf(x) dx\int_{a}^{b} f(x) \, dx∫ab​f(x)dx

This represents the area under the curve f(x)f(x)f(x) from x=ax = ax=a to x=bx = bx=b, with the
result being a number rather than a function.

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus connects the concept of the derivative and the
integral. It has two parts:

1.​ First Part: If fff is continuous on the interval [a,b][a, b][a,b], then the function
F(x)F(x)F(x), defined as the integral of f(x)f(x)f(x) from aaa to xxx, is an antiderivative of
f(x)f(x)f(x). This part states that the derivative of the integral of a function is the function
itself:

ddx∫axf(t) dt=f(x)\frac{d}{dx} \int_{a}^{x} f(t) \, dt = f(x)dxd​∫ax​f(t)dt=f(x)

2.​ Second Part: This part allows us to compute definite integrals using antiderivatives. If
FFF is an antiderivative of fff on the interval [a,b][a, b][a,b], then:

∫abf(x) dx=F(b)−F(a)\int_{a}^{b} f(x) \, dx = F(b) - F(a)∫ab​f(x)dx=F(b)−F(a)

This means that to find the area under a curve, we can evaluate the antiderivative at the upper
and lower limits of the integral and subtract the results.
Techniques of Integration

1.​ Power Rule for Integration: The most basic rule for integrating functions of the form
xnx^nxn is:

∫xn dx=xn+1n+1+C\int x^n \, dx = \frac{x^{n+1}}{n+1} + C∫xndx=n+1xn+1​+C

This rule works for all real numbers n≠−1n \neq -1n=−1.

2.​ Substitution: The substitution method is used when an integral contains a composite
function. We make a substitution to simplify the integral. For example, if u=g(x)u =
g(x)u=g(x), then du=g′(x) dxdu = g'(x) \, dxdu=g′(x)dx, and the integral becomes easier to
evaluate:

∫f(g(x))g′(x) dx=∫f(u) du\int f(g(x)) g'(x) \, dx = \int f(u) \, du∫f(g(x))g′(x)dx=∫f(u)du

3.​ Integration by Parts: This technique is used when the integrand is a product of two
functions. The formula for integration by parts is derived from the product rule of
differentiation:

∫u dv=uv−∫v du\int u \, dv = uv - \int v \, du∫udv=uv−∫vdu

This method is particularly useful when one function is easy to differentiate and the other is easy
to integrate.

4.​ Trigonometric Integrals and Substitutions: For integrals involving trigonometric


functions, specific identities (such as sin⁡2(x)+cos⁡2(x)=1\sin^2(x) + \cos^2(x) =
1sin2(x)+cos2(x)=1) and substitutions (like tan⁡(x)=t\tan(x) = ttan(x)=t) are used to
simplify the integral.

Definite Integrals and Area

A key application of definite integrals is finding the area under a curve. The area between a
function and the x-axis from x=ax = ax=a to x=bx = bx=b is given by:

∫abf(x) dx\int_{a}^{b} f(x) \, dx∫ab​f(x)dx

If the function is above the x-axis, the integral yields a positive area. If the function is below the
x-axis, the integral yields a negative value. The net area is the algebraic sum of areas above
and below the x-axis.

Improper Integrals

Some integrals are termed "improper" because they involve infinite limits or the integrand has
an infinite discontinuity within the limits of integration. For example, an improper integral might
look like:
∫1∞1x2 dx\int_{1}^{\infty} \frac{1}{x^2} \, dx∫1∞​x21​dx

To evaluate improper integrals, limits are taken as one or both of the bounds approach infinity or
as the integrand approaches infinity at a point.

This 500-word summary encapsulates the core ideas in Unit 5: Integrals, emphasizing the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, techniques for integration, and applications of definite
integrals. Integrals are a powerful tool for solving problems involving areas, volumes, and other
accumulated quantities.

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