Literature review

 Identify how arguments have developed within the field of study

 Discuss how different authors’ works complement one another and how they disagree

 Show how authors’ works have helped increase knowledge a or cause confusion among and
within the academic community

 Present alternative views or disagreements

 Some students have a problem of just listing definitions and concepts without critically
analysing and linking them as well as making comparisons

 Show relatedness of aspects being reviewed to research questions or objectives

 Avoid producing or reproducing literature instead, literature must be reviewed. Reviewing

literature therefore involves showing areas of convergence and areas of divergence by
different authorities as well as findings gaps in the contributions, concepts and philosophies
of various authors.

 Gap identification. Students must be able to identify weaknesses in the contrib utions or
concepts advanced by various authors

 Literature review deals with what is already known about a particular field and how this
information can help with one’s own research

 It deals with published texts such books and journals and also how knowledge can be gained
from the communities of practice such as consultants and official bodies

 It is critical for the researcher to be familiar with the literature in the field of study

 It is research activity concerned with exploration of literature notably in journals such as the
international journal of management review

 When reviewing literature focus is on the topic that relates to the main research question
that have been raised and highlight the influential conceptual or empirical studies that have
been conducted in the field.

 LR is more than simply describing other authors’ perspectives but it is expected to include
critical evaluation of those studies

 A good review gives a novel synthesis of existing work which may lead to new ways of
looking at a subject or identifying gaps in the literature.

 Most students have a problem of undertaking LR in a very accepting way often with very
little comment and without critiquing it or explaining its limitations or contexts

 Students / research students should be critical especially when reviewing literature in order
to contribute to knowledge. The works of Mauch and Birch (1983) suggest that research
students should critically evaluate existing literature and in so doing shows how a
contribution to knowledge is made.
  Review process involves identifying gaps in prior studies with a view to locating one’s
investigation in a broader context

 It is important to realize that review goes on throughout the duration of the research project
contrary to the conventional misunderstanding that it is conducted at the beginning of the
study and ends there. This is due in part to empirical findings that might lead the research in
a new direction and therefore require adjustment to initial arguments and also because new
findings emerge all the time and the research needs to reflect these and as up to date as
possible

Research Methodology

 Very important section of the research as it spells out the research procedures and
instruments adopted in gathering data pertinent to the study.

 It starts with an introduction where students are required to highlight major aspects in the
ch apter and how they have been undertaken.

Research design

 State and describe the research design adopted in the study. Students have a problem of
making notes of all the research design types they know of instead of writing about the one
considered appropriate in the research and justification to be provided as why the research
design was chosen.

 It ensures that the study is relevant to the problem and will use economical procedures. NB
there is no single perfect universal design. Major types of research design include descriptive
survey, exploratory and causal. All other types emanate from the stated three. Students
should note that choice of research design type is influenced by the research problem and
how the topic was formulated. Avoid writing notes, or many unnecessary definitions. Some
students appear as if they are conducting literature review when they quote and cite a
number of authors on research designs, this is unacceptable and must be guarded against.

Exploratory research – it’s a research design in which the major emphasis is on gaining ideas and
insights; it is particularly helpful in breaking broad vague problem statements into small, more
precise sub problems or statements.

Descriptive research – it’s a research design in which the major emphasis is on determining the
frequency with which something occurs or the extent to which two variables covary.

Causal research – is a research design in which the major emphasis is on determining cause and
effect relationship.

NB The crucial principle of research is that the design of the individual should stem from the
problem. The three research designs can be stages in a continuous process. Exploratory being the
initial stage, tentative explanation / hypothesis will then serve as specific guide for descriptive or
causal studies.
Population

 A population is a well defined group of human beings or other entities. Suppose you want to
find out data about all state universities in Zimbabwe, you should know the number of state
universities in Zimbabwe

 State the population of interest and its composition

Sampling

Once we have identified the population what is left is to draw a sample. A sample is a subset of the
population. For example if our population consists of all the state universities in Zimbabwe, the
sample can comprise 5 state universities whose features may be characteristic of the whole
population. The results obtained from the sample would then be used to generalize all the state
universities in Zimbabwe. In obtaining a sample, two methods exists namely the probability and non
probability.

Students are encouraged to read on the sampling methods and techniques used in choosing a
sample. Experience has shown that majority of the students write notes about these methods and
techniques, this is unacceptable, only the method (s) and technique (s) considered necessary and
appropriate in your research should be outlined and provide justification for choice of such sampling
methods or techniques.

Recommended research text books for methodology include Business research methods by Kumar
and others. In drawing a sample, students should take note that a large sample size is recommended
as it gives results that are representative while small sample size may produce results that may not
be representative of the characteristics of the whole population. However, decision whether to
choose a large or small sample size depends on the nature of the population. No specific rules exist
when drawing a sample but we recommended what has been suggested by Van Dalen (1978), that if
the phenomenon under study is homogeneous, a small sample is sufficient, for example a few cubic
meters from a 1000 litre tank of petrol may be adequate. On the other hand, if the population is
heterogeneous a large sample is recommended. In descriptive research Van Dalen recommends a
sample of 10-20%. Additionally it is important for students to use approved models or formulae in
drawing sample size. Krajcie and Morgan (1970) is is often used by business researchers. Generally,
three factors determine the size of an adequate sample (1) the nature of the population (2) the type
of investigation (3) the degree of precision required.

Six step procedure for drawing a sample

(1). Define the population

(2). Identify the sample frame

(3)determine sample size

(4). Determine the sample procedure

(5). Select the sample elements

(6). Collect the data from the designated elements

Data sources

 There are two main sources of data namely primary and secondary. Secondary data refers to
data which was collected for some other purposes which students can apply in their research
if the data is relevant to the current research. Examples of secondary data include sales
records, financial statements, sales reports, census statistics, e.t.c Primary data refers to data
which is collected for the to solve the specific purpose at hand. Depending on the type of
research problem under investigation, secondary data or primary data may be used or a
combination of the two. Justification should also be provided why type of data was
considered necessary in the study. No separate sections of advantages should be provided
but justification is provided in a prose or continuous form highlighting the specific reason
why certain data type was chosen.

Research instruments

 Frequently used instruments for collecting primary data include personal interviews,
executive interviews, questionnaires, observation, mail surveys, focus group discussions.

 State and describe the instrument(s) adopted in your study and provide justification for
choice of such an instrument. NB justification is provided in prose form. Separate sections of
advantages or disadvantages not accepted in research.

 Where questionnaires and interviews are chosen state whether such questionnaires or
interviews are structured or unstructured and justify that. On drafting questionnaires and on
asking interview questions avoid jargon and be as simple, and unambiguous as possible

 It is also important for students to describe how each instrument adopted was administered

Obtaining primary data

There are two methods of collecting primary data i.e communication and observation.
Communication as a method of data collection involving questions to respondents to secure desired
information using a data collection instrument called questionnaire. Observation is a method of data
communication in which the situation is watched and the relevant actions or behavior are recorded.

Communication

a)Degree of structure Structured / unstructured

(b). Degree of disguise -undisguised / disguised

c. Method of administration - personal interviews / mail questions/ telephone interviews

2. Observation

a. Degree of structure - structured / unstructured

b. Degree of disguise- undisguised / disguised

c. Setting - natural / contrived

d. Method of administration - human / mechanical

NB, Structure – degree of standardization imposed on the data collection instrument, Disguise – the
amount of knowledge about the purpose of study communicated to the respondents.

Natural – subjects are observed in the environment where the behavior normally takes place.

Contrived – subjects are observed in an environment that has been specifically designed for
recording their behavior.

Human observation – individuals are trained to systematically observe the phenomenon and to
record on the observational form the specific events that take place. Mechanical observation –
mechanical device observes a phenomenon and records events that take place.

Validity and Reliability

 Students are expected to state procedures taken to ensure validity and reliability of research
results. For example, in guaranteeing validity care should be taken in the manner in which
questions were asked. Long technical and unambiguous questions may not solicit valid data
as respondents are likely to be confused. On the other hand a large sample size is generally
considered to able to produce results that can be generalized. A number of procedures exist
for researchers to ensure validity and reliability of findings and students are expected to read
and understand so that they adopt the ones appropriate in their research.

Data analysis and presentation tools

 Consider tools used to analyse both qualitative and quantitative data

 Consider computer applications as well as manual methods of analyzing data, however, in
the electronic world, preference should be given to computer assisted methods in data
analysis.

 Statistical tools such as graphs, tables, pie charts may be used in presenting data