CHAPTER 4

Introduction to Calculus

1
 OUTLINE
4.1. The Concept of Limits

4.2. Continuity and Differentiability of a Function

2
 4.1. THE CONCEPT OF LIMITS
 4.1.1. Limit theory – limits that are finite
 Basic rules for evaluating limits:
 1) The lim k  k ,for any constant
x

 2) The lim x  
x 

 3) Addition/subtraction rule: lim[ f ( x)  g ( x)]  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

x  x  x 

 4) Multiplication rule: lim f ( x) g ( x)  lim f ( x) lim g ( x)

x  x  x 

 5) Division rule: lim f ( x) / g ( x)  lim f ( x) / lim g ( x) ,provided that lim g ( x)  0

x
x  x  x 

3
 …Cont.
 6)The lim k / x   or lim k /(m.x)   ,where, k and m are arbitrary
x 0 x 0

real numbers and

 7) The lim k / x  0or lim k /(m.x  h)  0 ,where, k and m are arbitrary
x  x 

real numbers and m  0

 8) The lim m(k  x)  lim m(k  x)  mk
x 0  x 0 

 9) The lim f ( x)  lim f ( x), n is any natural number, but f ( x)  0 when

n n
x  x 

n is even.

 Definition 4.1:Let f(x) be a function whose domain includes

all real numbers in an open interval containing a (except
possibly itself).If f(x) gets arbitrarily close to some number L
as x is chosen ever closer to a, then we say the limit of f(x)
as x approaches to a is L and denote this by
lim f ( x)  L                (1)
x 

4
 …Cont.
 Example 1: Find the lim(3x  5) x 2

 Solution: By evaluating f ( x)  3x  5 for several values of x

near 2, it is apparent that f(x) is approaching to 11. That
is, lim(3x  5)  11
x 2

 For this function, note that it is also true that f ( 2)  11

x 2.1 2.02 2.001 2 1.998 1.99 1.94

f ( x)  3x  5 11.30 11.06 11.003 11 10.994 10.97 10.94

lim x 2  2 x  3
 Example 2: Find the x1
 Solution: The evaluation of f ( x)  x 2  2 x  3 for several values of
x near -1, is shown in the table below. From the table it is
apparent that the limit is -4.That is, f (1)  4

 Note that the limits of the above two examples are finite.

5
 4.1.2.Limits involving infinity and one-sided limits
 Definition 4.2:If f(x) is defined on open interval containing a
(except possibly itself) and if for any number B (no matter
how much larger),f(x)>B for x close enough to a, we say f(x)
grows without bound as x approaches a and we write
lim f ( x)            (2a)
x 

 Analogously, f(x) is said to be decay without bound as x

approaches a ,if for any number B, f(x)< B for x sufficiently
close to a. In this case we write the limit as

y
lim f ( x)            (2b)
x


a x
 Note that for any number B, f(x)>B for x close enough to
a lim f ( x)  
x 

6
 …Cont.
a
x


y

 Note that for any number B, f(x) <B for x close enough to a
lim f ( x)  
x 

x 2  5x  2
 Example 1:Examine the behavior of lim
x 3 x 2  6x  9
,x  3

 Solution: Checking the numerator and denominator of the

function we get that
lim
lim( x  5 x  2)  26 and x3
2 ( x 2
 6 x  9)  0
x 3

 implying the limit properties do not apply, because the denominator

is approaching to zero
 The denominator is always positive, since it is equal to ( x  3)
2

7
 …Cont.
 As x approaches 3, the numerator is 26 while the denominator is
nearing zero, so the ratio itself is positive and getting larger and
larger. Thus, we conclude that f(x) grows without bound
approaches 3

 (1)ONE SIDED LIMITS: For functions the behavior of f(x) as x

approaches a is different when x is greater than a from when x
is less than a. In order to distinguish between these cases, one-
sided limits are used.

 Thus, we write “as x or its argument approaches a from the

right” or right-hand limit as
lim f ( x)          (3a)
x a 

 to indicate that x is getting closer and closer to a, but x is always

greater than a (to the right of on the number line)

8
 …Cont.
 Similarly, we say “as x approaches a from the left” or left-
hand limit and write as
lim f ( x)          (3b)
x a 

 to indicate that x is getting and closer to a , but that is always less

than a

2 x  50
 Example 2: Evaluate the behavior of lim
x 5 x 5
,x 5

 Solution: The graph of this linear-to-linear rational function

has a vertical asymptote at x=5.

 Inspecting the numerator and denominator, we find

lim(2 x  50)  60 and lim ( x  5)  0
x 5 x 5

 implying the limit properties do not apply because the denominator is

zero though the numerator is 60 as x=5

9
 …Cont.
 However, the ratio is getting larger and larger as x approaches
5, but the sign is positive when x>5 and negative when x<5 .

 Using one-sided limits we write

2 x  50 2 x  50
lim  and lim
x 5 x 9
  
x 5  x 9 y

 Graphically, it is shown as 10

2 5
x
 25
10

 (2) LIMITS AT INFINITY:

 Definition 4.3: The function f(x) has the limit L as x
approaches to infinitely large, denoted as
lim f ( x)  L              (4a)
x 

10
 …Cont.
 On the other hand, if f(x) becomes arbitrarily close to the
number L as x smaller values of are chosen, the expression
becomes
lim f ( x)  L              (4b)
x 

8x  3
 Example 1: Find the limit of lim
x  2 x  5

 Solution: Examining the numerator and denominator, we see

that as x gets larger, 8x gets larger and 8x -3 larger. That is,
lim(8 x  3)   and similarly lim(2 x  5)  
x 
x 

 Thus, we are dealing with an infinity-over-infinity form that has no

meaning.
 If we divided the numerator with the denominator by x and then
using lim
x 
k / x  0 concept we get

8x  3 (8 x  3) / x 8  3/ x 8  0
lim  lim  lim  4
x  2 x  5 x  ( 2 x  5) / x x  2  5 / x 20

11
 …Cont.
 Generally, the graph of y=f(x) has a horizontal asymptote at
y=L if either
lim f ( x)  L or xlim f ( x)  L

x 

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 4.2.CONTIUNITY & DIFFERENTIABILITY OF A
FUNCTION
 4.2.1. Continuity of a function of one variable:
 One use of limits is to determine whether a function is
continuous.
 Intuitively, a univatiate function is continuous if the graph of
the function has no “breaks” or “jumps”.

 Definition 4.4: A function f(x), is continuous at x=a, if

lim f ( x)  f (a)
x a

 To elaborate, a function f is continuous at x=a, when the

following three conditions are met
 (1) f(x) must be defined at a; that is f(a)must exist
 (2)The lim f ( x) must exist. That is, the left - and right-hand
xa

limits at x  a exist and are equal, lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)

x a x a  x a 

 (3)The limit as x approaches a must be equal to the value of

the function at that point or f(a). That is, lim f ( x)  f (a)
x a

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 Example 1: Show that the function f ( x)  x 3  3x 2  5 x  4
is continuous at x = 2

 Solution: Since f(x) is a cubic polynomial, it is defined for any x

and in fact f(x)= -10.
 From the properties of limit, it is also true that xlim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  10 &  
2 x 2
lim f ( x)  f (2)  10
x 2

 Thus, the function is continuous at x=2


 2
2x 2  x  6  2x  x  6
 Example 2: f ( x) 
x2
,x  2 and g ( x)  
 x  2
,x  2


 3, x2

 Show that both f(x) and g(x) are discontinuous at x=2

 Solution: The rule of correspondence for f(x) does not cover the
case when x=2. Hence, f(x) is not defined at 2 or f(2) doesn’t
exist. So, f(x) is discontinuous at x=2
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 For the function g(x), is defined to be 3. However,
(2 x  3)( x  2)
lim g ( x)  lim  2x  3  7
x2 x2 x2

 Because, g(2) and lim g ( x)

x2 are not equal, g(x) is discontinuous
at x=2

 2
 2x  x  6
 Note that the function h(x) is given by h( x )  
x  2
,x  2


 7, x2
 Is continuous at x=2.

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 4.3. Univariate differentiation
 4.3.1. Total Differentials and the concept of Derivatives
 Definition 4.3.1: Derivative: If f is a function defined by a rule of
correspondence y  f (x) ,then the derivative of f with respect to x ,
denoted as f  , is a function defined at each x in the domain of
to be the limit of f ( x  h)  f ( x )
f ( x)  lim                  (3.3.1)
h 0 h
if the limit exists as a real number
 Derivative is the slope of a tangent line. When we want to draw
attention to the dependent variable, we call equation (3.3.1) the
derivative of y with respect to x. The derivative may be denoted in
any of the following ways  dy
f ( x) Dx f Dx y
dx
 In simple word, the slope of the tangent line for the function
y  x 2 the derivative f (x ) or dy  2 x
dx

16
 …Cont.
 Example 1: Find the derivative of f ( x)  7 x  6
 Solution: Since the graph of this function is straight line with
slope 7, and the derivative is the slope of the tangent line to the
graph, it should be anticipated that f ( x)  7 for all x. This
observation can be verified by using the limit definition 3.3.1.
f ( x  h)  f ( x )  lim
[7( x  h)  6]  [7 x  6]
f ( x)  lim h 0 h
h 0 h
7 x  7h  6  7 x  6]
 lim
h 0 h
7h
 lim
h 0 h
 lim 7 7
h 0

 Example 2: Find dy / dx if y  x
3

 Solution: This function defines the function y  f ( x)  x 3 and so

3 3
f ( x  h)  f ( x ) ( x  h)  x
f ( x)  lim  lim
h 0 h
h 0 h

17
 …Cont.
 Note that, ( x  h) 2  x 2 h  2 xh2  h 2 and ( x  h) 2 ( x  h)  ( x  h) 3  x 3  3x 2 h  3xh2  h 3
( x  h) 3  x 3
 Substituting this into  lim h 0 h
we get
x 3  3 x 2 h  3xh 2  h 3  x 3
 lim
h 0 h
3 x 2 h  3 xh 2  h 3
 Cancelling like terms,  lim
h 0 h
h[3 x  3 xh  h 2 ]  lim(3x 2  3xh  h 2 )
2
 lim h 0
h 0 h

 Evaluating the above for h=0, we get,  3x 2

 Thus, the dy / dx  3x 2 when y  x

3

 When we wish to know the value of a derivative at a

particular choice of x  say x  a ,we can find it by evaluating
at a .For instance, evaluating dy / dx  3x 2 at x  2 , to obtain
dy
f ( 2)  12  12
dx x2
18
 …Cont.
 Example 3: Find the derivatives using definition 4.3.1
 A) f ( x)  y  x for x  0  B) f ( x)  1 / x for x  0
1 1
 Solution: xh  x  Solution: 
xh x
f ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim
h 0 h
h0 h
Multiply both the numerator and denominator by Rearranging the numerator & substituting
xh  x 1 1 x  ( x  h)
 
xh x x ( x  h)
xh  x
x  ( x  h)
xhx h
 lim  lim  lim
x ( x  h)
h 0 h x  h  x h 0 h x  h  x h 0 h
1 Canceling like terms & rearranging this
 lim
h 0 xh  x h 1 h
 lim *  lim
h 0 x( x  h) h h0 hx( x  h)
Evaluating the above for h =0, we get 1
 lim
 lim
1 h 0 x ( x  h)
h 0 x x
1 Finally, evaluating this at h=0, we get
 1 1   1
2 x  lim  lim 2 x2
h 0 x ( x ) h 0 x

19
 …Cont.
 Exercise 4.1: Find the derivatives using definition 3.3.1and
f (x ) evaluate at the given values of a to find f (a )

 A) f ( x)  3x  6; a  3 & 7 D) f ( x)  3x  x 2 ; a  1& 4
 B) f ( x)  1  4 x; a  9 & 3 E) f ( x)  9  x ; a  2 & 3
2

1
 C) f ( x)  x 2 ; a  3&5 F) f ( x)  x ;
2 a  1& 2

 4.3.2. Basic rules of differentiation:

 After finding the derivatives of several functions using the limit
definition (3.3.1) of the derivative, two things become apparent:
 First, the process of evaluating the limits become tiresome and tedious,
and
 Second, certain patterns begin to emerge in the process.
 The remedy for the first is to take advantage of the second and
develop some rules of differentiation,

20
 …Cont.
 THEOREM 4.1: Rules of differentiation
1) Linear function differentiation rule:
 If f ( x)  y  mx  b ,then f ( x)  dy / dx  1* mx11  0  m

 We can verify this using limit definition

f ( x  h)  f ( x ) [ m( x  h)  b]  [ mx  b]
f ( x)  lim  lim
h 0 h h 0 h
mx  mh  b  mx  b
 lim
h 0 h
 lim
h0 h
mh
m
 Example 1: Find the derivative of y  2 x  8
 Solution: dy / dx  1* 2 x11  0  2

2) Differentiation of a constant function

 If y  f ( x)  C , where C is a constant, then dy / dx  f ( x)  0

21
 …Cont.
3) Power rule:
 If n is a fixed real number, then f ( x n )  nx n1 for any x at which is
nxn 1 defined

 Example 2: Find the derivative of

 A) f ( x)  3x 2 B) f ( x)  x 2

 Solution: dy / dx  3 * 2 x 21  6 x dy / dx  2 * x 21

2
 2 x  3  
x3
4) Constant multiple rule:
 If c is any constant and the derivative of the function f exists,
then
f ( x)[cf ( x)]  cf [ f ( x)]  cf ( x)

 That is, the derivative of a constant times a function is the

constant times the derivative of the function

 Example 3: Find the derivatives of

 A) f ( x)  5 x B) y  4 x
3

22
 …Cont.
 Solution:
 A) f ( x)[5( x 3 )]  5 f ( x 3 ) B) can be expressed as  4 x  4 x1/ 2
1 1
Thus f ( x)  2 x  2 x
1 / 2
 5(3x 2 )  15x 2
1 2
So f (4 x)  4 2 x 
x
5) Sum/difference rule:
 If f and g are two functions, each of which is differentiable,
and if x is the domain of each, then
Dx [ f ( x)  g ( x)]  f ( x)  g ( x)

 Since a difference of two functions, f  g ,can be thought of as

the sum of f and  g , the above rule applies to difference of two
functions
 Example 4: Find the derivatives of
B) y  x  3 x x  0
5
 A) f ( x)  3x 2  4 x 3  1
2 x

23
 …Cont.
 Solution: Let and
5
f ( x )  g ( x)  3 x
x
 A) It can be written as B) We can also write the question as
f ( x)  3x 2  4 x 3 
1 1 / 2
x y  5 x 1  3x1 / 2
2
dy / dx  D X [3x 2  4 x 3  1 / 2 x 1 / 2 ] So the derivative is f (5 x 1 )  g (3x1 / 2 )

 3Dx ( x 2 )  4Dx ( x 3 )  1/ 2Dx ( x 1/ 2 )  5(1) x 11  3(1 / 2) x1 / 21

3
 1 1  5 x  2  x 1 / 2
 2(3x 21 )  3(4 x 31 )    ( x 1 / 21 ) 2
 2 2 5 3
1  2 
 6 x  12x 2  x 3 / 2 x 2 x1 / 2
4 5 3
 2

x 2 x

24
 …Cont.
6) Chain rule: Composite function rule
 If f and are differentiable functions (and the range of g is
constrained in the domain of f ), then
Dx [ f ( g ( x))]  f ( g ( x)) g ( x)        (3.2)
 Example 1: If h( x)  ( x  5 x) ,find h (x ) a) using the chain rule, and b)
7 2

after expanding ( x  5 x)
7 2

 Solution: a) Chain rule: If f ( x)  x and g ( x)  x  5 x ,then

2 7

h( x)  f ( g ( x)) .Thus, using Theorem (6)

h( x)  2( x 7  5 x)1 (7 x 6  5)

 Factoring 2( x  5 x)  2 x( x  5)(7 x  5) and substituting this in the above,

7 6 6

we get,
h( x)  2 x( x 6  5)(7 x 6  5)

 b) Expanding, ( x  5 x) we get h( x)  x  10x  25x

7 2 14 8 2

 Differentiating term by term and factoring, we obtained

25
 …Cont.
h( x)  14x13  80x 7  50x  2 x[7 x12  40x 6  25]
 The expression in the bracket can be written as ( x 6  5)(7 x 6  5)
and substituting, we get a similar result as in the case of chain rule
h( x)  2 x( x 6  5)(7 x 6  5)
 In many problems where the chain rule may applied, expanding is
not an option as illustrated below

 Example 2: If y  x 3  5 for x  0 , find dy / dx

 Solution: If f ( x)  x or f ( x)  x1/ 2 and g ( x)  x 3  5 ,then y  f ( g ( x)) . Thus, by

equation (3.2)
2
dy 1 3 3 x
 ( x  5) 1/ 2 3 x 2 
dx x
3
2( x  5)
1/ 2

 Example 3: If y  3x  5 x  8 ,find dy / dx
3 2

 Solution: Since, y  (3x  5 x  8)

2 1/ 3

dy 1 6x  5
 (3 x 2  5 x  8)  2 / 3 (6 x  5)  3(3x 2  5 x  8) 2 / 3
dx 3
26
 …Cont.
 Often it is easier to apply the chain rule, by using an intermediate
variable. For example, if y  f ( g ( x)) and we let u  g (x) , then y  f (u )
dy du
 Noting that,  f (u )  f ( g ( x)) and  g (x)
dx dx

 We see that the chain rule can be written as

dy dy du
 .      (3.3.3)
dx du dx

 The chain rule is easily remembered in the form of equation (2.3)

because it looks like the familiar cancelation rule for the
multiplication of fraction.

 Example 4: Use equation(3.3.3) of the chain rule to find the

derivative of y  ( x 5  14)10
 Solution: Let , y  u where u  x  14 .Then
10 5

dy du
 10u 9 and  5x 4
du dx
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 …Cont.
 From equation (3.3), we have dy
 10u 9 .5 x 4
dx
 10( x 5  14)9 .5 x 4
 50x 4 ( x 5  14)9

8) The Product rule:

 If f and g are differentiable functions, then
Dx [ f ( x) g ( x)]  f ( x) g ( x)  g ( x) f ( x)

 In words, the derivative of a product of two functions is the

first function times the derivative of the second plus the second
function times the derivative of the first.
 Example 1: If h( x)  50x 100  x ,find h(x )

 Solution: Letting h( x)  50x 100  x and g ( x)  100  x , or

we have h( x)  f ( x) g ( x) .So by the product rule, g ( x)  (100  x)
1/ 2

1
  (100  x) 1/ 2 (1)
f ( x)  50 and g ( x )
2
28
 …Cont.
1
h( x)  50x. (100  x) 1/ 2 (1)  (100  x)1/ 2 .50
2
 25x(100  x) 1/ 2 (1)  (100  x)1/ 2 .50
(Note that the chain rule was used to differentiate g). Simplifying
by factoring, 25(100  x) 1/ 2 we have 1/ 2
 50(100  x) 
h( x)  25(100  x) 1 / 2  x 
 25(100  x)1 / 2 
 25(100  x) 1/ 2 [ x  2(100  x)
25(200  3 x)
1/ 2
 25(100  x) (200  3x) h ( x ) 
(100  x)1/ 2
9) The Quotient rule:
 If f and g are differentiable functions, and g  0 then
 f ( x)  g ( x) f ( x)  f ( x) g ( x)
Dx   [ g ( x)]2
 g ( x ) 

10q  40
 Example 2: Find y if P 
q2
 Solution: Using the quotient and chain rule
dp (q  2)(10)  (10q  40)(1) 10q  20  10q  40 
 20
  [q  2]2
dq [q  2]2 [q  2]2

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