Heat Transfer, Heat Exchangers

Heat as the form of energy that can be transferred from

one system to another as a result of temperature
difference.
A thermodynamic analysis is concerned with the amount of
heat transfer as a system undergoes a process from one
equilibrium state to another.
The science that deals with the determination of the rates
of such energy transfers is the heat transfer.
The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-
temperature medium to the lower-temperature one, and
heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the
same temperature.
 Units of Heat
• The SI unit is the joule (J), or Newton-metre (Nm).
• Historically, heat was measured in terms of the ability
to raise the temperature of water.
• The kilocalorie (kcal), or Calorie (Cal), or “big calorie”:
amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1
kilogramme of water by 1 C0 (from 14.50C to 15.50C)
• The calorie, or “little calorie”: amount of heat needed
to raise the temperature of 1 gramme of water by 1 C0
(from 14.50C to 15.50C)
• In industry, the British thermal unit (Btu) is still used:
amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1
lb of water by 1 F0 (from 630F to 640F) 3
 Mode of heat transfer
• There are three ways that heat may be
transferred between substances at
different temperatures - conduction,
convection, and radiation. We consider
each of these in turn.
»Conduction
»Convection
»Radiation

4
 Conduction

• Conduction refers to the transport of energy in a

medium due to a temperature gradient.

• It is a diffusive process wherein molecules transmit

their kinetic energy to other molecules by colliding with
them.

5
 Heat Conduction
• The flow of thermal energy through a substance from a
higher- to a lower-temperature region. Heat conduction
occurs by atomic or molecular interactions.

6
 The outer electrons of metal atoms are not attached
to any particular atom. They are free to move
between the atoms.
When a metal is heated,
the free electrons gain
kinetic energy.
This means that the free
electrons move faster
and transfer the energy
throughout the metal.
This makes heat
transfer in metals
heat
very efficient.
Insulators do not have these free electrons, which is
why they do not conduct heat as well as metals. 7
The flow of heat by conduction occurs via collisions
between atoms and molecules in the substance and the
subsequent transfer of kinetic energy.
It is important to note that in conductive heat transfer,
there is no physical movement of the material.
Let us consider two substances at different temperatures
separated by a barrier which is subsequently removed, as
in the following figure.
 Heat transfer by conduction
When the barrier is removed,
the fast (``hot'') atoms collide
with the slow (``cold'') ones. In
such collisions the faster atoms
lose some speed and the slower
ones gain speed; thus, the fast
ones transfer some of their
kinetic energy to the slow ones.
This transfer of kinetic energy
from the hot to the cold side is
called a flow of heat through
conduction.

9
 Conduction
• Good heat conductors have high heat
conductivity. E.g. Copper and Silver.
• All substances can conduct heat.
• But some are exceptionally bad conductors
e.g. air and gases or non-metals.
• Poorest Conductor – Vacuum
• Poor Conductors are also good insulators of
heat.
 Conduction

• A test-tube filled with

water has ice weighed
down at its bottom.
• A flame is put near the top
Water is a poor conductor of
of the water and heats it heat. Hot water also rises, hence
does not sink to the bottom of
up. the tube to melt the ice.

• The water on top boils but

the ice does not melt.
• Why?
 Insulation of Heat Conduction

• To reduce heat conduction, insulators are

used.
• The poorest conductors are used as heat
insulators where applicable.
• Insulation is found in the walls of the home,
on heating,
• Winter clothing or the sweater that you wear
 Fibreglass Insulation
• Glass is a poor conductor. Fibreglass uses
this property.
• Layers are placed between walls to reduce
heat conducted into the house in summer or
conducted out of the house in winter.
Graphite is a non-metal that is a good conductor of heat.
If you heat one end of a graphite rod, the heat travels to
the other end.

15
 Steady and Unsteady State Head Transfer

Heat transfer problems are often

classified as being steady
(steady state) or transient
(unsteady state). The term
steady implies no change with
time at any point within the
medium, while transient implies
variation with time or time
dependence.
Example: Steady State: Heat transfer through the walls of a
house is steady when the conditions inside the house and
the outdoor remain constant for several hours. But even in
this case, the temp. on the inner and outer surface of the
wall will be different unless the temp. on the inner and
outer the house are the same.
Example: unsteady state (transient process)
The cooling of an apple in a refrigerator is a transient heat
transfer process since the temp. at any fixed point within
the apple will change with time during cooling.
 Convection
When heat flows by actual mixing of warmer portions with
cooler portions of the same material, the mechanism is known
as convection.
Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a
fluid are also considered to be convection because of the fluid
motion induced during the process, such as the rise of the
vapor bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid droplets
during condensation.
Hot water is likewise less dense than cold water and rises,
causing convection currents which transport energy.
Forced convection: If the fluid
is forced to flow over the
surface by external means
such as a fan, pump, or the
wind.
Natural (or free) convection:
If the fluid motion is caused The cooling of a boiled egg by
by buoyancy forces that are forced and natural convection.
induced by density
differences due to the
variation of temperature in
the fluid.
 CONVECTION
Heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid
that is in motion and it involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion

Heat is first transferred

from hot block to the
adjacent layer of air by
conduction and then
carried away from the
surface by convection
Convection in Gases
 Convection and Sea Breezes

• On a smaller scale near coastlines,

convection is responsible for sea
breezes.
• During the daytime, land is much
hotter than the ocean.
• A sea breeze is created when hot air
over the land rises due to convection
and is replaced by cooler air from the
ocean.
• At night the temperature reverses so
a land breeze occurs.
 Radiation
• Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves.

• Thermal radiation is electromagnetic waves (including

light) produced by objects because of their
temperature.

• Thermal radiation is emitted by all bodies warmer than

absolute zero (-273oC)

• The higher the temperature of an object, the more

thermal radiation it gives off.
 Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum

• The thermal radiation spectrum ranges from 0.1 to 100

m

•This includes some ultraviolet radiation, the visible

radiation spectrum and infrared radiation.
• The temperature of the sun is 5778 K
• We calculate that the wavelength at maximum
power is 500 nm (in the middle of visible spectrum)
• At the human body temperature (37oC) the
maximum is at about 10 μm (infrared)
• Only some snakes, bats and insects can see this
radiation, we have to use a special infrared camera.
 26.3 Radiant Heat

• We do not see the

thermal radiation
because it occurs at
infrared wavelengths
invisible to the human
eye.
• Objects glow different
colors at different
temperatures.
 26.3 Radiant Heat
• A rock at room
temperature does not
“glow”.
• The curve for 20°C does
not extend into visible
wavelengths.
• As objects heat up they
start to give off visible
light, or glow.
• At 600°C objects glow
dull red, like the burner
on an electric stove.
 26.3 Radiant Heat

• As the temperature rises, thermal

radiation produces shorter-wavelength,
higher energy light.
• At 1,000°C the color is yellow-orange,
turning to white at 1,500°C.
• If you carefully watch a bulb on a
dimmer switch, you see its color change
as the filament gets hotter.
• The bright white light from a bulb is
thermal radiation from an extremely
hot filament, near 2,600°C.
 Black body

➢A black body is an object that absorbs all light that

falls on it. Because no light is reflected or transmitted,
the object appears black when it is cold.

➢A black body emits radiation at a given temperature

and wavelength exactly as well as it absorbs the same
radiation.
Black body radiation spectrum
Intensity ( J/m4)

Wave length (nm)

Solar radiation – Visible

6000 K
Radiation from the Earth’s surface –
Infrared
6,000 K 300 K

Note : To convert to nm multiply by 1000

 IR images

An image of a human
hand taken in the
infrared displayed in
false color where white
and yellow correspond
to hot regions, blue and
green to cool regions.
 Radiant Heat

• The total power emitted as thermal radiation by a

blackbody depends on temperature (T) and
surface area (A).
• Real surfaces usually emit less than the blackbody
power, typically between 10 and 90 percent.
• The Kelvin temperature scale is used in the Stefan-
Boltzmann formula because thermal radiation
depends on the temperature above absolute zero.
 Stefan-Boltzmann formula
Surface area (m2)

Power
(watts)
P = s AT4

Absolute temperature
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (K)
5.67 x 10-8 watts/m2K4)
Calculate Radiant Power

• The filament in a light bulb

has a diameter of 0.5
millimeters and a length of
50 millimeters.
• The surface area of the
filament is 4 × 10-8 m2.
• If the temperature is 3,000 K,
how much power does the
filament radiate?
 Summary
• CONDUCTION: the transfer of energy through matter
by direct contact of particles.
This can happen in solids, liquids and gases.

• CONVECTION: the transfer of energy because of the

movement of bulk masses of
particles.
This can happen only in liquids and gases - not in solids.
• RADIATION: the transfer of energy by
electromagnetic waves.
Energy can move by radiation in air like the heat from your electric stove top, or in the vacuum of
space the way the Sun heats the Earth. In radiation, the energy does not have to transfer through
mass (particles).
Fourier’s Law
➢Consider an area A of a wall of thickness L
➢Let the temperature be uniform over the area A on one
face of the wall, and uniform but lower over the same area
on the opposite face.
➢ The heat flow will be at right angles to the plane of A.
➢ Fourier’s law states that rate of heat flow through a
uniform material is proportional to the area, the temperature
drop, and inversely proportional to the length of the path of
flow.
➢If a thin section of thickness dL, parallel to the area A, be
taken at some intermediate point in the wall, with a
temperature difference of dT across such a layer, then
Fourier’s law may be represented by the equation:

➢Where k is a proportionality constant. THE NEGATIVE

SIGN IS A CONVENTION USED BECAUSE HEAT IS
TRANSFERRED IN THE DIRECTION OF DECREASING
TEMPERATURE AND DISTANCE IS NORMALLY REFERRED TO
AS A POSITIVE VARIABLE.
➢The rate of change of temperature with respect to distance
is temperature gradient, dT/dL
➢ If the temperature gradient dT/dL does not vary with
time, then the rate of heat flow is constant with time and

➢Since normally we know only the temperatures at the two

faces of the wall and not the intermediate temperatures
along the path of heat transfer, the ordinary use of Fourier's
law requires that the differential equation be integrated over
the path, from L=0 to L= total length.
➢ k may be function of temperature but is independent of
the length. Similarly, A may vary with L but is independent
of the temperature. By separating variables we have

➢On integration, if T1 is the higher temperature

➢ since q is a constant. In general, the variation of k with
temperature may be taken linear, so that km, the arithmetic
mean value of k, may be considered a constant. If A does not
vary with L (i.e., the case of a flat wall), then the equation
integrates to

By rearranging
 Thermal Conductivity
The ability of a material to transport heat. d

Q A
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, k :
a measurement of heat flow through a body.
It is the heat transmitted in unit time, in a
direction normal to a surface of unit area, T1
through a distance, d, across a unit
T2
temperature difference over the distance.
Temperature profile

Q, heat flow per unit time (Js-1) × d, distance (m)

k=
A, area (m2) × (T1-T2) temperature difference (K)

Thermal conductivity (k) in SI units : J/s.m.C or ( note: 1W = 1 J s-1)

W/m.C, in English unit : Btu/h.ft.F
 Thermal Conductivity
d

Another way of understanding the Q A

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, k, is to re-
arrange the equation as :
T1
Q, heat flow per unit time (Js-1) T2
Temperature profile
A, area (m2)
(T1-T2) temperature difference (K)
=k (Eq. 6b)
d, distance (m)
Heat flow per unit time per unit area which is heat The temperature difference
flux is proportional to the temperature gradient; this per unit distance is called
proportionality is called thermal conductivity, k. temperature gradient

The higher the thermal conductivity, the faster the heat flows
The range of
thermal
conductivity of
various materials
at room
temperature.
 The thermal conductivities of gases such as
air vary by a factor of 104 from those of pure
metals such as copper.
Pure crystals and metals have the highest
thermal conductivities, and gases and
insulating materials the lowest.

The mechanisms of heat

conduction in different phases
of a substance.
51
The variation of the
thermal
conductivity of
various solids,
liquids, and gases
with temperature.
52
Conductivity and Conductance
Conductivity (k) heat flow through a material per unit
thickness

Conductance (C): heat flow through a material of stated

thickness

C=k/x

where x= unit thickness (in.)

 Conductivity and Conductance
Example 1 x”
Say x=4”
Conductivity vs. Conductance

1”
1ºF
1’

Conductance C=k/x=0.25/4”=0.0625 Btuh

1’
1ºF

Conductivity k=0.25 Btuh

S: p. 182, F.7.8
 Converting to Resistance
Resistance (R): measure of resistance to the passage
of heat (h-ft2-ºF/Btu)

R=1/C or R=x/k
 Converting to Resistance
Example 1 (cont.) x”
Say x=4”
Conductivity vs. Conductance

1”
1ºF
1’

Conductance C=k/x=0.25/4”=0.0625 Btuh

1’ Resistance R=x/k=4/0.25=16
1ºF

Conductivity k=0.25 Btuh

Resistance R=1/k=1/0.25= 4

S: p. 182, F.7.8
 Thermal Resistance

Figure: Heat transfer through a plane wall. (a) Temperature

distribution. (b) Equivalent thermal circuit.
➢In Figure (a), a plane wall separates two fluids of different
temperatures.
➢Heat transfer occurs by convection from the hot fluid at
Tα, 1 to one surface of the wall at Ts, 1, by conduction
through the wall, and by convection from the other surface
of the wall at Ts, 2 to the cold fluid at Tα, 2.
➢From the figure, we can use Fourier’s law, to determine
the conduction heat transfer rate. That is,
➢A is the area of the wall normal to the direction of heat
transfer and, for the plane wall, it is a constant independent
of x. The heat flux is then

➢Thermal resistance may be associated with the conduction of

heat.
➢It is defined as the ratio of a driving potential (temperature
difference) to the corresponding transfer rate, thermal
resistance for conduction in a plane wall is
➢Thermal resistance may also be associated with heat
transfer by convection at a surface. From Newton’s law of
cooling,

➢The thermal resistance for convection is then

The heat transfer rate may be determined from separate

consideration of each element in the network. Since qx is
constant throughout the network, it follows that
➢In terms of the overall temperature difference, Tα,1 Tα,2,
and the total thermal resistance, Rtot, the heat transfer rate
may also be expressed as

Because the conduction and convection resistances are in

series as shown in the figure and may be summed, it
follows that
Heat Transfer Rate through a Composite Wall

Figure: Heat transfer through a composite wall

Let us consider a general case of a composite wall as
shown in the figure There are any number of layers of
different materials of thicknesses LA, LB, etc and having
thermal conductivities kA, kB, etc. On one side of the
composite wall, there is a hot fluid at temperature Tα, 1 and
on the other side of the wall there is a cold fluid at
temperature Tα, 4. The convective heat transfer coefficients
on the two sides of the wall are h1 and h4 respectively. The
system is analogous to a series of resistances as shown in
the figure.
➢ The one-dimensional heat transfer rate for this system
may be expressed as

➢ where Tα,1 ̶ Tα,4 is the overall temperature difference and

the summation includes all thermal resistances. Hence

➢For each element in the series, the heat transfer rate can
be related to the temperature difference and the
corresponding resistance and qs is constant throughout the
network.
➢With composite systems it is often convenient to work
with an overall heat transfer coefficient, U, which is defined
by an expression analogous to Newton’s law of cooling.
Accordingly,

➢where T is the overall temperature difference. The overall

heat transfer coefficient is related to the total thermal
resistance, and from Equations 1 and 4 we see that
UA =1/Rtot. Hence, for the composite wall,
➢In general, we may write
 Thermal Conductivity of Materials
Q, heat flow per unit time (Js-1) × d, distance (m)
k=
A, area (m2) × (T1-T2) temperature difference (K)
➢Thermal conductivity is a physical property of a
substance.
➢ In general, it depends upon the temperature, pressure and
nature of the substance.
➢Thermal conductivity of materials are usually determined
experimentally and a number of methods for this purpose
are well known.
Thermal Conductivity of Gases:
➢According to the kinetic theory of gases, the heat
transfer by conduction in gases at ordinary pressures and
temperatures take place through the transport of the kinetic
energy arising from the collision of the gas molecules.
➢Since the specific heat of gases increases with
temperature, the thermal conductivity increases with
temperature and with decreasing molecular weight.
 Thermal Contact Resistance

➢Heat flow rate through composite walls are usually

analyzed on the assumptions that - (i) there is a perfect
contact between adjacent layers, and (ii) the temperature at
the interface of the two plane surfaces is the same.
➢ However, in real situations, this is not true. No surface,
even a so-called 'mirror-finish surface', is perfectly smooth
in a microscopic sense. As such, when two surfaces are
placed together, there is not a single plane of contact.
• When two such surfaces are pressed against each
other, the peaks form good material contact but the
valleys form voids filled with air.
• These numerous air gaps of varying sizes act as
insulation because of the low thermal conductivity of
air.
• Thus, an interface offers some resistance to heat
transfer, and this resistance per unit interface area is
called the thermal contact resistance, Rc.

70
Temperature distribution and heat flow lines along two solid plates pressed
against each other for the case of perfect and imperfect contact.

71
 Solid contact peaks (solid to
solid conduction, gaps
(conduction and or radiation
hc convection heat across the gaps) in the
transfer coefficient noncontact areas (which is a
major contributor to heat
transfer

A is the apparent interface

area which is the same as the
cross sectional area of the
composite

The value of thermal contact

The thermal contact resistance can be
resistance depends on:
minimized by applying
• surface roughness,
• a thermal grease such as silicon oil
• material properties,
• a better conducting gas such as helium
• temperature and pressure at the or hydrogen
interface • a soft metallic foil such as tin, silver,
• type of fluid trapped at the copper, nickel, or aluminum
interface.
Problem: The thermal contact conductance at the interface
of two 1-cm-thick aluminum plates is measured to be 11,000
W/m2.K. Determine the thickness of the aluminum plate
whose thermal resistance is equal to the thermal resistance
of the interface between the plates. (Thermal conductivity of
aluminum at room temperature is k = 237 W/m.K)
Heat Flow Through a Cylinder
➢Consider a thick walled hollow cylinder of inside radius
r1, outside radius r2 and length L as shown in the figure.
➢Assume that the thermal conductivity of the material of
which cylinder to be made be k.
➢Let the temperature of the inside surfaces be T1 and that
of the outside surface be T2. Assume that T1 > T2, therefore
the heat flows from the inside of cylinder to outside.
➢It is desired to calculate the rate of heat flow for this case.
➢Consider a very thin cylinder (cylindrical element),
concentric with the main cylinder, of radius r, where r is
between r2 and r1. The thickness of wall of this cylindrical
element is dr. and if dr is small enough with respect to r so
that the lines of heat flow may be considered parallel.
➢The rate of heat flow at any radius r is given by
Q = -k 2πrL ( )
➢Rearranging the equation (1), we get
➢Only variables in equation (2) are r and T (assuming k to
be constant). Integrate the equation (2) from r = r1 where
T(r1) = T1 to when r = r2, where T(r2) = T2

➢The rate of heat flow through a thick walled cylinder by

rearranging the equation (3)
➢It can be put into more convenient form by expressing
the rate of heat flow as:

➢This is the same general form for heat flow through a flat
wall. Am can be determined by equating the right-hand
sides of equations ( 4&5)

➢Am is the area of a cylinder of length L and radius rm

where
➢ Am and rm are the logarithmic mean area and logarithmic
mean radius respectively. Log mean area is always used for
thick walled cylinders and the average is used for thin.
➢Thermal resistance of the cylinder layer against heat
conduction:
Multilayered Cylinders

The thermal resistance

network for heat transfer
through a three-layered
composite cylinder
subjected to convection
on both sides.

81
 Once heat transfer rate Q has been
calculated, the interface temperature T2
can be determined from any of the
following two relations:

82
Calculation of overall coefficient
from individual coefficients in case of
metal wall
 Region III: Solid –
Cold Liquid
Convection
NEWTON’S LAW OF

Q = hc A(Tow − Tc )
Metal CCOLING
Wall

Th Ti,wall

To,wall

Tc

Region I : Hot Liquid- Q hot Q cold

Solid Convection
NEWTON’S LAW OF
CCOLING
Q = hh A(Th − Tiw ) Region II : Conduction
Tiw − Tow
Across Copper Wall
Q=
FOURIER’S LAW L / kA
THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
➢Energy moves from hot fluid to a surface by convection, through
the wall by conduction, and then by convection from the surface to
the cold fluid.
➢ Dotted lines on each side of solid wall represent the boundaries of
films in viscous flow.
➢ All parts of hot fluid to the left and right of boundary layer are
turbulent and laminar flow respectively.
➢ Th = Temperature at the boundary layer between the turbulent and
viscous regimes. It is the average temperature of the hot fluid at the
outside surface of the film. This temperature is found by completely
mixing the fluid.
THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
➢Tiw = Temperature at the interface between hot fluid and solid
➢ Tow = Temperature at the interface between cold fluid and solid
➢ Tc = Temperature at the boundary layer between the turbulent and
viscous regimes. It is the average temperature of the cold fluid at the
outside surface of the film. This temperature is found by completely
mixing the fluid.
Calculation of overall coefficient (U) from
individual coefficients in case of metal wall
Consider the plane wall, shown in the figure, exposed to a hot
fluid on one side and a cooler fluid on the other side. The rate of
heat transfer is expressed by
these three expressions
1) Heat transfer by convection from
T
hot fluid to wall surface : h

Q = hhA(Th − Tiw ) Tiw Tow

2) Heat transfer by conduction

Tc
the plane wall: Q hot Q cold

Tiw − Tow
Q=
L kA
3) Heat transfer by convection from wall surface to cold fluid:
Q = hc A(Tow − Tc )

The three previous equations can be rewritten as follows:

1
Th − Tiw = Q 
hh A
L
Tiw − Tow = Q 
kA
1
Tow − Tc = Q 
hc A
Q hot Q cold
By addition
 1 L 1 
Th − Tc = Q   + + 
 hh A kA hc A 
 Th − Tc
Q =
1 L 1
+ +
hh A kA hc A
The equivalent thermal resistance circuit for heat transfer
through the plane wall with convective boundaries is shown in
the following figure:
Let Q
Q = UA(Th − Tc )
Th Tiw Tow Tc

1 L 1
hh A kA hc A

U = overall heat transfer coefficient [ W/m²K]

Comparing these two equations, one obtains
 1
U=
1 L 1
+ +
hh k hc

hh = heat transfer coefficient of wall surface (1) [W/m2.K]

= heat transfer film coefficient of wall surface (1)
= individual heat transfer coefficient of wall surface (1)

hc= heat transfer coefficient of surface (2) [W/m2.K]

= heat transfer film coefficient of wall surface (2)
= individual heat transfer coefficient of wall surface (2)

k = thermal conductivity of the wall material [W/m.K]

L = wall thickness [m]

The wall conduction term ( L k ) may often can be neglected, since a
thin wall of large thermal conductivity is generally used in heat
exchangers. Also, one of the convection coefficients is often much
smaller than the other and hence dominates determination of the
overall heat transfer coefficient. For example, if one of the fluids is a
gas and the other is a liquid or a liquid-vapor mixture such as boiling
or condensation, the gas-side convection coefficient is much smaller.
1
U=  hsmall
1 L 1
+ +
hsmall k hbig

h is small, in case of gases (low viscosity and low specific heat) and
in case of laminar flow (low velocity).
h is big, in case of liquids (high viscosity and high specific heat) and
in case of turbulent flow (high velocity).
Problem

An iron plate of thickness L with thermal conductivity k is subjected

to a constant, uniform heat flux qo (W/m²) at the boundary surface
at x = 0. From the other boundary surface at x = L, heat is
dissipated by convection into a fluid at temperature T∞ with a heat
transfer coefficient h. The figure shows the geometry and the
nomenclature.
Develop an expression for the determination of the surface
temperatures T1 and T2 at the surfaces x = 0 and x = L. Also, develop
an expression for the overall heat transfer coefficient U.
Calculate the surface temperatures T1 and T2 and the overall heat
transfer coefficient U for L = 2 cm, k = 20 W/m.K, qo = 105 W/m2 , T∞
= 50oC, and h = 500 W/m2.K.
Data: L = 2 cm, k = 20 W/m2 °C, qo = 105 W/m2 , T∞ = 50oC, and
h = 500 W/m2 °C.
Find: T1, T2, U
Solution: Applying the thermal
resistance concept:
.
T1 − T2 T2 − T
Q= =
L 1
kA hA
T1 − T
=
 L 1 
 + 
.

 kA hA  Q

T1 − T2 T2 − T T1 − T L 1
qo = = =
L 1  L 1 kA hA
 + 
k h  k h
By equating the first and the last expression, T1 is found
 L 1 qo
T1 =  +  qo + T = + T
 k h U
and by equating the first and the third expressions, T2 is found:
qo
T2 = + T
h
1
U =
1 L 1
+ +
h1 k h2
and since there is no convective heat transfer on surface (1),
1
 = 0 and h2 = h
h1
1
U =
 L 1
 + 
 k h
Introducing The numerical values of various quantities in the
above results, we obtains

 L 1  0.02 1 
T1 =  +  qo + T =  +   10 5
+ 50 = 350 o
C
 k h  20 500 
qo 105
T2 = + T = + 50 = 250o C
h 500
1 1
U= = = 333.33 W / m 2 .o C
 L 1   0.02 1 
 +   + 
 k h   20 500 

Note if the wall thickness is 2 mm, then T1 = 260 °C, T2 = 250°C

and U = 476.2 W/m2 °C.
Overall heat transfer coefficient in pipes:
Consider a pipe exposed to a hot fluid on the inner side and a
cooler fluid on the outer side, as shown in the figure. The area of
convection is not the same for both fluids in this case, these areas
depend on the inside pipe diameter and wall thickness.
The heat transfer is expressed by
the following relations:
1) Heat transfer by convection from
the hot fluid on the inner side to
the inner wall surface of the pipe:
.
Ti − T1
Q=
1
hi Ai
2) Heat transfer by conduction through the pipe wall itself:
.
T1 − T2
Q=
ln(ro ri )
2kL
3) Heat transfer by convection from the outer wall surface of the
pipe to the cold fluid on the outer side:
.
T2 − To
Q=
1
ho Ao
The three previous equations can be rewritten as follows:
.
1
Ti − T1 = Q
hi Ai
.
ln(ro ri )
T1 − T2 = Q
2kL
 .
1
T2 − To = Q
ho Ao
By addition
.  1 ln(ro ri ) 1 
Ti − To = Q  + + 
 hi Ai 2kL ho Ao 
.
Ti − To
Q =
 1 ln(ro ri ) 1 
 + + 
 hi Ai 2kL ho Ao 

The equivalent thermal resistance circuit for heat transfer

through the pipe wall with convective boundaries is shown in the
following figure:
. 1 hi Ai ln(ro ri ) 2kL 1 ho Ao
Q
 .
Let Q = U o Ao (Ti − To ) = U i Ai (Ti − To )

 U o Ao = U i Ai

Uo = overall heat transfer coefficient based on the

outer area of pipe.
Ui = overall heat transfer coefficient based on the
inner area of pipe.
Ao = 2ro L, is the outer surface area of the pipe.
Ai = 2ri L, is the inner surface area of .the pipe.
Upon comparing the two equations of Q , one obtains
1
U o Ao =
1 ln(ro ri ) 1
+ +
hi Ai 2kL ho Ao
 1
Uo =
ro ro ln(ro ri ) 1
+ +
hi ri k ho

and
1
U i Ai =
1 ln(ro ri ) 1
+ +
hi Ai 2kL ho Ao

1
Ui =
1 ri ln(ro ri ) ri
+ +
hi k ho ro
 Fouling Factor
• The performance of heat exchangers usually
deteriorates with time as a result of accumulation of
deposits on heat transfer surfaces. Such deposits are
termed fouling and may significantly affect heat
exchanger performance.
• The layer of deposits represents additional resistance
to heat transfer and causes the rate of heat transfer in
a heat exchanger to decrease.
• The fouling factor Rf ─ The net effect of these
accumulations on heat transfer.
• The total thermal resistance

• Total thermal resistance including fouling

factors can be expressed as

Rf,i and Rf,o are the fouling factors at those

surfaces.
❑ Scaling is the most common form of fouling and is associated
with inverse solubility salts. Examples of such salts are CaCO3,
CaSO4, Ca3(PO4)2, CaSiO3, Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2, MgSiO3, Na2SO4, LiSO4,
and Li2CO3.
❑ Corrosion fouling is classified as a chemical reaction which
involves the heat exchanger tubes. Many metals, copper and
aluminum being specific examples, form adherent oxide coatings
which serve to passivity the surface and prevent further corrosion.
❑ Chemical reaction fouling involves chemical reactions in the
process stream which results in deposition of material on the heat
exchanger tubes. When food products are involved this may be
termed scorching but a wide range of organic materials are subject
to similar problems.
❑ Biological fouling is common where untreated water is used as a
coolant stream. Problems range from algae or other microbes to
barnacles.
❑Freezing fouling is said to occur when a portion of the hot
stream is cooled to near the freezing point for one of its
components. This is most notable in refineries where paraffin
frequently solidifies from petroleum products at various stages in
the refining process, obstructing both flow and heat transfer.
Example 2:
Steam at 120oC flows in an insulated pipe. The pipe is made of
mild steel (kp =45 W/m.K) and has an inside radius of 5 cm and
an outside radius of 5.6 cm. The pipe is covered with 2.5 cm layer
of magnesia insulation (kin = 0.071 W/m.K). The inside heat
transfer coefficient is 85 W/m2.K and the outside heat transfer
coefficient is 12.5 W/m2.K. Determine the overall heat transfer
coefficients Uo and Ui and the heat transfer rate from the steam
per meter of pipe length, if the surrounding air temperature is
20oC.
Data: Ti = 120oC, kp = 45 W/m.K, r1 = 0.05 m, r2 = 0.056 m,
r3 = 0.081 m, kin = 0.071 W/m.K, hi = 85 W/m2.K,
ho = 12.5 W/m2.K, To = 20oC.
.
Find: Uo , Ui , Q L
Solution:
1
Uo =
r3 r3 ln(r2 r1 ) r3 ln(r3 r2 ) 1
+ + +
hi r1 kp k in ho
1
Uo =
0.081 0.081 ln (0.056 0.05) 0.081 ln (0.081 0.056 ) 1
+ + +
85  0.05 45 0.071 12.5
1
Uo =
0.01906 + 0.00020 + 0.4211 + 0.08
1
Uo = = 1.944 W / m 2 . K
0.5144
 U o Ao = U i Ai
Ao r 0.081
U i = Uo = 3 Uo =  1.944 = 3.149 W / m 2 . K
Ai r1 0.05
 .
 Q = U o Ao (Ti − To )
.
 Q = U o  2r3 L(Ti − To )
.
Q
 = U o  2r3 (Ti − To )
L
.
Q
 = 1.944  2 (0.081)(120 − 20 ) = 98.94 W / m
L
Problem: Methyl alcohol flowing in the inner pipe of a
double-pipe exchanger is cooled with water flowing in
the jacket. The inner pipe is made from 1-in (25- mm)
Schedule 40 steel pipe. The thermal conductivity of
steel is 26 Btu/ft-h-0F (45 W/m-0C). The individual
coefficients and fouling factors are given in the table.
What is the overall coefficient, based on the outside area
of the inner pipe.
Alcohol coefficient, hi 180 Btu/ft2-h-0F (1020 W/m2-0C)
Water coefficient, ho 300 Btu/ft2-h-0F (1700 W/m2-0C)
Inside fouling factor, hdi 1000 Btu/ft2-h-0F (5680 W/m2-0C)
Outside fouling factor, hdo 500 Btu/ft2-h-0F (2840 W/m2-0C)
Heat Exchangers
A heat exchanger is an equipment or device for transfer
of heat from a hot phase to a cold phase with the two
phases being separated by a solid boundary.
The heat transferred may be latent heat accompanying
phase changes such as condensation or vaporization, or
it may be sensible heat coming from increasing or
decreasing the temperature of a fluid without phase
change. In heat exchangers heat is transferred by
conduction and convection.
 HEAT EXCHANGERS

• Types of heat exchangers:

1. Double pipe heat exchanger
2. Shell and tube exchanger
3. Plate-type exchanger

• The function of a heat exchanger is to increase the

temperature of a cooler fluid and decrease that of a hotter
fluid.
 1. Double pipe heat exchanger
• The simplest configuration (Fig 1)
• A double-pipe heat exchanger consists of two metal
pipes, one inside the other as shown in the figure. One
fluid flows through the inner tube while the other fluid
flows in the annular space between the pipe walls.
• When one of the fluids is hotter than the other, heat
flows from it through the wall of the inner tube into the
other fluid. As a result, the hot fluid becomes cooler and
the cold fluid becomes warmer.
• Double pipe heat exchangers can be operated with
counter-current or co-current flow of fluid.

• If, as indicated in the Fig. 1 the two fluids enter at

opposite ends of the device and pass in opposite
directions through the pipes, the flow is countercurrent.

• Cold fluid entering the device meets the hot fluid just
as it is leaving, i.e., cold fluid at its lowest temperature
is placed in thermal contact with hot fluid also at its
lowest temperature.
• Changes in temperature of the two fluids as they flow
counter-currently through the length of the pipe are
shown in the figure.

• The four terminal temperatures are as follows: Thi is

the inlet temperature of the hot fluid, Tho is the outlet
temperature of the hot fluid, Tci is the inlet temperature
of the cold fluid, and Tco is the outlet temperature of the
cold fluid leaving the system. A sign of efficient
operation is Tco close to Thi or Tho close to Tci
• The alternative to countercurrent flow is cocurrent or
parallel flow. In this mode of operation, both fluids
enter their respective tubes at the same end of the
exchanger and flow in the same direction to the other
end. The temperature curves for cocurrent flow are
given in the figure. Cocurrent operation is not as
effective as countercurrent; it is not possible using
cocurrent flow to bring the exit temperature of one fluid
close to the entrance temperature of the other.
• Instead, the exit temperatures of both streams lies
between the two entrance temperatures. Less heat can
be transferred in parallel flow than in countercurrent
flow; consequently, parallel flow is applied less
frequently.

• Double-pipe heat exchangers can be extended to

several passes arranged in a vertical stack, as illustrated
in the figure. However, when large surface areas are
needed to achieve the desired rate of heat transfer,
• The weight of the outer pipe becomes so great that an
alternative design, the shell-and-tube heat exchanger, is
a better and more economical choice.
 Construction of double pipe
➢ Hair pin: union of two legs hairpin construction is
preferred because it requires less space
➢ Packing & gland: The packing and gland provides
sealing to the annulus and support the inner pipe.
➢ Return bend: The opposite ends are joined by a U-bend
through welded joints.
➢ Support lugs: Support lugs may be fitted at these ends
to hold the inner pipe position.
➢ Flange: The outer pipes are joined by flanges at the
return ends in order that the assembly may be opened or
dismantled for cleaning and maintenance.
➢ Union joint: For joining the inner tube with U-bend.
➢ Nozzles: small sections of pipes welded to the shell or to
the channel which acts as the inlet or outlet of the fluids
are called nozzles.
➢ Gaskets: Gaskets are placed between the two flanges to
make the joint leak-free.
➢ Different types of gaskets
Co-current counter current
Fig. Double pipe heat
exchanger
 2. Shell and Tube Exchanger
Shell-and -Tube heat exchangers are used for heating and
cooling all types of fluid. They have the advantage of
containing very large surface areas in a relatively small
volume. The simplest form, called a single-pass shell- and
–Tube heat exchanger, is shown in the figure.
Consider the device of the figure for exchange of sensible
heat from one fluid to another. The heat transfer system is
divided into two sections: A tube bundle containing pipes
through which one fluid flows and a shell or cavity where
the other fluid flows. Standard lengths of tubes for heat-
exchanger construction are 8, 12, 16 & 20ft. Tubes are
arranged on triangular or square pitch [ The spacing
between tubes (centre to centre) is referred to as the
tube pitch.] Hot or cold fluid may be put into either the
tubes or the shell. In a single-pass exchanger, the shell
and tube fluids pass down the length of the equipment
only once. The fluid which is to travel in tubes enters at
the inlet header. The header is divided from the rest of
the apparatus by a tube sheet.
Open tubes are fitted into the tube sheet; Fluid in the
header cannot enter the main cavity of the exchanger but
must pass into the tubes. The tube side fluid leaves the
exchanger through another header at the outlet. Shell-side
fluid enters the internal cavity of the exchanger and flows
around the outsides of the tubes in a direction which is
largely countercurrent to the tube fluid. Heat is exchanged
across the tube walls from hot fluid to cold fluid.
Baffles are often installed in the shell to decrease the cross-
sectional area for flow and divert the shell fluid so
It flows mainly across rather than parallel to the tubes.
(direct the shell side fluid back and forth across the tube
bundle to provide effective velocity and heat transfer
rate) Both these effects promote turbulence in the shell
fluid which improves the rate of heat transfer. Baffles run
perpendicularly to the shell and are perforated to receive
the tubes, preventing the tubes from sagging over a long
length. Baffles do not extend edge to edge, but have a cut
that allows shell side fluid to flow to next baffled
chamber. For most liquid applications, cuts areas
of the shell diameter. To minimize leakage, the clearances
between baffles and shell and tubes should be small.
Baffles are supported by one or more guide rods, which
are fastened between the tube sheets by setscrews.
The length of tubes in a single-pass heat exchanger
determines the surface area available for heat transfer,
and therefore the rate at which heat can be exchanged.
However, there are practical and economic limits to the
maximum length of single-pass tubes;
if greater heat-transfer capacity is required multi-pass
heat exchangers are employed. Heat exchangers
containing more that one tube pass are used routinely.
Shell and tube heat exchanges are described based on the
number of passes the shell-side and tube-side fluids must
undergo. Exchangers are listed as 1-1, 1-2, 2-4, etc., in
which the first number signifies the number of passes for
the shell-side fluid and the second number refers to the
tube-side fluid.
 Fig . Shell and tube heat exchanger
(1 shell pass and 1 tube passes (1-1 exchanger))

• The cold fluid enters and flow inside through all the tubes in
parallel in one pass
• The hot fluid enters at the other end and flow counterflow across
the outside the tubes in the shell side.
• Cross-baffles – increase the shell side heat transfer coefficient
 Fig . Shell and tube heat exchanger
(1 shell pass and 2 tube passes (1-2 exchanger))
• The liquid on the tube side flows in two passes
• The shell-side liquid flows in one pass
• In the first pass of the tube side, the cold fluid is flowing
counterflow to the hot shell-side fluid
• In the second pass of the tube side, the cold fluid flows in parallel
(co-current)
Fig . Shell and tube heat exchanger
(2 shell pass and 4 tube passes (2-4 exchanger))
Fig. Shell and tube heat exchanger
Fig. baffle
 Mean Temperature Difference
Where there are two heat transfer fluids separated by a wall,
the heat transfer for the combined situation can be defined
in terms of an overall heat transfer coefficient, U based on
the assumption that the fluid temperatures remain constant.

This is not valid for a heat exchanger where there is heat

transfer from one fluid to another and the temperature
difference between the hot and cold fluids varies along the
heat exchanger,
and it is convenient to have a mean temperature difference,
ΔTm for use in the relation:

Where the temperature changes within the fluids are

large compared with the difference between the two
entry temperatures, the mean temperature difference
can be found by using a logarithm mean value.
Consider a simple heat exchanger consisting of two
concentric tubes as shown in the figure. The hot fluid ‘a’
flows through the inner tube and the cool fluid ‘b’ flows in
the opposite direction through the annular space formed
Between the inner and outer tubes. Because the fluids flow
in opposite directions this heat exchanger is designated as
being ‘counter-flow’. The figure also shows the variation of
temperatures within the heat exchanger. It will be clear that
the outer tube represents the boundary of the heat
exchanger. It is assumed that the outer surface of the heat
exchanger is so insulated that any heat transfer occurs
between the two fluids ‘a’ and ‘b’: no heat transfer between
the outer tube and the surroundings.
 The heat exchanger will have a total surface area of A. If a
very small element of the heat exchanger is considered, its
area being dA, the heat transfer for this element will be

Where the temperature difference is:

Differentiating the temperature difference gives:
Rearranging, and integrating for the whole heat exchanger,

Alternatively,

Which gives

Integrating for the whole heat exchanger,

Equations 1 & 2 can be combined to give

Where the mean temperature difference is expressed as

is the log mean temperature difference, which is the suitable

form of the average temperature difference for use in the
analysis of heat exchanger. Here ΔT1 and ΔT2 represent the
temperature difference between the two fluids at the two
ends of the heat exchanger. It makes no difference which
end of the heat exchanger is designated as the inlet or the
outlet.

Note that ΔTlm is always less than ΔTam. Therefore, using ΔTam in
calculations instead of ΔTlm will overestimate the rate of heat
transfer in a heat exchanger between the two fluids. When ΔT1
differs from ΔT2 by no more than 40 percent, the error in using
the arithmetic mean temperature difference is less than 1 percent.
But the error increases to undesirable levels when ΔT1 differs
from ΔT2 by greater amounts. Therefore, we should always use
the logarithmic mean temperature difference when determining
the rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger.
Note that ΔTlm is always less than ΔTam. Therefore, using
ΔTam in calculations instead of ΔTlm will overestimate the
rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger between the two
fluids. When ΔT1 differs from ΔT2 by no more than 40
percent, the error in using the arithmetic mean temperature
difference is less than 1 percent. But the error increases to
undesirable levels when ΔT1 differs from ΔT2 by greater
amounts. Therefore, we should always use the logarithmic
mean temperature difference when determining the rate of
heat transfer in a heat exchanger.
 Correction of LMTD in Multipass
Exchanger
• Multipass exchangers have more tube passes than shell
passes.
• The LMTD does not apply in this case and it is
customary to define a correction factor, FT.
• The relationship between LMTD and FT is define as
below:
Tm = FT Tlm

Where Tm is define as the correct mean temperature

drop.
• Figure 4.9-4 (Geankoplis, 4th ed.) shows the correction factor to
LMTD for:
a) 1-2 and 1-4 exchangers
b) 2-4 exchangers
• Two dimensionless ratios are used as follows:

Thi − Tho Tco − Tci

Z= Y=
Tco − Tci Thi − Tci
• Using the nomenclature of Eqs. (5 & 6), the of Eq. (1) can be
written as:

Tlm =
(Thi − Tco ) − (Tho − Tci )
 Thi − Tco 
ln 
 Tho − Tci 
Figure 4.9-4(a) Correction factor to LMTD for 1-2 and 1-4
exchangers (Geankoplis, 4th ed.)
Figure 4.9-4(b) Correction factor to LMTD for 2-4
exchangers (Geankoplis, 4th ed.)
Example 1 Temperature Correction Factor for a Heat
Exchanger

A 1-2 heat exchanger containing one shell pass and two tube passes
heats 2.52 kg/s of water from 21.1 to 54.4 0C by using hot water
under pressure entering at 115.6 and leaving at 48.9 0C. The outside
surface area of the tubes in the exchanger is Ao = 9.30 m2.

a) Calculate the mean temperature different ΔTm in the exchanger

and the overall heat transfer coefficient Uo.
b) For the same temperatures but using a 2-4 exchanger, what
would be the ΔTm?

Solution:
The temperatures are as follows:
Thi = 115.6 0C Tho = 48.9 0C Tci = 21.2 0C
Tco = 54.4 0C
Heat balance on the cold water, assume Cpm of water of 4187 J/kg.K
and Tco – Tci = (54.4 – 21.1) 0C = 33.3 0C = 33.3 K

q = mCpm(Tco – Tci) = (2.52)(4187)(54.4 – 21.1) = 348 200 W

The log mean temperature difference using Eq. (1) is

Tlm =
(115.6 − 54.4) − (48.9 − 21.1) = 42.3C = 42.3K
 115.6 − 54.4 
ln 
 48.9 − 21.1 
Calculate the Z and Y values using Eq (5 & 6)
Thi − Tho 115.6 − 48.9
Z= = = 2.00
Tco − Tci 54.4 − 21.1
Tco − Tci 54.4 − 21.1
Y= = = 0.352
Thi − Tci 115.6 − 21.1
From Figure 4.9-4(a), FT = 0.74
Using Eq. (3),
Tm = FT Tm = 0.74(42.3) = 31.3C = 31.3K

Rearranging Eq. (4) to solve for Uo and substituting the known values,
we have q 348200
Uo = = = 1196 W/m 2 .K (211 bu/h.ft 2 .o F)
Ao Tm (9.30)(31.3)

b) for 2-4 exchanger, refer to Fig. 4.9-4(b), FT = 0.94, Then,

Tm = FT Tlm = 0.94(42.3) = 39.8C = 39.8 K
Hence, in this case the 2-4 exchanger utilizes more of the available
temperature driving force.