1

Lecture 2
9. Latin American Cities
Conceptual urban planning theories by famous architects
Introduction - High urban growth rates due to poverty of country
Theories are scientific ideas based on multiple assumptions and principles, while urban sides
planning is a strategy given to plan a city/area/space keeping environmental and political - Cities include a spine of high income residential
context in mind. areas, extends from CBD (protected by gated
communities)
1. Garden city Concept (1898-1902); By Ebenezer Howard: - Edges of city have squatter settlements (barriadas)
Urban planning movement promoting satellite communities surrounding the central city and - Cities laid out like a hub-spoke bike wheel, all roads
separated with greenbelts. It proposed the creation of new suburban towns of limited size, lead to city center.
planned in advance, and surrounded by a permanent belt of agricultural land.
10. Asian Cities
Garden city is a residential community or section of a community with landscaped gardens, - Usually located on coasts, built for trade
parks, and other open areas. - May have specific zones for Western companies to locate their
businesses
The three magnet concept was an utopian vision by Ebenezer Howard, a well known urban
- Very modern because they have grown so recently
planner of the 19th century.
- Established many shopping malls
The amalgamation of these two magnets helped in compensating the disadvantages of both; - Megacities are common
the town and countryside. - Include a market-gardening zone because of preference for
fresh food
The Three Magnets to address the question 'Where will the people go? ' Town, Country, and
11. African Cities
Town Country.
- Strong colonial imprint still evident in structures &
functions of cities
2. Geddian trio Concept; Patrick Geddes:
- Three distinct Central Business Districts (Colonial CBD
Sir patrick geddes believed in the concept of region and gave power to human life more than
(government), Traditional CBD (commercial center), and
anything, His values lied on emphasizing human life and energy than to beautify them.
Market/Bazaar CBD (farmer’s market: sells anything from
Giving priority to local surveys and human-centric designs, the geddian trio concept was born, rugs to animals))
based on an inhabitant's workstyle, culture, heritage, beliefs, the region's topography, climatic - Lack transportation systems, unpaved roads are common
variations, networks, and everything.
12. City of To-morrow; Le Corbusier
Taking inspiration from a sociologist Frédéric Le Play's triad quoting to “Lieu, Travail, Famille”
geddes translated them “Work, Place, Folk” and gave a theory of urban planning.
- A theory by world's famous architect; Le corbusier.
3. Burgess Model- Concentric Zone Theory - Expanding his vision from a building to a city, corbusier gave this theory to approach 'urban
crises'.
Five functional zones
- According to corbusier, people would rather choose to live in the outskirts than to be in a city
1, Central Business District, 2, Transitional Zones, (Deteriorating residential areas, light
manufacturing & some business, Slums, Large, poor immigrant population), 3, Working Class - Thus a city should be planned with accommodating the central part for commerce and
Zone (Housing for blue collar workers in the city), 4, Middle Class Residences, and Suburban covering the surrounding with greens.
Ring- Commuter Zone.

13. Broadacre city concept; FL Wright:

I - loop (downtown) IV - Working class zone
II - Factory zone V - Residential zone - Broadacre city was designed on a socio-political scheme.
III - Zone of transition VI - Commuter zone - With the concept of garden city, Wright tried to take green belts to another level and give a
new definition to the landscape, so that people can be connected with nature and with each
other with liberty and prosperity US got a new definition to city development.
4. Hoyt Model- Sector Model
14. Neighborhood unit concept; Clarence A. Perry
Focused on where the social classes in the city lived,
Develops in sectors, not rings, Wealthy residential
The neighborhood unit theory was an initiative to bring everything in a single unit. Catering to
areas also expand from the CBD, Low class
the need of a single family on the basis of six factors:
residential areas are near industrial districts.
- A child can reach to school without crossing a street traffic
- Each and every dwelling has access to centrally located elementary school, and
5. Harris & Ullman- Multiple Nuclei Model doesn’t exceed the distance more than one and a half mile
- More than one center of activities (Port, - A departmental store to be located on a walking distance from a house.
university, airport, suburban business, - Workplace to have convenient transportation.
etc…) - 10% of a single unit should have greens with parks and playgrounds.
- Certain regions in a city have their own - The infrastructure should cater to the needs.
nuclei or center
15. Concept of human settlement; K.A. DOXIADIS

6. Urban Realms Model K.A. Doxiadis, a greek architect and a town

planner gave his theory on the term ekistics
- Focuses on importance of growing Edge Cities defined for human settlement. His concept
- Shifting focus of urbanization away from the CBD toward revolved around human experience with nature,
economic activity at the urban fringe man, society, shells and networks.
- Each area has its own realm with its own separate economic,
social, & political entities
- Edge Cities are characterized by extensive office space, retail
space, few residential areas & modern buildings (less than 30
years old)
16. Mile high city concept; FL Wright
- Edge Cities are soon becoming metropolises (Tyson’s Corner)
- An utopian vision to move the horizontal growth of population vertically up.
7. American Cities - The theory mentioned living of a community on skyscrapers and leaving the lands for green
- CBD- commercial center of urban area, skyscrapers, bid-rent areas and nature.
theory, suburbs, shopping malls - As the population increase was noticeable, so was the vision appreciable.
-EASTERN CITIES (Built before invention of automobile so streets
are narrow, densely residential, mass transportation (city may still Lecture 3
have more people than suburbs))
- WESTERN CITIES (More spread out, homes have yards, more
ISSUES IN URBAN PLANNING AND DESIGN
reliance on automobile than mass transit, grid street system,
Introduction
suburbs (sometimes have more people than city itself ))
8. European Cities - Spatial is relating to space
- Urbanization is the movement of population from rural to urban areas
- Zoning can be mixed residential, commercial, & industrial. - A theory is an organized system of accepted knowledge that applies in a variety of
- Preservation of historic buildings. circumstances to explain a specific set of phenomena.
- Dendritic Street Pattern: looks like root system of trees that - Urbanization is a relatively new global issue
curve & wind through city (cities designed for foot traffic). - In 1950 only 30% of the world’s population was urbanized and 50% in 2009 lived in urban
- Wealthy live IN city, while lower class live outside in suburbs. centres
- Use of GREENBELTS to stop spread of development, & prevent - The big question is how do towns come about to be?
cities from overlapping.
 2
2.2 URBAN MORPHOLOGY
MAJOR THEORIES OF URBAN SPATIAL

- Figure-ground: is perception refers to the tendency of the visual system to simplify a scene UM define in terms of City, UM is the study of urban forms and of the agents and processes
into the main object that we are looking at (the figure) and everything else that forms the responsible for their transformation over time.
- Urban form refers to the main physical elements that structure and shape the city including
background (or ground). streets, squares (the public space), street blocks, plots, and buildings, to name the most
- Linkage theory: The linkage theory focuses on 'lines' to connect various urban elements with important.
each other. This linear emphasis can find expression in streets, lanes, pedestrian ways and/or
open spaces. The general idea is that of a network, with lines providing the structure for UM define in terms of Human settlement, UM is the study of the formation of human
ordering space. settlements and the process of their formation and transformation.
- PLACE theory: Its design intends to reengage residents and visitors into the natural qualities Analysis of specific settlements is usually undertaken using cartographic sources and the
of the urban environment as an alternative public space for people to enjoy together in the process of development is deduced from comparison of historic maps.
dense city( Social and Cultural ties).
Urban form generally encompasses a number of physical features and non-physical
Theories explaining the emergence of towns characteristics including:

1, Central place theory - Size - Scale - Land uses - Urban block layout - Infrastructure layout.
- Central place theory is an urban geographical theory that seeks to explain the number, size - Shape - Density - Building types - Distribution of green space.
and range of market services in a commercial system or human settlements in a residential
system. It was introduced in 1933 to explain the spatial distribution of cities across the CONCEPTS
landscape.
- Central-place theory attempts to illustrate how settlements locate in relation to one another, 1. Morphology- is “the study of form and process, growth and form, form and function”.
the amount of market area a central place can control, and why some central places function 3. Urban morphology (U.M) -is the study of the form of human settlements and their formation
as hamlets, villages, towns, or cities & transformation.
- It explains the reasons behind the distribution patterns, size, and number of cities and towns. 3. Urban form- is the study of the physical characteristics of towns/cities resulting from an
- Tested in Southern Germany and came to the conclusion that people gather together in cities evolutionary process of urban activities and planning action.
to share goods and ideas and that they. 4. Human settlements- is the totality of the human community whether city, town, or village
- Examples. Polders of the Netherlands, the Fens of East Anglia in the UK. Developed by the with all the social, material, organizational spiritual and cultural element that sustain it.
German geographer Walter Christaller in 1933. 5. Urban fabric: The physical aspect of urbanism, emphasizing building types, thoroughfares,
open space, frontages, and streetscapes but excluding environmental, functional, economic
Assumptions and sociocultural aspects.
- humans will always purchase goods from the closest place
- unbounded isotropic (all flat), homogeneous, limitless surface 6. Urban structure: its the physical complexity of various scale, from individual building, plots,
- evenly distributed population street-blocks, and the street pattern.
- all settlements are equidistant and exist in a triangular lattice pattern 7. Urban texture: the geometrical structure formed by the spatial distribution of urban
- evenly distributed resources. elements expressed as coarse or fine.

OBJECTIVES

- Comfort-reduction of stress such as noise, pollution ,

- Accessibility-movement, transport and communication,
- Adequacy-basic facilities and services ,
- Diversity and choice- variation of facilities and activities,
- Adaptability and stability-resilience,
- Aesthetics and imageability-pleasantness,
- Interaction and participation-citizen for a, social contact,
- Growth and continuity-physical and functional without disconnect from the related/
complimentary functions/areas.
Data Analysis Tools
Transect analysis
Method of Data Collection
Visual survey
GIS data Remote sensing -Direct observation
Zoning Texture analysis
Literature review -Interviews/ Oral histories
Space syntax analysis
Questionnaires and surveys -Focus groups.
Concentric ring
Visual survey/ Observations. - Documents and records.
SPSS analysis

Transect analysis
The urban transect is a community analysis tool that can lead to better understanding of
Public choice theory community form and patterns. The urban transect was adopted from Humboldt's work by New
Urbanist Andrés Duany.
- Public choice, or public choice theory, is "the use of economic tools to deal with traditional
problems of political science". Its content includes the study of political behavior. Visual survey
- From the above elucidation of Public Choice Theory, its main features may be mentioned as - A visual survey in urban design is an examination of the form, appearance, and composition
below: of a city an evaluation of its assets and liabilities. A visual survey also enables us to see where
(i) It is an anti-bureaucratic approach. the city needs reshaping. A visual survey can be made of any city or town, regardless of size.
(ii) It is a critique of the bureaucratic model of administration.
- A visual preference survey is a technique for obtaining public feedback on physical design
(iii) It encourages institutional pluralism in the provision of public services.
alternatives.
- Advanced by Paul Peterson in his 1981 book, City Limits
- States that urban politicians and governing regimes are subordinate to the overall economic
Visual survey tools
principles that force cities to compete to capture new investment and capital.
- The competitive nature of cities encourages the business elite and politicians to favour new
development.

Theory of Urban form

What are the theories of urban form?
Space syntax analysis
- In his book Finding Lost Space (1986) Roger Trancik identifies three major approaches to
theories of urban form: the figure-ground, linkage, and place theories.
- Space syntax is a set of techniques for the analysis of spatial configurations of all kinds,
- Urban form is the physical characteristics that make up built-up areas, including the. shape,
especially where spatial configuration seems to be a significant aspect of human affairs, as it is
size, density and configuration of settlements. It can be considered at different.
in buildings and cities.
What are the theory of urban growth? - The Space Syntax approach is built on a set of science-based methods that forecast whether
As cities grow, it expands towards outskirt areas and thus peripheral or suburban areas proposed policies, strategies, plans, and designs will work to create the social, economic and
develop and grow. Cities expand towards peripheral area due to high density, increasing urban environmental benefits that they are expected to.
land price, pollution and well developed transport and communication facilities.
SETTLEMENT PATTERNS Major theories of urban spatial The key aspects for analysis
Figure–ground organization is a type of perceptual grouping that is a vital necessity for Driving forces design and urban mythology according to Conzen are
recognizing objects through vision. In Gestalt psychology it is known as identifying a figure -NEEDS AS A PRODUCT (state of being) AS A PROCESS(state of
from the background. For example, black words on a printed paper are seen as the "figure", and -DEMANDS 1. The shape and structure becoming)
the white sheet as the "background" -EXPECTATION 2. Mode of existence Shaping of the human
3. Design of the human settlement.
The figure-ground relationship is one of several principles referred to as Gestalt. principles of settlement Ordering(hierarchy)
perception. It asserts that the human perceptual system separates. stimuli into either figure 4. Basic nature Arrangement
elements or ground elements. The conception-abstract
idea/mental symbol.
 3
1, Central Business District (CBD) - This area of the city is a non-residential area and it’s where
businesses are. This area s called downtown, a lot of sky scrapers houses government
institutions, businesses, stadiums, and restaurants.

2, one of Transition- the zone of transition contains industry and has poorer-quality housing
available.Created by subdividing larger houses into apartments.

3. Zone of the working class- This area contains modest older houses occupied by stable,
working class families. A large percentage of the people in this area rent.

4. Zone of better residence- This zone contains newer and more spacious houses. Mostly
families in the middle-class live in this zone.

5.Commuter’s Zone/Suburbs- This area is located beyond the build-up area of the city. Mostly
upper class residents live in this area.

Shortcomings
I - CBD
- It assumes an isotropic plain II - Zone of transition
- land may restrict growth of certain sectors III - Zone of independent workers home
2. FORM • Refers to the shape and arrangement of human settlement - The model does not fit polycentric cities IV - Zone of better residences
- It describes the peculiar American V - Commuters zone
AS A PRODUCT (state of being) AS A PROCESS(state of becoming)
geography, where the inner city is poor
1. The shape and structure 1. Shaping of the human settlement.
while suburbs are wealthy; the converse is
2. Mode of existence 2. Ordering(hierarchy)
the norm elsewhere.
3. Design of the human settlement 3. Arrangement
4. Basic nature 4. The conception-abstract idea/mental symbol.
3, Sector model.
Descriptive aspects of form : Urban form generally encompasses a number of physical features Chicago and Newcastle upon Tyne/Newcastle
and non-physical characteristics including (see page two partition 2) - Developed in 1939 by land economist Homer Hoyt
- It is a model of the internal structure of cities.
HS PATTERNS based on Distribution HS STRUCTURE HS types - Social groups are arranged around a series of sectors, or wedges radiating out from the central
- Dispersed - Based on shape - Based on Process business district (CBD) and centred on major transportation lines
- Linear - Regular. - Hamilets - Low-income households to be near railroad lines, and commercial establishments to be along
- Nucleated - Irregular - Rural business thoroughfares
- Planned - Grid - Urban settlements
- Radial centric Shortcomings
Applies well to some towns only
Low cost housing is near industry and
LAYOUT/STRUCTURE OF HUMAN SETTLEMENT/ STREETS transportation proving Hoyt’s model
- Grid Iron Pattern - REGULAR Pattern - Irregular Pattern - Radial city plan Theory based on 20th century and does
not take into account cars which make
Determinants of form and structure commerce easier
- Type of developement - relief - linkage/networks/connectivity - density With cars, people can live anywhere and
- Social factor - water supply and uses further from the city

Stresses the importance of transportation corridors. Sees growth of various urban activities as
expanding along roads, rivers, or train routes.

4, Multiple Nuclei method

- The Multiple Nuclei Model is an ecological model created by Chauncy Harris and Edward
Ullman in the 1945
- City grows from several independent points rather than from one central business district.
- As these expand, they merge to form a single urban area.
- Ports, universities, airports and parks also act as nodes
- Based on the idea that people have greater movement due to increased car ownership.

The model has four geographic principles

- Certain activities require highly specialised facilities
Accessible transportation for a factory
Large areas of open land for a housing tract
- Certain activities cluster because they profit from mutual association
- Certain activities repel each other and will not be found in the same area
- Certain activities could not make a profit if they paid the high rent of the most desirable
locations.

Stresses the importance of multiple nodes of activity, not a single CBD. Ports, airports,
CONCLUSION universities attract certain uses while repelling others.
Urban Morphology is not and end-state by itself rather:
- It has forces against which it acts. Assumptions Criticisms
- It’s a regulator of function and this the morphology orientation has a set aim to achieve.  Each zone displays a
 Land is Flat
- It is one of the important variables as a determinant of the urban pattern, urban form and significant degree of internal
 Even Distribution of heterogeneity
urban space components.
Resources  and not homogeneity
- While the urban form and structure consisted of various compositions of physical and spatial
 Even Distribution of  No consideration of
elements, urban morphology inquires these forms and relations between causes and effects of
people in Residential influence of physical relief
- the social forces within. and government policy.
areas
- Expects to explore the differentiation of urban morphological approaches in different urban  Not applicable to oriental
space.  Even Transportation
- It tries to understand the physical or built fabric of urban form, and the people and process Costs
shaping it.
5, Urban Realms Model
Francisco Bay area
Theories explaining how towns are arranged
Developed by James E. Vance Jr. in the 1960’s
- Each realm is a separate economic, social and political
1, Grid model/Hippodamian plan
entity that is linked together to form a - Larger metro
Examples; The city of Priene
framework
- Proposed by Hippodamus of Miletus who is considered the father of rational city planning
- Suburbs are within the sphere of influence of the central
- The center of the city contains the agora (Market place), theaters, and temples. Private rooms
city and its metropolitan CBD
surround the city’s public arenas.
- Now urban realms have become, so large they even have
- The plan can be laid out uniformly over any kind of terrain since it’s based on angles and
exurbs, not just suburbs
measurements.
Urban realm depends on
2, Concentric Zone model Overall size of the metropolitan region - Topography and major land features
Also known as The Burgess Model, The Bull's Eye Model Amount of economic activity in each urban realm - Internal accessibility of each realm
Developed in the 1920's by the urban sociologist Ernest Burgess.
The model portrays how cities social groups are spatially arranged in a series of rings. 6, Core frame model
The size of the rings may vary, but the order always remains the same. - The Core frame model is a model showing the urban structure of the Central Business District
of a town or city.
- The model includes an inner core where land is expensive and used intensively
 B
4 Water: proximity to water and possible interplay a natural asset; water edges, harbours,
Frame Social services Light manufacturing shorelines, islands, canals e.t.c
Geometry: form and relationships of angles, lines, curves e.t.c
Smaller shops Public administration
Outer core Zone of discard Human scale: how each inhabitant would use space and how they would feel in it.
Theatres and Cinemas
Inner core Education
Wholesale services Specialist shops 3, Aspects of Urban Form
High rise office buillding - Imageability: Physical Image v/s Functional Image
- Form-Function Relationship
Commericial offices
- Main Variations of urban form and structure: Linear, radial, grid, cluster e.t.c
Zone of assimillation
Offices, like insurance and banks - Objectives of urban form (includes growth; Meaning and identity e.t.c)
Growth and decline
A cares sales and services
Transport terminals
Existing Theories and Practice
Theories that have motivated and still inform the construction of cities are both normative and
A= Better residential properties, B Heavy Industry and poor residential functional.
Normative theories attempt to specify "goodness“….what is good city form?... and discuss in
7, Bid rent theory detail the aspects that create good cities…..Prescriptive…..What cities ought to be!
- Geographical economic theory that refers to
how the price and demand for real estate change Functional theories attempt to explain how cities perform by concentrating on city form
as the distance from the central business district processes, spatial and social structure, and form models……Descriptive……What cities are!
(CBD)
- This is based upon the idea that retail Normative Theories
establishments wish to maximize their 1. The Cosmic Model
profitability, so they are much more willing to pay - It assertions that the form of a permanent settlement should be a magical model of the
more for land close to the CBD and less for land universe and its gods.
further away from this area. - Such a crystalline city has all of its parts fused into a perfectly ordered whole and change is
- The amount they are willing to pay is called "bid allowed to happen only in a rhythmically controlled manner
rent".
- Specific phenomena included: such as returning, natural items, celestial measurement, fixing
location, centeredness, boundary definition, earth images, land geometry, directionality, place
consciousness, and numerology .

2. The Machine Model

- The analogy between city and machine has a long history (ref. Egyptian and classical “per
8, Irregular pattern model strigas”, Ron Heron’s insect city; archigram movement; plug-in concept)
- Arrangement of Public space that characterizes the stage of "Transition from village to city"
especially in Third World. - It occurs often when there is no long-term goal in mind but the settlement has to be created
- This urban model is due to lack of planning or construction and illegal without a specific hurriedly and its future growth will be determined by still unforeseen forces
order.
- Includes blocks with no fixed order, or permanent and temporary structures. S - Its form requires a few simple rules of urbanization and the outcome is factual, functional and
- Structures are not related to an urban centres near the place devoid of the mystery of the universe.
- Among its attributes are convenience, speed, flexibility, legibility, equality, and speculation.
9, Howard gardens Municipal canal
Letchworth Garden City, Welwyn Garden city 3. The Organic Model
Developed by Sir Ebenezer Howard (1898) garden city The analogy between city and living organism is fairly recent arising with the growth of
Inspired by the idea of ideal/Utopian cities biology in the 18th and 19th centuries (ref. metabolists)
ay
Railw

Inspired works on Model villages by Robert Owen nts

Model is critical of others, especially the machine model with its "simple grids" as “static”
otme

central city
and Model industrial towns by Buckingham.
All

Comprised of Town, Country and Town-country It asserts that an organism:

interactions - is an autonomous being, with a definite boundary and is of a specific size.
-does not change merely by adding parts but through reorganization as it reaches limits or
thresholds.
- contains differentiated parts but form and function are always linked.
- is homeostatic, self-repairing and regulating toward a dynamic balance.
- undergoes cycles of life and death as is rhythmic passage from one state to another.

LECTURE 5 From this flows the notion of the form of the organic city:
- A separate spatial and social unit made up internally of highly connected places and people.
1, CONCEPT OF SPACE
- A healthy community of heterogeneous and diverse nature
Time or duration - The micro unit is the neighborhood, a small residential area defined by Clarence Perry
Area or extension (more common definition) - Like organisms, settlements are born, grow and mature, and if further growth is necessary, a
new entity has to be formed. Thus there are states of optimum size, beyond which pathological
- In physics, space has three dimensions (x-y-z axes) and is considered as a volume not an area. conditions ensue.
- Sir Isaac Newton (17th C) elaborated that space is absolute….proper to itself…..and
independent of the objects it contains (objects fit into space and not vice-versa) -Greeenbelts not only ensure an intimate contact with nature but enclose healthy growth.
-A model with typical physical forms, among which radial patterns, anti-geometrical layouts,
Two main categories of space exist: and a proclivity for natural materials.
- Mental Space (experiential)
- Often the organic idea is extended regionally to connect settlements to valleys, trails and
- Physical Space (existential)
other extended natural systems.
- The notion of space is said to originate in an observers mind and is later imposed as a -There is an attraction to small-scale modes of production or services as opposed to large-scale
structure on the physical world….mental space is an image of physical space synthetic processes.

- The concept of space differs from culture to culture…Different cultures have characteristic 4. The Contextual Model
spatial designs as expressed in their cities, buildings, and art(ref. Dogon villages; japanese This relates new development to an analysis of existing urban structure.
Mandala e.t.c)
A prominent concept of this canon is that of “serial vision” …. the sequential and unfolding
……but space itself is universal! (transcends culture) nature of urban experience (foreground/middle ground/background),
Context is something that has no clear or common spatial definition; thus the impact of
II. THE CONCEPT OF AESTHETICS contextualism will vary with geographical location and cultural influence.

- Aesthetics in urban design refers to the creative arrangement of the elements of a town in a 5. The pragmatic Model
beautiful and functional manner. This is whereby urban design is defined according to the needs of the epoch….. where the
- Order and beauty in a town are a necessity, not an after thought…..they are as much a tools and concepts are used selectively and exclusively in regard to the locality.
prerequisite to human health as is fresh air.
The danger with this model lies in:
-Likely loss of understanding of the larger processes affecting urban form
Site-City-Observer Relationships (viewing city from surrounding and vice-versa) - Possible inability of making informed decisions at urban scales
- Extracted form: harmony between buildings and nature….e.g consider basic slopes, angle of - Failure to embrace environmental disciplines that are currently excluded and isolated from
hills, vegetation/tree canopies, and rock outcrops. Reflects dominant and pervasive features of mainstream urban design.
nature
- Vistas and site supremacy: view of landscape from the city…beautifully framed countryside 6. The Constructivist model
(panorama) This explores techniques of form to create urban interventions that express the spatial and
- Expression: space markers /symbolgy/ ornamentation/detail e.g towers and minarets; temporal complexity of a given age.
landmarks; accent of urban landscape and skyline
- Entrance/Approach: profound impact of cities on the visitor who traverses long, crowded “Deconstructionists” are constructivists who use unconventional techniques of form to express
streets/water. the essential fragmentation in city environments.
Ref. 5 2, Urban Space:

- Peter Eisenman applies an approach that is more mathematical and rational in nature, which May be isolated or linked; may be purposely designed to display linkage or to emphasize
tends to reject any hint of historical contextualism. buildings and objects they contain.
- Rem Koolhaas makes free use of the typologies of modernism, recombining them in new and
- Space may be linear/corridors; squares; or reserves…based on their sizes they define the
ironic ways
hierarchy of spatial types…..from small intimate sizes to urban squares and the natural space
- Bernard Tschumi, exploits the random collisions that results from the layering of unrelated within which the city is set.
activity frameworks.
- Spaces may also be enclosed or open….45 deg is full enclosure; 30deg is optimal; 18 deg is
- Frank Ghery and Zaha Hadid use unconventional techniques of form to express order among
minimum…anything less is lack of it!
chaos of modern cities.
3, Urban Mass
7. Functionalist Model
This was dedicated to exploring new interwoven urban structures that would allow
This refers to the arrangement of ground surface, buildings, and objects to influence the
opportunities for social encounter/contact and exchange whose end result is a humanising
quality of urban space and to shape urban activity patterns on both large and small scales.
influence.
The interpretation of this philosophy, however, varied widely in practice: low-, medium-, and In terms of massing, buildings may be projecting into space, be on a space, or in a space.
high- density; vehicular and pedestrian segregation e.t.c. Our vision and light conditions govern the way we perceive masses…

8. Rationalist Model Vision: 45deg is for details; 30deg is for whole objects; 18deg is for object plus context.
This offered a morphological/structural approach to urban design that related new urban
development to the historical structure of the city and typologies of urban space. Light: under bright, clear sunlight the individual parts of objects will tend to stand out…..as
light subdues we tend to see less of details and more of the overall object.
The figure-ground drawing was widely used as a design tool.
4, Responsiveness; these could be sensual or environmental
As “critical reconstruction”, this method was used to maintain and restore the traditional 19th
century street pattern and form of the urban block, street and square, without constraining the Sensual: attempt to cater for all the senses: Visual,Tactile, Auditory, Olfactory, Kinaesthetic
contemporary architectural expression of new building additions.
Environmental; that which provides users with essentially democratic settings and enrich their
opportunities by maximising the degree of choice available to them; the available techniques
Functional DescriptiveTheories
include:
These are founded on the following characteristics:
- Urban history: the city is regarded as a unique historic process... explaining cities as derivative 1, Permeability :- This refers to the number of alternative routes through an
of their own culture (ref Sjoberg, Rapoport). environment; it affects where people can go and where they cannot. This offers
choice through accessibility and must be considered at early stages of design.
- Urban Ecology: city is regarded as an ecology of people, each social group occupying space
according to economic position and class. (Ref. Burgess [concentric model], Weber, Simmel 2, Variety:- This refers to the range of uses availed to people in a given
and Spengler) environment; it is the experience of a degree of choice provided by intermix of
uses
- City economy: regards the city as an economic engine in which space, unlike in the previous
category, is both a resource and an additional cost imposed on the economy for production or 3, Legibility:- This refers to the ease with which people can understand the layout
consumption….location of cities an optimization of raw materials, labour and market locations of a given environment and the kind of opportunities it offers.
(ref. Isard,Von Thunen,Christaller)
4, Robustness:- This refers to the degree to which an environment can be used for
- Urban Communication: regards the city as a field of forces, a communications network of different purposes as opposed to those with a single fixed use.
particles which attract and repel each other much as they do in physics.
5, Visual appropriateness:- This refers to the detailed appearance of a place that
Sub-sets of these ideas include population potential maps, gravity models, communications
makes people aware of the possible uses; it affects the interpretations people put
flows, and various topological models.
on places.
- Urban Politics/Governance: understanding the city as a system of linked decisions...affluence,
6, Richness:- This refers to the degree of choice in sensory experiences that a place
imminent domain, citizen participation in a democratic city; the game theory, in which people
offers to its users.
interact together according to fixed rules and produce agreed-upon outcomes
7, Personalisation:- This refers to the extent to which people can put their own
- Urban Chaos: rejects previous theories of competition and posits the city as an arena of
stamp on a place; decisions about forms and materials of the scheme must be
conflict, in which the city's form is the residue and sign of struggle, and also something which
carefully made to support personalization but also protect public role.
is shaped and used to wage it. (Castells, Harvey. Lefebvre, Gordon)
Design Principles and Techniques Other techniques; where to build versus where to keep open; a variety of uses…parks,
- Together these help in the correlation and synthesis of spaces, functions, circulation, sites, watersheds, public transit lines, airports, e.t.c
and orientation…
An open space structure would be the framework for relating land development to
- Their choice and application (singly or combined) will depend on the problem context
transportation and also allow for other decisions related to community life: schools, churches,
(modus operandi).
playfields
- Overall they facilitate the conceptualizing process…..entailing decisions and choices.
Transportation system technique; patterns of movement as primary land shapers; morphology
1. Design Principles
of networks against that of the land parcels they define….density of development versus
1, Scale intensity of circulation. Varios levels of network, their hierarchic connectivity, as well as
Refers to any system of measurement appropriate to the context. Proportion as an aspect of terminal facilities.
measurement introduces the aspect of relativity…between two objects…the measured and a
universally known object…e.g headroom describes space relative to human height. Plug-in Technique; where a modular system such as that of a grid is created and within these
defined uses and objects can be “inserted” and removed with ease (flexibility)…initially used as
-A module is one part of a system of relative proportions, where one part can a technique for design of functions in individual buildings but later replicated in city-wide
combine with other parts to form a larger object. (ref. Le corbusier’s Modulor) design.
Applications of Scale in urban design Theory Versus Practice (Why urban design matters?)
- We design spaces to attract people (public realm)
- Scale and Human vision: our eyse have two fields of view – general and detailed. General cone
of vision 30 deg up; 45 deg down; 65 deg to either side. - Urban design creates a framework for our lives.
-Understanding how humans perceive the physical scale and form of cities is essential to
- Scale and circulation: scale is determined by the means we employ for movement around the
mastering design.
city as well as the way we move between cities across the country.
- We feel and experience urban design every day
- Scale and neighborhood size: The citizen numbers and levels of services will determine the - Every road width and building height delivers a message to their users on how to use the
scale of a neighborhood…the scale of a network of neighborhoods would determine the scale
public realm
of the entire town.
- Scale in neighboring buildings and spaces: Buildings and spaces have to be in scale with - Design brings order and relation into human surroundings
people, as well as in scale with each other….this will also apply to other variables like materials, - Different designs affect residents in different ways, and make the city’s image more vivid and
color, bulk, and siting. memorable
-Intentional variations in scale could be used to achieve emphasis and hierarchy in
design of buildings and spaces. - Embedded in urban design theories is the fundamental goal of balancing private
development and public good in a way that incorporates the social, economic, and cultural
- Scale versus Age, time, convenience and habit:
needs of a diverse urban population
Our sense of urban scale varies with our ages and habits….the world of a child begins with the
home…as one grows the world enlarges and separate parts are linked together…the scale of - Urban design must solve practical problems of functionality first and foremost, as it creates
their world enlarges. tools for people and their quality of life.

Our sense of urban scale is also determined by what we are accustomed to…people adapt to
environments with time.
Urban scale may also vary with the temporal cycles of the city.
 Lecture 6 6 2, Neighborhood: the district and the corridor

NEW URBANISM - Neighborhoods should be compact, pedestrian-friendly

and mixed-use.
- New Urbanism is an urban design movement which promotes environmentally friendly
- Broad range of housing types to bring versity.
habits by creating walkable neighborhoods containing a wide range of housing and job types.
- Civic, institutional and commercial activity should be
- New Urbanism involves fixing and infilling cities, as well as the creation of compact new embedded in neighborhoods, not isolated.
towns and villages.
- Public transportation should be a viable alternative to
Lexicon of New Urbanism! the automobile.
- Parks should be a viable alternative to the automobile.
- New Urbanism is a planning and development approach based on the principles of how cities
and towns had been built over the last several centuries: walkable blocks and streets, housing
and shopping in close proximity, and accessible public spaces. In other words: New Urbanism
focuses on human-scaled urban design. 3, The block, street and building
- Individual architectural projects should be linked to their surroundings.
- The primary purpose of new urbanism is to create a sustainable, human-scaled environment - Architecture and landscape design should grow from local climate, topography, history, and
where residents can live healthy, active lives. building practice.
- Development must adequately accommodate automobiles whiles being
- New Urbanism improves Accessibility, improves Transportation Choice, and reduces traffic pedestrian-friendly.
speeds - Streets should be safe, yet interesting and open to the pedestrian
Emerging Planning Approaches and theories Principles of New Urbanism
- Emerging Dimensions; New Urbanism The principles of New Urbanism can be applied increasingly to projects at the full range of
- Smart Growth and Compact Developments scales from a single building to an entire community.
- Transit Oriented Development (TOD)
- Transect Planning and Development 1: Walkability
- Intelligent Urbanism
- Most things within a 10- minute walk of home and work .
Smart Growth and Compact Developments - Pedestrian-friendly street design.
- Pedestrian streets free of cars in special cases.
Smart growth is well-planned development that protects open space and farmland, revitalizes,
communicates, keeps housing affordable, and provides more transportation choices 2: Connectivity
• Interconnected street grid network disperses traffic & eases walking .
Smart growth is an urban planning and transportation theory that concentrates growth in
compact walkable urban centers to avoid sprawl. • A hierarchy of narrow streets,boulevards,and alleys .
- Urban Sprawl "the spreading of urban developments on undeveloped land near • High quality pedestrian network and public realm makes walking pleasurable
a city.“ It leads to higher emissions from road transport and loss of open space and
environmental amenities. 3: Mixed‐use and diversity
• A mix of shops, offices, apartments, and homes on site. Mixed-use within neighborhoods,
Compact development aims for more efficient use of land through higher-density planning. In
light of rapid urbanization, many emerging cities are turning to compact development as a within blocks, and within buildings
means to more efficiently use scarce resources required for economic and social activities. • Diversity of people - of ages, classes, cultures, and races.

1, Transit Oriented Development (TOD) 4: Mixed‐housing

A range of types, sizes and prices in close proximity.
is a planning and design strategy that consists in
promoting urban development that is compact, 5: Quality of architecture & urban design
mixed-use, pedestrian- and bicycle-friendly, and
• Emphasis on beauty, aesthetics, human comfort, and creating a sense of place; Special
closely integrated with mass transit by clustering
placement of civic uses and sites within community.
jobs, housing, services, and amenities around public
transport stations • Human scale architecture & beautiful surroundings nourish the human spirit.

6: Traditional neighborhood structure

2, Transect Planning and Development • Visible center and edge
• Public space at center
TPD is Form-Based Planning and Coding. The Natural-to-Urban Transect is an organizing • Importance of quality public realm; public open space designed as civic art
principle used in Form-based planning and coding that establishes a hierarchy of - Contains a range of uses and densities within 10-minute walk
places/contexts from the most natural to the most urban. - Transect planning: Highest densities at town center; progressively less dense
towards
-the edge.
3, Intelligent urbanism
7: Increased density
Intelligent urbanism recognizes that 'urbanity' emerges where people mix and interact on a
face-to-face basis, on the ground, at high densities and amongst diverse social and economic • More buildings, residences, shops, and services closer together for easy of walking, to enable
groups. a more efficient use of services and resources, and to create a more convenient, enjoyable
place to live.
Intelligent Urbanism encourages ground level, walkable, and people-oriented urban
development based on anthropometry measures. • New Urbanism design principles are applied at the full range of ensities from small towns, to
large cities
- Anthropometry is the science that defines physical measures of a person's size, form, and
functional capacities. 8: Transportation
• A network of high-quality transit connecting cities and towns together.
Why do we need it? Root Causes:
- Disinvestments in central - Changing household demographics. • Pedestrian-friendly designs that encourage the use of bicycles, scooters and walking as daily
cities. - Land consumption without regard to natural features transportation.
- Spread of placeless sprawl. or physical limits.
- Increasing separation of race - Federal and state policies that encourage low-density 9: Sustainability
and income. sprawl. • Minimal environmental impact of development and its operations
- Environmental deterioration. - Street standards are insensitive to human needs. • Eco-friendly technologies, respect for ecology and value of natural systems
- Loss of agricultural lands and - Zoning codes leave little room for individualization. • Energy efficiency • Less use of finite fuels • More local production
wilderness. • More walking, less driving

Charter of New Urbanism Three scales of Charter of New Urbanism

Benefits of New Urbanism
1, The Region: Metropolis, city and town
1, Benefits to Residents
- Finite places with geographic boundaries. • Higher quality of life • Better places to live, work, & play
- Fragile relationship between urban area and hinterland. • Less traffic congestion & less driving • Healthier lifestyle with more walking, and less stress.
- Development patterns should not blur edges of the metropolis. • Close proximity to main street retail & services.
- Infill development should be encouraged over peripheral expansion. • Close proximity to bike trails, parks, and nature.
- Revenues and resources should be shared among the municipalities to avoid destructive • Better sense of place and community identity with more unique architecture .
competition. • More open space to enjoy that will remain open space .
• More efficient use of tax money with less spent on spread out utilities and roads.
• More freedom and independence to children, elderly, and the poor in being able to get to
jobs, recreation, and services without the need for a car or someone to drive them.
 Benefits of New Urbanism 7

2, Benefits to Businesses
• Increased sales due to more foot traffic & people spending less on cars and gas.
• More profits due to spending less on advertising and large signs .
• Better lifestyle by living above shop in live-work units - saves the stressful & costly commute.
• Economies of scale in marketing due to close proximity and cooperation with other local
businesses; Smaller spaces promote small local business incubation .
• Lower rents due to smaller spaces & smaller parking lots .
• Healthier lifestyle due to more walking and being near healthier restaurants .

Benefits of New Urbanism

3, Benefits to Developers
• More income potential from higher density mixed-use projects due to more leasable square
footage, more sales per square foot, and higher property values and selling prices.
• Faster approvals in communities that have adopted smart growth principles resulting in cost
/ time savings .
• Less need for parking facilities due to mix of residences and commercial uses within walking
distance of each other .
• Less impact on roads / traffic, which can result in lower impact fees.
• Lower cost of utilities due to compact nature of New rbanist design.

Ways to Implement New Urbanism

1. The single building 2. Groups of buildings
3. The urban block 4.The neighborhood
5. Networks of neighborhoods 6.Towns
7.Cities 8.Regions

Obstacles to Overcome

• Restrictive zoning
• Lack of design standards
• Lack of truly affordable housing

New Urbanism:

“Giving more people more choices about where and how they
want to live”