unit-04

name of the unit- presentaion and interaction skills

faculty- name- Dr. Ashwini Tiwari

What is Oral Communication?

Oral communication is the ability to transmit ideas from your brain to either one person or a group of
people. Good use of verbal skills means presenting an idea clearly while each thought is articulated in a
cohesive manner. It has everything to do with the language that we choose to use. Advantages

There are many situations in which it makes sense to choose oral over written communication. Oral
communication is more personal and less formal than written communication. If time is limited and a
business matter requires quick resolution, it may be best to have a face-to-face or telephone
conversation. There is also more flexibility in oral communication; you can discuss different aspects of an
issue and make decisions more quickly than you can in writing. Oral communication can be especially
effective in addressing conflicts or problems. Talking things over is often the best way to settle
disagreements or misunderstandings. Finally, oral communication is a great way to promote employee
morale and maintain energy and enthusiasm within a team.

Disadvantages

Despite the many benefits of oral communication, there are times when written communication is more
effective. For example, you may want to exchange important information that needs to be documented
using written communication. A lot of transactions in the business world require some type of written
record, and you will find that even strong verbal skills are not a substitute for putting things in writing.
Additionally, oral communication tends to be less detailed and more subject to misunderstanding than
written communication. It's best to always think carefully about which method of communication best
fits your objective.

speech-delivery

There are four basic methods of speech delivery: manuscript, memorized, impromptu, and
extemporaneous. We’ll look at each method and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each.

Manuscript

George W. Bush’s manuscript page is lightly edited with a pen. It reads “Today our nation saw evil, the
very worst of human nature. And we responded with the best of America, with the daring of our rescue
workers, with the caring of strangers and neighbors who came to give blood and help in any small way
they could. Immediately following the first attack, I implemented our government’s emergency response
plans. Our military is powerful and prepared. Our emergency teams are working in New York City and
Washington to help with local rescue efforts. Our first priority is to get help to those who have been
injured, and to take every precaution to protect our citizens at home and around the world from further
attacks. The functions of our government continue without interruption. Federal agencies in Washington
which had to be evacuated today are reopening for essential personnel tonight and will be open to
business tomorrow. Our financial institutions remain strong and the American economy will be open for
business as well. The search is underway for those who are behind these evil acts. I have directed the full
resources of our intelligence and law enforcement communities to find those responsible and bring
them to justice. We will make no distinction between the terrorists who committed these acts and those
who harbor them.

A manuscript page from President George W. Bush’s address to the nation on the day of the 9/11 attacks
in 2001.

A manuscript speech is when the speaker writes down every word they will speak during the speech.
When they deliver the speech, they have each word planned and in front of them on the page, much like
a newscaster who reads from a teleprompter.

The advantage of using a manuscript is that the speaker has access to every word they’ve prepared in
advance. There is no guesswork or memorization needed. This method comforts some speakers’ nerves
as they don’t have to worry about that moment where they might freeze and forget what they’ve
planned to say. They also are able to make exact quotes from their source material.

When the exact wording of an idea is crucial, speakers often read from a manuscript, for instance in
communicating public statements from a company.

However, the disadvantage with a manuscript is that the speakers have MANY words in front of them on
the page. This prohibits one of the most important aspects of delivery, eye contact. When many words
are on the page, the speakers will find themselves looking down at those words more frequently
because they will need the help. If they do look up at the audience, they often cannot find their place
when the eye returns to the page. Also, when nerves come into play, speakers with manuscripts often
default to reading from the page and forget that they are not making eye contact or engaging their
audience. Therefore, manuscript is a very difficult delivery method and not ideal. Above all, the speakers
should remember to rehearse with the script so that they practice looking up often.
PUBLIC SPEAKING IN HISTORY

The fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, owed in large part to a momentary error made by an
East German government spokesperson. At a live press conference, Günter Schabowski tried to explain
new rules relaxing East Germany’s severe travel restrictions. A reporter asked, “when do these new rules
go into effect?” Visibly flustered, Schabowski said, “As far as I know, it takes effect immediately, without
delay.” In fact, the new visa application procedure was supposed to begin the following day, and with a
lot of bureaucracy and red tape. Instead, thousands of East Berliners arrived within minutes at the
border crossings, demanding to pass through immediately. The rest is history.

The outcome of this particular public-relations blunder was welcomed by the vast majority of East and
West German citizens, and hastened the collapse of communism in Eastern and Central Europe. It’s
probably good, then, that Schabowski ran this particular press conference extemporaneously, rather
than reading from a manuscript.

You can view the transcript for “The mistake that toppled the Berlin Wall” here (opens in new window).

Memorized

A memorized speech is also fully prepared in advance and one in which the speaker does not use any
notes. In the case of an occasion speech like a quick toast, a brief dedication, or a short eulogy, word-for-
word memorization might make sense. Usually, though, it doesn’t involve committing each and every
word to memory, Memorizing a speech isn’t like memorizing a poem where you need to remember
every word exactly as written. Don’t memorize a manuscript! Work with your outline instead. Practice
with the outline until you can recall the content and order of your main points without effort. Then it’s
just a matter of practicing until you’re able to elaborate on your key points in a natural and seamless
manner. Ideally, a memorized speech will sound like an off-the-cuff statement by someone who is a
really eloquent speaker and an exceptionally organized thinker!

The advantage of a memorized speech is that the speaker can fully face their audience and make lots of
eye contact. The problem with a memorized speech is that speakers may get nervous and forget the
parts they’ve memorized. Without any notes to lean on, the speaker may hesitate and leave lots of dead
air in the room while trying to recall what was planned. Sometimes, the speaker can’t remember or find
his or her place in the speech and are forced to go get the notes or go back to the PowerPoint in some
capacity to try to trigger his or her memory. This can be an embarrassing and uncomfortable moment for
the speaker and the audience, and is a moment which could be easily avoided by using a different
speaking method.

HOW TO: MEMORIZE A SPEECH

There are lots of tips out there about how to memorize speeches. Here’s one that loosely follows an
ancient memorization strategy called the method of loci or “memory palace,” which uses visualizations
of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance the recall of information.

You can view the transcript for “How to Memorize a Speech” here (opens in new window).

Impromptu

An impromptu speech is one for which there is little to no preparation. There is often not a warning even
that the person may be asked to speak. For example, your speech teacher may ask you to deliver a
speech on your worst pet peeve. You may or may not be given a few minutes to organize your thoughts.
What should you do? DO NOT PANIC. Even under pressure, you can create a basic speech that follows
the formula of an introduction, body, and conclusion. If you have a few minutes, jot down some notes
that fit into each part of the speech. (In fact, the phrase “speaking off the cuff,” which means speaking
without preparation, probably refers to the idea that one would jot a few notes on one’s shirt cuff before
speaking impromptu.)[1]) An introduction should include an attention getter, introduction of the topic,
speaker credibility, and forecasting of main points. The body should have two or three main points. The
conclusion should have a summary, call to action, and final thought. If you can organize your thoughts
into those three parts, you will sound like a polished speaker. Even if you only hit two of them, it will still
help you to think about the speech in those parts. For example, if a speech is being given on a pet peeve
of chewed gum being left under desks in classrooms, it might be organized like this.

Introduction: Speaker chews gum loudly and then puts it under a desk (attention getter, demonstration).
Speaker introduces themselves and the topic and why they’re qualified to speak on it (topic introduction
and credibility). “I’m Katie Smith and I’ve been a student at this school for three years and witnessed this
gum problem the entire time.”
Body: Speaker states three main points of why we shouldn’t leave gum on desks: it’s rude, it makes
custodians have to work harder, it affects the next student who gets nastiness on their seat (forecast of
order). Speaker then discusses those three points

Conclusion: Speaker summarizes those three points (summary, part 1 of conclusion), calls on the
audience to pledge to never do this again (call to action), and gives a quote from Michael Jordan about
respecting property (final thought).

While an impromptu speech can be challenging, the advantage is that it can also be thrilling as the
speaker thinks off the cuff and says what they’re most passionate about in the moment. A speaker
should not be afraid to use notes during an impromptu speech if they were given any time to organize
their thoughts.

The disadvantage is that there is no time for preparation, so finding research to support claims such as
quotes or facts cannot be included. The lack of preparation makes some speakers more nervous and
they may struggle to engage the audience due to their nerves.

Extemporaneous

The last method of delivery we’ll look at is extemporaneous. When speaking extemporaneously,
speakers prepare some notes in advance that help trigger their memory of what they planned to say.
These notes are often placed on notecards. A 4”x6” notecard or 5”x7” size card works well. This size of
notecards can be purchased at any office supply store. Speakers should determine what needs to go on
each card by reading through their speech notes and giving themselves phrases to say out loud. These
notes are not full sentences, but help the speakers, who turn them into a full sentence when spoken
aloud. Note that if a quote is being used, listing that quote verbatim is fine.

The advantage of extemporaneous speaking is that the speakers are able to speak in a more
conversational tone by letting the cards guide them, but not dictate every word they say. This method
allows for the speakers to make more eye contact with the audience. The shorter note forms also
prevent speakers from getting lost in their words. Numbering these cards also helps if one gets out of
order. Also, these notes are not ones the teacher sees or collects. While you may be required to turn in
your speech outline, your extemporaneous notecards are not seen by anyone but you. Therefore, you
can also write yourself notes to speak up, slow down, emphasize a point, go to the next slide, etc.

The disadvantage to extemporaneous is the speakers may forget what else was planned to say or find a
card to be out of order. This problem can be avoided through rehearsal and double-checking the note
order before speaking.

Many speakers consider the extemporaneous method to be the ideal speaking method because it allows
them to be prepared, keeps the audience engaged, and makes the speakers more natural in their
delivery. In your public speaking class, most of your speeches will probably be delivered
extemporaneously.

WHAT IS PUBLIC SPEAKING?

The most ideal approach to defining Public speaking is by examining two key ideas:

· A message,

· A crowd of people

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This implies that each time you go to a meeting, have a phone call, or present answers for your chief –
you’re participating in public speaking. It doesn’t make a difference in the number of people tuning or
listening in to you; it is still characterized as public speaking.

1. THE SPEAKER

The speaker is one of the most vital among the essential elements of public speaking. That is the
wellspring of the message. Numerous speakers don’t take note that they are simply the introduction
themselves and not the visual guides they use. Numerous moderators or speakers today put a lot of
effort into visual guides and overlook themselves as the main element to making a superior introduction.
However, depending on visual guides is 100% not recommended.

There are three factors that we have to consider about any speaker.

THE MESSAGE
The message refers to everything the speaker says, both verbally and substantial. The verbal part can be
dissected into three fundamental components.

· Content.

· Style.

· Structure.

3. THE AUDIENCE

An expert public speaker ought to analyze his audience members before the Speech and conclude on
how to introduce his thoughts. This examination could incorporate some significant considerations:

Needs, Age, sex, marital status, race, geographic area, sort of gathering (homogeneous or
heterogeneous), training, exchange, movement, and calling. The speaker ought to consistently adjust to
the crowd, both in their language and clothing as much as possible.

4. THE CHANNEL

The communication channel is very necessary as the clearness of your speech is possible there. If you are
using a microphone, your voice must get to the absolute last individual. On a video call, your video as
well as your audio must be clear. A misshaped channel has the capacity of conveying an inadequate or
incomplete message, if your channel is faulty, it can demolish your opportunity at passing on the point.

5. FEEDBACK

Even though for certain individuals, it very well may be unusual to consider feedback to be one of the
fundamental elements of public speaking, have confidence that it is one of the public speaking course to
look out for.

Feedback is the cycle through which the speaker gets a reaction or data from the crowd that has heard
the message.
The feedback process isn’t finished until the speaker has reacted to the worries of his crowd. At the
point when you talk in public, you should be mindful of the non-verbal responses of the crowd and be
ready to react to the responses of the public during the introduction. An expert speaker must give the
crowd all the data they require to hear.

6. THE NOISE

There are two sorts of noise that a speaker should know:

· Internal, and

· External Noise

External noise comprises of sounds from chuckling or laughter, helpless acoustics of the assembly hall,
temperature (excessively hot or excessively cool), poor ventilation, visual impedance, for example, low
light, or obstacles between the speaker and the crowd.

Internal noise happens when the speaker is confounded or passes on an unclear message about what he
needs to communicate. The most ideal approach to battle any kind of noise is;

· Utilize more than one communication channel simultaneously (verbal and nonverbal).

· Guarantee that the theater is conditioned to show up in public.

· Utilize the reiteration of thoughts all through the presentation.

· Communicate an unmistakable and succinct directive for the crowd to understand.

7. THE PLACE OR SITUATION

Where a speech is conveyed might be one of the most basic elements for the accomplishment of an
introduction. It makes sense why we added it as one of the 7 fundamental elements of public speaking.

It is suggested that you survey the spot or auditorium where you will make your speech. You likewise
need to know ahead of time the specific spot where you will talk in public and to facilitate all the
subtleties to avoid potential risk ahead of time.

For instance, the states of the spot, the seats, the climate control system, the lighting, the game plan of
the stage, the tables, and so on All subtleties must be leveled out.

IN CONCLUSION

At the point when you’re starting, try to make it personal. Make use of visual or eye contact often, and
use props or visuals to bring your subject to life. You can even change the manner of speaking and non-
verbal communication quietly depending on their reactions.

Remaining associated with the crowd is additionally significant for constant self-assessment. The best
public speakers can see the early signs of attention when slipping away. At that point, they think and
react quickly to turn the attention towards him again.

9 Tips to Improve Your Public Speaking Skills

These nine effective public speaking tips will help you nail your next speech or presentation that you give
to a group of people.

#1: Breathe

When you're nervous, your heart rate speeds up, you begin to sweat, and—if you're not careful—you
can easily work yourself into an anxiety attack. To help control all of these responses, take a few minutes
before delivering your speech to close your eyes and take a couple of deep breaths. Calm your body so
you can enter the stage (or speaking area) with a certain level of peace and not feeling all frenzied.

2: Admit Your Nervousness

Even the most seasoned public speaker can feel nervous on stage. The harder you try to conceal this
nervousness, the easier it will likely show through. Yet, admitting that speaking makes you anxious can
actually help put both you and your audience at ease. You feel a sense of relief because now the
information is out there, giving you the ability to address your anxiety and move on.

3: Use (Minimal) Notes

If public speaking makes you anxious, there can be a tendency to write your speech out word for word so
you can look at it if you forget your next statement. However, if you've ever watched a speaker read from
their notes the entire time they are on stage, you know that this isn't effective. You will lose your
audience. Instead, keep your notes to a minimum, using only one- or two-word prompts for each point
you want to make. This will help you keep your place without detracting from your audience.

#4: Become Comfortable with "The Pause"

One of the biggest distractions as an audience member is a speaker who constantly says "uh" or "um."
These fillers are typically used as a way to say something, anything, while you're thinking of your next
point. But some of the best speakers know that "the pause" is not something to avoid. A well-timed
break in speaking can even be used to help strengthen a point, letting it sit with the audience before
moving on to the next topic. Become more comfortable with this pause and you will become a better
public speaker.

#5: Be Aware of Your Hand

estures

Have you ever talked to someone who is all worked up and noticed that their hands are flailing wildly?
Some people naturally speak with their hands. When they're nervous, this type of gesturing can ramp
up. While some hand movement is a great way to emphasize certain points, it's also important to not let
these movements distract from what you're trying to say. So, pay attention to your hands when you're
speaking. Slowing down their movement may also help slow down your brain, creating a greater sense of
calm.

#6: Move Around Some, But Not Too Much

People often pace when they're nervous. If this is you, you may have a tendency to walk back and forth
across the stage when public speaking. Like with hand gestures, a little bit of movement is okay but too
much is, well, too much. Don't be afraid to walk away from the podium, but try not to make your
audience feel like they're watching a tennis match either.

#7: Incorporate Visual Prompts

If the idea of having all eyes on you makes you nervous, visual prompts are a good way to divert the
audience's attention yet still stay on topic. These prompts can be by way of a slide of an image or graph
or something more concrete, such as pouring a half glass of water to emphasize the effect.

8: Practice, Practice, Practice…Then Practice Some More

Mark Twain once said, "It usually takes me more than three weeks to prepare a good impromptu
speech." So, maybe your fear of public speaking comes from not being fully prepared. One way to
overcome this, then, is to practice, practice, and practice some more. Each time you deliver your speech,
you will become more comfortable. You'll begin to learn it inside and out, increasing your confidence
when delivering it for real.

9: Record Yourself Speaking

This final public speaking tip is intended to help you recognize how you may come across to an audience.
When you record yourself speaking and watch it back, you may notice that you do things that you didn't
even realize. This provides the opportunity to correct these issues before being in front of a live
audience. Another option is to practice your speech in front of a friend or family member and ask for
their honest feedback.

Contents hide

(Top)

Importance

History of research

First impression

Posture

Clothing

Gestures

Distance

Eye contact

Across cultures
Genetics

Chronemics

Movement and body position

In relation to verbal communication

Clinical studies

See also

Notes

References

References

External links

Nonverbal communication

Article

Talk

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Understanding each other through hand and eye expression; seen in a street near the bell tower of Xi'an,
China

Nonverbal communication (NVC) is the transmission of messages or signals through a nonverbal

platform such as eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, posture, use of objects and body language. It
includes the use of social cues, kinesics, distance (proxemics) and physical environments/appearance, of
voice (paralanguage) and of touch (haptics).[1] A signal has three different parts to it, including the basic
signal, what the signal is trying to convey, and how it is interpreted.[2] These signals that are transmitted
to the receiver depend highly on the knowledge and empathy that this individual has.[3] It can also
include the use of time (chronemics) and eye contact and the actions of looking while talking and
listening, frequency of glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate (oculesics).

The study of nonverbal communication started in 1872 with the publication of The Expression of the
Emotions in Man and Animals by Charles Darwin. Darwin began to study nonverbal communication as he
noticed the interactions between animals such as lions, tigers, dogs etc. and realized they also
communicated by gestures and expressions. For the first time, nonverbal communication was studied
and its relevance questioned.[4] Today, scholars argue that nonverbal communication can convey more
meaning than verbal communication.[5] Some scholars state that most people trust forms of nonverbal
communication over verbal communication. Ray Birdwhistell[note 1] concludes that nonverbal
communication accounts for 60–70 percent of human communication,[6] although according to other
researchers the communication type is not quantifiable[7] or does not reflect modern human
communication, especially when people rely so much on written means.[8]

Just as speech contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, rate, pitch,
loudness, and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation, and stress, so
written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the
physical layout of a page. However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on
interaction between individuals,[9] where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental
conditions where communication takes place, physical characteristics of the communicators, and
behaviors of communicators during interaction.

Nonverbal communication involves the conscious and unconscious processes of encoding and decoding.
Encoding is defined as our ability to express emotions in a way that can be accurately interpreted by the
receiver(s). Decoding is called "nonverbal sensitivity", defined as the ability to take this encoded emotion
and interpret its meanings accurately to what the sender intended. Encoding is the act of generating
information such as facial expressions, gestures, and postures. Encoding information utilizes signals
which we may think to be universal. Decoding is the interpretation of information from received
sensations given by the encoder. Decoding information utilizes knowledge one may have of certain
received sensations. For example, in the picture above, the encoder holds up two fingers, and the
decoder may know from previous experience that this means two. There are some "decoding rules",
which state that in some cases a person may be able to properly assess some nonverbal cues and
understand their meaning, whereas others might not be able to do so as effectively. Both of these skills
can vary from person to person, with some people being better than others at one or both. These
individuals would be more socially conscious and have better interpersonal relationships[citation
needed]. An example of this would be with gender: women are found[citation needed] to be better
decoders than men since they are more observant of nonverbal cues, as well as more likely to use them.

Culture plays an important role in nonverbal communication, and it is one aspect that helps to influence
how learning activities are organized. In many Indigenous American communities, for example, there is
often an emphasis on nonverbal communication, which acts as a valued means by which children learn.
Within cultures around the world there are extreme differences and similarities between a lot of
nonverbal gestures or signals.[10] For example the head gesture for yes and no may have different
meanings depending on where you are in the world.[11] In this sense, learning is not dependent on
verbal communication; rather, it is nonverbal communication which serves as a primary means of not
only organizing interpersonal interactions, but also conveying cultural values, and children learn how to
participate in this system from a young age.[12]

Importance

Symbol table for non-verbal communication with patients

According to some authors, nonverbal communication represents two-thirds of all

communications[clarify].[13][14] Nonverbal communication can portray a message both vocally and with
the correct body signals or gestures. Body signals comprise physical features, conscious and unconscious
gestures and signals, and the mediation of personal space.[13] The wrong message can also be
established if the body language conveyed does not match a verbal message. Paying attention to both
verbal and nonverbal may leave you with a lost feeling due to not being able breakdown both at the
same time. But to ignore nonverbal communication altogether would cause you to lose up to 60% of
your communication experts say.

Nonverbal communication strengthens a first impression in common situations like attracting a partner
or in a business interview: impressions are on average formed within the first four seconds of contact.
[13] First encounters or interactions with another person strongly affect a person's perception.[15] When
the other person or group is absorbing the message, they are focused on the entire environment around
them, meaning the other person uses all five senses in the interaction: 83% sight, 11% hearing, 3% smell,
2% touch and 1% taste.[16]

Many indigenous cultures use nonverbal communication in the integration of children at a young age
into their cultural practices. Children in these communities learn through observing and pitching in
through which nonverbal communication is a key aspect of observation.

According to Judee K. Burgoon et al., further reasons for the importance of non-verbal communication
are:

"Non-verbal communication is omnipresent."[17] They are included in every single communication act.
To have total communication, all non-verbal channels such as the body, face, voice, appearance, touch,
distance, timing, and other environmental forces must be engaged during face-to-face interaction.
Written communication can also have non-verbal attributes. E-mails, web chats, and the social media
have options to change text font colours, stationery, add emoticons, capitalization, and pictures in order
to capture non-verbal cues into a verbal medium.[18]

"Non-verbal behaviours are multifunctional."[19] Many different non-verbal channels are engaged at the
same time in communication acts and allow the chance for simultaneous messages to be sent and
received.

"Non-verbal behaviours may form a universal language system."[19] Smiling, crying, pointing, caressing,
and glaring are non-verbal behaviours that are used and understood by people regardless of nationality.
Such non-verbal signals allow the most basic form of communication when verbal communication is not
effective due to language barriers.

History of research

Charles Darwin 01.jpg

Scientific research on nonverbal communication and behavior was started in 1872 with the publication
of Charles Darwin's book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.[16] In the book, Darwin
argued that all mammals, both humans and animals, showed emotion through facial expressions. He
posed questions such as: "Why do our facial expressions of emotions take the particular forms they do?"
and "Why do we wrinkle our nose when we are disgusted and bare our teeth when we are
enraged?"[20] Darwin attributed these facial expressions to serviceable associated habits, which are
behaviors that earlier in our evolutionary history had specific and direct functions.[20] For example, a
species that attacked by biting, baring the teeth was a necessary act before an assault and wrinkling the
nose reduced the inhalation of foul odors. In response to the question asking why facial expressions
persist even when they no longer serve their original purposes, Darwin's predecessors have developed a
highly valued explanation. According to Darwin, humans continue to make facial expressions because
they have acquired communicative value throughout evolutionary history.[20] In other words, humans
utilize facial expressions as external evidence of their internal state. Although The Expression of the
Emotions in Man and Animals was not one of Darwin's most successful books in terms of its quality and
overall impact in the field, his initial ideas started the abundance of research on the types, effects, and
expressions of nonverbal communication and behavior.[21]
Despite the introduction of nonverbal communication in the 1800s, the emergence of behaviorism in the
1920s paused further research on nonverbal communication.[21] Behaviorism is defined as the theory of
learning that describes people's behavior as acquired through conditioning.[22] Behaviorists such as B.F.
Skinner trained pigeons to engage in various behaviors to demonstrate how animals engage in behaviors
with rewards.[22]

While most psychology researchers were exploring behaviorism, the study of nonverbal communication
as recorded on film began in 1955–56 at the Center for Advanced Study in Behavioral Sciences through a
project which came to be called the Natural History of an Interview.[23] The initial participants included
two psychiatrists, Frieda Fromm-Reichman and Henry Brosin, two linguists, Norman A. McQuown and
Charles Hockett, and also two anthropologists, Clyde Kluckhohn and David M. Schneider, (these last two
withdrew by the end of 1955, and did not participate in the major group project). In their place, two
other anthropologists, Ray Birdwhistell, already then known as the founder of kinesics, the study of body
motion communication,[24] and Gregory Bateson, known more generally as a human communication
theorist, both joined the team in 1956. Albert Scheflen and Adam Kendon were among those who joined
one of the small research teams continuing research once the year at CASBS ended.[23] The project
analyzed a film made by Bateson, using an analytic method called at the time natural history, and later,
mostly by Scheflen, context analysis. The result remained unpublished, as it was enormous and
unwieldy, but it was available on microfilm by 1971.[25] The method involves transcribing filmed or
videotaped behavior in excruciating detail, and was later used in studying the sequence and structure of
human greetings, social behaviors at parties, and the function of posture during interpersonal
interaction.[26][27][28][29]

Research on nonverbal communication rocketed during the mid-1960s by a number of psychologists and
researchers. Michael Argyle and Janet Dean Fodor, for example, studied the relationship between eye
contact and conversational distance. Ralph V. Exline examined patterns of looking while speaking and
looking while listening.[21] Eckhard Hess produced several studies pertaining to pupil dilation that were
published in Scientific American. Robert Sommer studied the relationship between personal space and
the environment.[21] Robert Rosenthal discovered that expectations made by teachers and researchers
can influence their outcomes, and that subtle, nonverbal cues may play an important role in this process.
[21] Albert Mehrabian studied the nonverbal cues of liking and immediacy. By the 1970s, a number of
scholarly volumes in psychology summarized the growing body of research, such as Shirley Weitz's
Nonverbal Communication and Marianne LaFrance and Clara Mayo's Moving Bodies.[21] Popular books
included Body Language (Fast, 1970), which focused on how to use nonverbal communication to attract
other people, and How to Read a Person Like a Book (Nierenberg & Calero, 1971) which examined
nonverbal behavior in negotiation situations.[21] The journal Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal
Behavior was founded in 1976.[30]
In 1970, Argyle hypothesized that although spoken language is used for communicating the meaning
about events external to the person communicating, the nonverbal codes are used to create and
strengthen interpersonal relationships.[31] When someone wishes to avoid conflicting or embarrassing
events during communication, it is considered proper and correct by the hypothesis to communicate
attitudes towards others non-verbally instead of verbally.[32] Along with this philosophy, Michael Argyle
also found and concluded in 1988 that there are five main functions of nonverbal body behavior and
gestures in human communications: self-presentation of one's whole personality, rituals and cultural
greetings, expressing interpersonal attitudes, expressing emotions, and to accompany speech in
managing the cues set in the interactions between the speaker and the listener.[31]

First impression

Main article: First impression (psychology)

It takes just one-tenth of a second for someone to judge and make their first impression. According to a
study from Princeton University, this short amount of time is enough for a person to determine several
attributes about an individual. These attributes included "attractiveness, likeability, trustworthiness,
competence, and aggressiveness." A first impression is a lasting non-verbal communicator. The way a
person portrays themselves on the first encounter is non-verbal statement to the observer. Presentation
can include clothing and other visible attributes such as facial expressions or facial traits in general.
Negative impressions can also be based on presentation and on personal prejudice. First impressions,
although sometimes misleading, can in many situations be an accurate depiction of others.[citation
needed]

In terms of culture, collectivists have a harder time changing their first impressions because they
emphasize a lot more context and need additional time when faced with new clues as each view may be
correct in some contexts.[33] Moreover, Fang et al., acknowledged that first impression is less likely to
change in Asian culture because they value cohesiveness and consensus, thus will not destroy their
group cohesiveness at the expense of changing their first impression when they reached a consensus.

Posture

Main article: Posture (psychology)

Posture is a nonverbal cue that is associated with positioning and that these two are used as sources of
information about individual's characteristics, attitudes, and feelings about themselves and other
people.[34] There are many different types of body positioning to portray certain postures, including
slouching, towering, legs spread, jaw thrust, shoulders forward, and arm crossing. The posture or bodily
stance exhibited by individuals communicates a variety of messages whether good or bad. A study, for
instance, identified around 200 postures that are related to maladjustment and withholding of
information.[34]

Posture can be used to determine a participant's degree of attention or involvement, the difference in
status between communicators, and the level of fondness a person has for the other communicator,
depending on body "openness".[35]: 9 It can also be effectively used as a way for an individual to convey
a desire to increase, limit, or avoid interaction with another person.[36] Studies investigating the impact
of posture on interpersonal relationships suggest that mirror-image congruent postures, where one
person's left side is parallel to the other person's right side, leads to favorable perception of
communicators and positive speech; a person who displays a forward lean or decreases a backward lean
also signifies positive sentiment during communication.[37]

Posture can be situation-relative, that is, people will change their posture depending on the situation
they are in.[38] This can be demonstrated in the case of relaxed posture when an individual is within a
nonthreatening situation and the way one's body tightens or become rigid when under stress.[39]

Clothing

Clothing is one of the most common forms of non-verbal communication. The study of clothing and
other objects as a means of non-verbal communication is known as artifactics[40] or objectics.[41] The
types of clothing that an individual wears convey nonverbal cues about his or her personality,
background and financial status, and how others will respond to them.[16] An individual's clothing style
can demonstrate their culture, mood, level of confidence, interests, age, authority, and values/beliefs.
[42] For instance, Jewish men may wear a yarmulke to outwardly communicate their religious belief.
Similarly, clothing can communicate what nationality a person or group is; for example, in traditional
festivities Scottish men often wear kilts to specify their culture.

Aside from communicating a person's beliefs and nationality, clothing can be used as a nonverbal cue to
attract others. Men and women may shower themselves with accessories and high-end fashion to attract
partners interested. In this case, clothing is a form of self-expression where people can flaunt their
power, wealth, sex appeal, or creativity.[42] A study of the clothing worn by women attending
discothèques, carried out in Vienna, Austria. It showed that in certain groups of women (especially
women who were without their partners), motivation for sex and levels of sexual hormones were
correlated with aspects of their clothing, especially the amount of skin displayed and the presence of
sheer clothing.[43]
The way one chooses to dress tells a lot about one's personality. The University of North Carolina studied
how undergraduate women chose to dress and their personality types. The study showed that women
dressed "primarily for comfort and practicality were more self-controlled, dependable, and socially well
adjusted."[44] Women who didn't like to stand out in a crowd typically had more conservative and
traditional views and beliefs. Clothing, although non-verbal, tells people what the individual's personality
is. The way a person dresses is typically rooted in deeper internal motivations such as emotions,
experiences, and culture.[45] Clothing expresses who they are or who they want to be that day. It shows
other people who they want to be associated with and where they fit in. Clothing can start relationships
because they clue other people into the wearer.[44][45]

When it comes to the clothing that they wear, nonverbal communication with gangs is very common.
Gang members typically wear 2-3 colors to signify that they are representing a particular neighborhood.
Baseball caps and hats with specific gang names and initials, worn backwards, tilted, in certain colors,
etc. bandanas worn around the head, shoulders, arms, or legs. Gang members frequently dress in hip-
hop-inspired fashions, such as oversized pants worn below the waist (also known as "sagging"). Colored
belts, colored shoes, and colored bandanas are all utilized as identifiers. Group colors and clothing are
commonly used to represent affiliation.

Gestures

Policeman directing traffic by gesture

Gestures may be made with the hands, arms or body, and also include movements of the head, face and
eyes, such as winking, nodding, or rolling one's eyes. Although the study of gesture is still in its infancy,
some broad categories of gestures have been identified by researchers. The most familiar are the so-
called emblems or quotable gestures. These are conventional, culture-specific gestures that can be used
as replacement for words, such as the hand wave used in western cultures for "hello" and "goodbye". A
single emblematic gesture can have a very different significance in different cultural contexts, ranging
from complimentary to highly offensive.[46] For a list of emblematic gestures, see List of gestures. There
are some universal gestures like the shoulder shrug.[16]

Gestures can also be categorized as either speech independent or speech related. Speech-independent
gestures are dependent upon culturally accepted interpretation and have a direct verbal translation.
[35]: 9 A wave or a peace sign are examples of speech-independent gestures. Speech-related gestures
are used in parallel with verbal speech; this form of nonverbal communication is used to emphasize the
message that is being communicated. Speech-related gestures are intended to provide supplemental
information to a verbal message such as pointing to an object of discussion.

Facial expressions, more than anything, serve as a practical means of communication. With all the
various muscles that precisely control mouth, lips, eyes, nose, forehead, and jaw, human faces are
estimated to be capable of more than ten thousand different expressions. This versatility makes non-
verbals of the face extremely efficient and honest, unless deliberately manipulated. In addition, many of
these emotions, including happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, shame, anguish and interest
are universally recognized.[47]

Displays of emotions can generally be categorized into two groups: negative and positive. Negative
emotions usually manifest as increased tension in various muscle groups: tightening of jaw muscles,
furrowing of forehead, squinting eyes, or lip occlusion (when the lips seemingly disappear). In contrast,
positive emotions are revealed by the loosening of the furrowed lines on the forehead, relaxation of the
muscles around the mouth, and widening of the eye area. When individuals are truly relaxed and at
ease, the head will also tilt to the side, exposing our most vulnerable area, the neck. This is a high-
comfort display, often seen during courtship, that is nearly impossible to mimic when tense or
suspicious.[48]

Gestures can be subdivided into three groups:

Adapters

Some hand movements are not considered to be gestures. They consist of manipulations either of the
person or some object (e.g. clothing, pencils, eyeglasses)—the kinds of scratching, fidgeting, rubbing,
tapping, and touching that people often do with their hands. These behaviors can show that a person is
experiencing anxiety or feeling of discomfort, typical when the individual is not the one in control of the
conversation or situation and therefore expresses this uneasiness subconsciously. Such behaviors are
referred to as adapters. They may not be perceived as meaningfully related to the speech in which they
accompany, but may serve as the basis for dispositional inferences of the speaker's emotion (nervous,
uncomfortable, bored.) These types of movements are believed to express the unconscious thoughts
and feelings of a person, or those thoughts an emotions one is trying to consciously hide.

Symbolic

Other hand movements are gestures. They are movements with specific, conventionalized meanings
called symbolic gestures. They are the exact opposite of adaptors, since their meanings are intended to
be communicated and they have a specific meaning for the person who gives the gesture and the person
to receive it. Familiar symbolic gestures include the "raised fist," "bye-bye," and "thumbs up." In contrast
to adapters, symbolic gestures are used intentionally and serve a clear communicative function. Sign
languages are highly developed systems of symbolic gesture. Some educators that work with deaf
learners use a combination of cued speech and lip speaking and reading that helps deaf and hard
hearing individuals (D/HH) to code and decode words based on their phonetics.[49] In addition to the
supplementary aspect of the cues like location and movement, every culture has their own set of
gestures, some of which are unique only to a specific culture. For example, the phonological and lexical
repository of D/HH individuals is highly dependent on their social background and richness of language.
[49] Very similar gestures can have very different meanings across cultures. Symbolic gestures are usually
used in the absence of speech but can also accompany speech.

Conversational

The middle ground between adapters and symbolic gestures is occupied by conversational gestures.
These gestures do not refer to actions or words but do accompany speech. Conversational gestures are
hand movements that accompany speech and are related to the speech they accompany. Though they
do accompany speech, conversational gestures are not seen in the absence of speech and are only made
by the person who is speaking.

There are a few types of conversational gestures, specifically motor and lexical movements. Motor
movements are those which are rhythmical and repetitive, do not have to be accompanied by anything
spoken due to their simple meaning, and the speaker's hand usually sticks to one position. When paired
with verbal communication, they can be used to stress certain syllables. An example of this would be
pointing someone in the direction of an individual and saying, "That way." In this case, the "That" in the
sentence would be stressed by the movements. Lexical movements are more complex, not rhythmic, or
repetitive, but rather lengthy and varied. An example of this would be something like giving elaborate
directions to somewhere and pairing that with various hands movements to signal the various turns to
take.

Distance

According to Edward T. Hall, the amount of space we maintain between ourselves and the persons with
whom we are communicating shows the importance of the science of proxemics. In this process, it is
seen how we feel towards the others at that particular time.[50] Within American culture Hall defines
four primary distance zones: (i) intimate (touching to eighteen inches [0–46 centimetres]) distance, (ii)
personal (eighteen inches to four feet, [0.46–1.22 metres]) distance, (iii) social (four to twelve feet [1.22–
3.66 metres]) distance, and (iv) public (more than twelve feet [3.66 metres]) distance. Intimate distance
is considered appropriate for familiar relationships and indicates closeness and trust. Personal distance is
still close but keeps another "at arm's length" and is considered the most comfortable distance for most
of our interpersonal contact, while social distance is used for the kind of communication that occurs in
business relationships and, sometimes, in the classroom. Public distance occurs in situations where two-
way communication is not desirable or possible.[50]

Eye contact

Main article: Oculesics

Information about the relationship and affect of these two skaters is communicated by their body
posture, eye gaze and physical contact.

Eye contact is the instance when two people look at each other's eyes at the same time; it is the primary
nonverbal way of indicating engagement, interest, attention and involvement. Nonverbal communication
involves the conscious and unconscious processes of encoding and decoding. Encoding is defined as our
ability to express emotions in a way that the receiver(s). Decoding is called "nonverbal sensitivity",
defined as the ability to take this encoded emotion and interpret its meanings accurately to what the
sender intended. Encoding is the act of generating information such as facial expressions, gestures, and
postures. Some studies have demonstrated that people use their eyes to indicate interest. This includes
frequently recognized actions of winking and movements of the eyebrows.[51] Disinterest is highly
noticeable when little or no eye contact is made in a social setting. When an individual is interested,
however, the pupils will dilate.

According to Eckman, "Eye contact (also called mutual gaze) is another major channel of nonverbal
communication. The duration of eye contact is its most meaningful aspect."[52] Generally speaking, the
longer there is established eye contact between two people, the greater the intimacy levels.[13] Gaze
comprises the actions of looking while talking and listening. The length of a gaze, the frequency of
glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate are all important cues in nonverbal
communication.[53] According to Descroix et al., the context of conversations does not produce long
blinks between the emitter and the recipient. "Liking generally increases as mutual gazing increases."[13]

Along with the detection of disinterest, deceit can also be observed in a person. Hogan states "when
someone is being deceptive their eyes tend to blink a lot more. Eyes act as leading indicator of truth or
deception,"[13] Both nonverbal and verbal cues are useful when detecting deception. It is typical for
people who are detecting lies to rely consistently on verbal cues but this can hinder how well they detect
deception. Those who are lying and those who are telling the truth possess different forms of nonverbal
and verbal cues and this is important to keep in mind. In addition, it is important to note that
understanding the cultural background of a person will influence how easily deception is detectable
because nonverbal cues may differ depending on the culture. In addition to eye contact these nonverbal
cues can consist of physiological aspects including pulse rate as well as levels of perspiration.[22] In
addition eye aversion can be predictive of deception. Eye aversion is the avoidance of eye contact. Eye
contact and facial expressions provide important social and emotional information. Overall, as Pease
states, "Give the amount of eye contact that makes everyone feel comfortable. Unless looking at others
is a cultural no-no, lookers gain more credibility than non-lookers"[16]

In concealing deception, nonverbal communication makes it easier to lie without being revealed. This is
the conclusion of a study where people watched made-up interviews of persons accused of having
stolen a wallet. The interviewees lied in about 50% of the cases. People had access to either written
transcript of the interviews, or audio tape recordings, or video recordings. The more clues that were
available to those watching, the larger was the trend that interviewees who actually lied were judged to
be truthful. That is, people that are clever at lying can use tone of voice and facial expressions to give the
impression that they are truthful.[54] Contrary to popular belief, a liar does not always avoid eye contact.
In an attempt to be more convincing, liars deliberately made more eye contact with interviewers than
those that were telling the truth.[55][56] However, there are many cited examples of cues to deceit,
delivered via nonverbal (paraverbal and visual) communication channels, through which deceivers
supposedly unwittingly provide clues to their concealed knowledge or actual opinions.[57] Most studies
examining the nonverbal cues to deceit rely upon human coding of video footage (c.f. Vrij, 2008[58]),
although a recent study also demonstrated bodily movement differences between truth-tellers and liars
using an automated body motion capture system.[59]

Across cultures

Overview

While not traditionally thought of as "talk," nonverbal communication has been found to contain highly
precise and symbolic meanings, similar to verbal speech. However the meanings in nonverbal
communication are conveyed through the use of gesture, posture changes, and timing.[60] Nuances
across different aspects of nonverbal communication can be found in cultures all around the world.
These differences can often lead to miscommunication between people of different cultures, who usually
do not mean to offend. Differences can be based in preferences for mode of communication, like the
Chinese, who prefer silence over verbal communication.[61]: 69 Differences can even be based on how
cultures perceive the passage of time. Chronemics, how people handle time, can be categorized in two
ways: polychronic which is when people do many activities at once and is common in Italy and Spain, or
monochronic which is when people do one thing at a time which is common in America.[62]: 422
Because nonverbal communication can vary across many axes—gestures, gaze, clothing, posture,
direction, or even environmental cues like lighting—there is a lot of room for cultural differences.[63]: 8
In Japan, a country which prides itself on the best customer service, workers tend to use wide arm
gestures to give clear directions to strangers—accompanied by the ever-present bow to indicate respect.
One of the main factors that differentiates nonverbal communication in cultures is high and low-context.
context relates to certain events and the meaning that is ultimately derived from it.[64] "High-context"
cultures rely mostly on nonverbal cues and gestures, using elements such as the closeness of the kind of
the relationships they have with others, strict social hierarchies and classes and deep cultural tradition
and widely known beliefs and rules. In contrast, "low-context" cultures depend largely on words and
verbal communication, where communications are direct and social hierarchies are way less tense and
more loose.

Gestures

This gesture is accepted by Dutch people as meaning "brilliant", but varies greatly in other cultures
around the world, and is ubiquitous in emoji culture.

Gestures vary widely across cultures in how they are used and what they mean. A common example is
pointing. In the United States, pointing is the gesture of a finger or hand to indicate or "come here
please" when beckoning a dog. But pointing with one finger is also considered to be rude by some
cultures. Those from Asian cultures typically use their entire hand to point to something.[65] Other
examples include, sticking your tongue out. In Western countries, it can be seen as mockery, but in
Polynesia it serves as a greeting and a sign of reverence.[62]: 417 Clapping is a North American way of
applauding, but in Spain is used to summon a waiter at a restaurant. Differences in nodding and shaking
the head to indicate agreement and disagreement also exist. Northern Europeans nodding their heads
up and down to say "yes", and shaking their head from side to side to say "no". But the Greeks have for
at least three thousand years used the upward nod for disagreement and the downward nod for
agreement."[62]: 417 There are many ways of waving goodbye: Americans face the palm outward and
move the hand side to side, Italians face the palm inward and move the fingers facing the other person,
French and Germans face the hand horizontal and move the fingers toward the person leaving.[62]: 417
Also, it is important to note that gestures are used in more informal settings and more often by children.
[62]: 417 People in the United States commonly use the "OK" hand gesture[64] to give permission and
allow an action. In Japan, however, the same sign means "money". It refers to "zero" or "nothing" in
several cultures besides these two (Argentina, Belgium, French and the Portuguese). To Eastern
European cultures that same "OK" sign is considered a vulgar swearing gesture.

Speech-independent gestures

Speech-independent gestures are nonverbal cues that communicate a word or an expression, most
commonly a dictionary definition.[66] Although there is differences in nonverbal gestures across
cultures, speech-independent gestures must have an agreeable understanding among people affiliated
with that culture or subculture on what that gesture's interpretation is.[66] As most humans use
gestures to better clarify their speech, speech-independent gestures don't rely on speech for their
meaning. Usually they transpire into a single gesture.[66]

Many speech-independent gestures are made with the hand, the "ring" gesture usually comes across as
asking someone if they are okay.[66] There are several that could be performed through the face. For
example, a nose wrinkle could universally mean disapproval or disgust.[66] Nodding your head up and
down or side to side indicate an understanding or lack of when the speaker is talking. Just because
speech-independent speech doesn't need actual speech for understanding the gesture, it still needs
context.[66] Using your middle finger is a gesture that could be used within different contexts. It could
be comical or derogatory. The only way to know is if one analyzes the other behaviors surrounding it and
depending on who the speaker is and who the speaker is addressing.[66]

Displays of emotion

Emotions are a key factor in nonverbal communication. Just as gestures and other hand movements vary
across cultures, so does the way people display their emotions. For example, "In many cultures, such as
the Arab and Iranian cultures, people express grief openly. They mourn out loud, while in Asian cultures,
the general belief is that it is unacceptable to show emotion openly."[67] For people in Westernized
countries, laughter is a sign of amusement, but in some parts of Africa it is a sign of wonder or
embarrassment.[62]: 417 Emotional expression varies with culture.[68] Native Americans tend to be
more reserved and less expressive with emotions.[69]: 44 Frequent touches are common for Chinese
people; however, such actions like touching, patting, hugging or kissing in America are less frequent and
not often publicly displayed.[61]: 68 According to Rebecca Bernstein (from Point Park University)
"Winking is a facial expression particularly varied in meaning." According to Latin culture, a wink was a
display or invitation of romantic pursuit. The Yoruba (Nigeria) have taught their children to follow certain
nonverbal commands, such as winking, which tells them it's time to leave the room. To the Chinese it
comes off as an offensive gesture.[64]

Nonverbal actions

According to Matsumoto and Juang, the nonverbal motions of different people indicate important
channels of communication. Nonverbal actions should match and harmonize with the message being
portrayed, otherwise confusion will occur.[21] For instance, an individual would normally not be seen
smiling and gesturing broadly when saying a sad message. The author states that nonverbal
communication is very important to be aware of, especially if comparing gestures, gaze, and tone of
voice amongst different cultures. As Latin American cultures embrace big speech gestures, Middle
Eastern cultures are relatively more modest in public and are not expressive. Within cultures, different
rules are made about staring or gazing. Women may especially avoid eye contact with men because it
can be taken as a sign of sexual interest.[65] In some cultures, gaze can be seen as a sign of respect. In
Western culture, eye contact is interpreted as attentiveness and honesty. In Hispanic, Asian, Middle
Eastern, and Native American cultures, eye contact is thought to be disrespectful or rude, and lack of eye
contact does not mean that a person is not paying attention. Voice is a category that changes within
cultures. Depending on whether or not the cultures is expressive or non-expressive, many variants of the
voice can depict different reactions.[70]

The acceptable physical distance is another major difference in the nonverbal communication between
cultures. In Latin America and the Middle East the acceptable distance is much shorter than what most
Europeans and Americans feel comfortable with. This is why an American or a European might wonder
why the other person is invading his or her personal space by standing so close, while the other person
might wonder why the American/European is standing so far from him or her.[71] In addition, for Latin
Americans, the French, Italians, and Arabs the distance between people is much closer than the distance
for Americans; in general for these close distance groups, 1 foot of distance is for lovers, 1.5–4 feet of
distance is for family and friends, and 4–12 feet is for strangers.[62]: 421 In the opposite way, most
Native Americans value distance to protect themselves.[69]: 43

Children's learning in indigenous American communities

Nonverbal communication is commonly used to facilitate learning in indigenous American communities.

Nonverbal communication is pivotal for collaborative participation in shared activities, as children from
indigenous American communities will learn how to interact using nonverbal communication by intently
observing adults.[60] Nonverbal communication allows for continuous keen observation and signals to
the learner when participation is needed. Culture plays an important role in nonverbal communication,
and it is one aspect that helps to influence how learning activities are organized. In many Indigenous
American Communities, for example, there is often an emphasis on nonverbal communication, which
acts as a valued means by which children learn.[72] In a study on Children from both US Mexican (with
presumed indigenous backgrounds) and European American heritages who watched a video of children
working together without speaking found that the Mexican-heritage children were far more likely to
describe the children's actions as collaborative, saying that the children in the video were "talking with
their hands and with their eyes."[73]

A key characteristic of this type of nonverbal learning is that children have the opportunity to observe
and interact with all parts of an activity.[74] Many Indigenous American children are in close contact
with adults and other children who are performing the activities that they will eventually master. Objects
and materials become familiar to the child as the activities are a normal part of everyday life. Learning is
done in an extremely contextualized environment rather than one specifically tailored to be
instructional.[74] For example, the direct involvement that Mazahua children take in the marketplace is
used as a type of interactional organization for learning without explicit verbal instruction. Children learn
how to run a market stall, take part in caregiving, and also learn other basic responsibilities through non-
structured activities, cooperating voluntarily within a motivational context to participate. Not explicitly
instructing or guiding the children teaches them how to integrate into small coordinated groups to solve
a problem through consensus and shared space.[74] These Mazahua separate-but-together practices
have shown that participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities establishes
enculturation that is rooted in nonverbal social experience.[74] As the children participate in everyday
interactions, they are simultaneously learning the cultural meanings behind these interactions.
Children's experience with nonverbally organized social interaction helps constitute the process of
enculturation.[74]

KINESICS

What is Kinesic Communication?

1. Gestures

Gestures are the movements of hands, face, or other parts of the body in a way that conveys meaning,
either in conjunction with verbal communication such as frowning while saying harsh words against
someone, or in isolation such as smiling at a stranger to express pleasure at ones presence. Keep on
learning about gesture hereOpens in new window

2. Body movement

Body Movement is the voluntary or involuntary movement of parts of the body such as hands, feet, legs,
and shoulders, which may either reinforce or contradicts what is communicated verbally. There are
various body movements that sends bodily signals. Learn more hereOpens in new window

3. Posture

PostureOpens in new window communicates a great deal of information about you. The way in which
you sit, stand, slump or slouch provides information about your sex, status, self-image, attitudes and
emotional state. For example, sitting with your head in your hands often indicates that your are feeling
low, whereas sitting with your feet on the desk may be interpreted by others as a sign of your feeling of
superiority.
4. Facial expressions

Facial expressionOpens in new window refers to certain movements or conditions of the facial muscles
that facilitate the nonverbal communication of some thought, emotion, or behavior. Facial expression is
the main channel we use to decode emotional states or reactions of others to a message, and they
generally mirror the intensity of people’s thoughts and feelings.

5. Eye contact

Eye contact is a natural byproduct of effective communication. To look someone in the eyes is to invite
him to communicate with you.

Eye contactOpens in new window indicates degree of attention or interest, influences attitude change or
persuasion, regulates interaction, communicates emotion, defines power and status, and has a central
role in managing impressions of others. Keep on learning about eye contact hereOpens in new window

Important Hint!

kinesics communication carries a significant risk of being misinterpreted in an intercultural interaction.

As many movements are carried out at a subconscious or at least a low-awareness level; the movements
can be misinterpreted when communicating across cultures. In today’s global environment, awareness of
the meanings of different kinesic movements is important in order to avoid sending the wrong message.

Kinesics signals can be inborn (unwitting), learned (witting), or a mixture of the two. Blinking the eyes,
clearing the throat, and facial flushing are innate (inborn) signals. These are often involuntary, as are, for
example, facial expressions of happiness, surprise, anger, disgust, and other basics emotions understood
by people in all cultures.

Laughing, crying, and shrugging the shoulders are examples of mixed signals. They may originate as
innate actions, but cultural rules shape their timing and use. Gestures, such as a wink of the eye, a
thumbs up, or a military salute, are learned signals. The meanings of such signs vary among different
cultures.

Paralinguistic Language Features

3 Replies

Paralinguistics has to do with the aspects of language that do not relate to the formal systems of
language such as phonology, syntax, grammar etc. The features of paralinguistics fall into two categories.
The categories are

Vocal paralinguistic features

Body paralinguistic features

Vocal Paralinguistic Features

Vocal paralinguistic features relate to how we say something. We can speak loudly are soft which are
characteristics of volume. Our voices can be breathy, which is an approach some singers may use. The
tone of our voice

Body Paralinguistic Features

Paralinguistic Features of the body is how we communicate meaning through the use of our bodies.
Facial expressions is one example. When we frown, smile, raise our eyebrows, etc. these all share
different forms of information. Clenching the teeth and biting one’s lips also sends a message. The
cultural context also colors what these behaviors mean as well.

Elements of Paralanguage:

(1) Pitch: Pitch is the highness or lowness of the voice; it is similar to pitch on a musical scale. We
associate higher pitches with female voices and lower pitches with male voices. We associate low-
pitched voices with strength, sexiness, and maturity, and high-pitched voices with helplessness, tension,
and nervousness.

We also vary our pitch to reflect our mood and interest in conversing. Your pitch expresses your
emotional state; or making a statement or asking a question.

(2) Volume: The power of your voice, its loudness or volume, also affects perceptions of intended
meaning. Some whisper or blast through their volume. An aggressive person is often very louder. In
contrast, if you are soft spoken, others may take your behavior nervousness. Effective Interpersonal
Communicators Regulate Volume in an Effort to Promote Meaningful Interaction. Your volume should
reflect the nature of your message.

(3) Pace/Rate: Speaking rate is the third vocal signal affecting the communication of meaning. Most of us
speak at an average rate of 150 words per minute. When we speed up our speech, exceeding 275 to 300
words per minute, it is difficult for others to comprehend what we are saying, and our message thus
becomes virtually unintelligible. In contrast, if we speak too slowly, others may perceive us as tentative
or lacking in confidence or intelligence. It quickens to relay agitation, excitement, and happiness, and it
falls to convey seriousness, serenity, or sadness.

(4) Articulation and Pronunciation: The sound attributes of articulation and pronunciation affect message
intelligibility as well as perceptions of credibility. Articulation is the way you pronounce individual
sounds. Ideally, even during person-to-person contact, the sounds of your speech are sharp and distinct.
When you fail to utter a final sound (a final t or d, for example), fail to produce the sounds of words
properly. When you mispronounce a word, you may suffer a loss of credibility, and those listening to you
may find it more difficult to make sense of what you are saying.

(5) Voice Modulation: Intonation refers to the tonal variation, modulation pertains to the way we
regulate, vary, or adjust the tone, pitch, and volume of the sound or speaking voice. Modulation of voice
brings flexibility and vitality to your voice, and you can express emotions, sentiments, impatience, careful
planning, despondency and suspicions etc. If you do not pay special attention to the modulation of your
voice, then your voice becomes flat. Word stress and sentence stress also play an important role in voice
modulation.

(6) Hesitations and Silence: Hesitations and silence are the final paralinguistic variables we will consider
here. Knowing when to pause is a critical skill. When nervous or tense, we may exhibit a tendency to fill
all pauses. Some time we insert meaningless sounds or phrases such as uh, you know, or okay in the
effort to fill voids. These non fluencies, or hesitation phenomena, disrupt the natural flow of speech and
adversely affect how others perceive your competence and confidence

AnonymousMay 26, 2015 at 9:35 PM

hello, I still dont understand how pronunciation, articulation and enunciation are part of nonverbal
communication. please enlighten.

Reply
UnknownDecember 10, 2019 at 9:15 AM

Oo

In some Indigenous communities of the Americas, children reported one of their main reasons for
working in their home was to build unity within the family, the same way they desire to build solidarity
within their own communities.[75] Most indigenous children learn the importance of putting in this work
in the form of nonverbal communication. Evidence of this can be observed in a case study where
children are guided through the task of folding a paper figure by observing the posture and gaze of those
who guide them through it.[76] This is projected onto homes and communities, as children wait for
certain cues from others to initiative cooperate and collaborate.

One aspect of nonverbal communication that aids in conveying these precise and symbolic meanings is
"context-embeddedness." The idea that many children in Indigenous American Communities are closely
involved in community endeavors, both spatially and relationally, which help to promote nonverbal
communication, given that words are not always necessary. When children are closely related to the
context of the endeavor as active participants, coordination is based on a shared reference, which helps
to allow, maintain, and promote nonverbal communication.[77] The idea of "context-embeddedness"
allows nonverbal communication to be a means of learning within Native American Alaskan Athabaskans
and Cherokee communities. By observing various family and community social interactions, social
engagement is dominated through nonverbal communication. For example, when children elicit
thoughts or words verbally to their elders, they are expected to structure their speech carefully. This
demonstrates cultural humility and respect as excessive acts of speech when conversational genre shifts
reveal weakness and disrespect. This careful self-censorship exemplifies traditional social interaction of
Athapaskin and Cherokee Native Americans who are mostly dependent on nonverbal communication.
[78]

Nonverbal cues are used by most children in the Warm Springs Indian Reservation community within the
parameters of their academic learning environments. This includes referencing Native American religion
through stylized hand gestures in colloquial communication, verbal and nonverbal emotional self-
containment, and less movement of the lower face to structure attention on the eyes during face-to-face
engagement. Therefore, children's approach to social situations within a reservation classroom, for
example, may act as a barrier to a predominantly verbal learning environment. Most Warm Springs
children benefit from a learning model that suits a nonverbal communicative structure of collaboration,
traditional gesture, observational learning and shared references.[79]

It is important to note that while nonverbal communication is more prevalent in Indigenous American
Communities, verbal communication is also used. Preferably, verbal communication does not substitute
one's involvement in an activity, but instead acts as additional guidance or support towards the
completion of an activity.[60]

Disadvantages of purely verbal communication across cultures

As much of (neurotypical) communication is nonverbal, learning a language without learning its

corresponding pragmatics can lead to miscommunication.[80] "This can lead to intercultural conflict
(according to Marianna Pogosyan Ph.D.), misunderstandings and ambiguities in communication, despite
language fluency."[80] Nonverbal communication makes the difference between bringing cultures
together in understanding one another, appearing authentic. Or it can push people farther away due to
misunderstandings in how different groups see certain nonverbal cues or gestures. From birth, children
in various cultures are taught the gestures and cues their culture defines as universal which is not the
case for others, but some movements are universal.[81] Evidence suggests neurotypical humans all smile
when happy about something and frown when something is upsetting or bad.[81]

Genetics

"In the study of nonverbal communications, the limbic brain is where the action is...because it is the part
of the brain that reacts to the world around us reflexively and instantaneously, in real time, and without
thought."[48] There is evidence that the nonverbal cues made from person-to-person do not entirely
have something to do with environment.[16]

Along with gestures, phenotypic traits can also convey certain messages in nonverbal communication,
for instance, eye color, hair color and height. Research into height has generally found that taller people
are perceived as being more impressive. Melamed and Bozionelos (1992) studied a sample of managers
in the United Kingdom and found that height was a key factor in who was promoted. Height can have
benefits and depressors too. "While tall people often command more respect than short people, height
can also be detrimental to some aspects of one-to-one communication, for instance, where you need to
'talk on the same level' or have an 'eye-to-eye' discussion with another person and do not want to be
perceived as too big for your boots."[16]
Chronemics

Chronemics is the way time is used. Our use of time can communicate and send messages, nonverbally.
The way we use time and give or don't give our time to others can communicate different messages.
Chronemics can send messages to others about what we value and also send messages about power.
"When you go to see someone who is in a position of power over you, such as your supervisor, it is not
uncommon to be kept waiting. However, you would probably consider it bad form to make a more
powerful person wait for you. Indeed, the rule seems to be that the time of powerful people is more
valuable than the time of less powerful people."[82]

Movement and body position

Kinesics

Kinesics is defined as movements, more specifically the study of our movements involving our hands,
body, and face. This form of nonverbal communication is powerful in the messages it sends to those
witnessing them.[citation needed] The term was first coined by Ray Birdwhistell, who considered the
term body language inaccurate and instead opted to explain it as nonverbal behaviors stemming from
body movement. Research around this behavior provides some examples, such as someone casually
smiling and leaning forward, as well as maintaining eye contact to radiate a non-dominating and intimate
demeanor. In contrast, someone leaning back, a stoic facial expression, and no to little eye contact could
emit an unfriendly and dominating demeanor.[83]

Additional research expresses that eye contact is an important part of nonverbal communication
involved in kinesics, as longer and appropriate levels of eye contact give an individual credibility. The
opposite is said for those who do not maintain eye contact, as they are likely to be deemed distrustful.
More eye contact was also found to be related to higher levels of likability and believability from those
people interacted with. A real-life example of this is through service workers, in a study it was found that
those workers who welcomed customers with smiles seemed like warmer individuals than those who did
not smile. Customers reported that those without smiles and open body movements, such as waving or
handshaking, were lacking warmth and deemed less friendly.[83]

Haptics: touching in communication

A high five is an example of communicative touch.

Haptics is the study of touching as nonverbal communication, and haptic communication refers to how
people and other animals communicate via touching.
Touches among humans that can be defined as communication include handshakes, holding hands,
kissing (cheek, lips, hand), back slapping, high fives, a pat on the shoulder, and brushing an arm.
Touching of oneself may include licking, picking, holding, and scratching.[35]: 9 These behaviors are
referred to as "adapters" or "tells" and may send messages that reveal the intentions or feelings of a
communicator and a listener. The meaning conveyed from touch is highly dependent upon the culture,
the context of the situation, the relationship between communicators, and the manner of touch.[35]: 10

Touch is an extremely important sense for humans; as well as providing information about surfaces and
textures it is a component of nonverbal communication in interpersonal relationships, and vital in
conveying physical intimacy. It can be both sexual (such as kissing) and platonic (such as hugging or
tickling).

Touch is the earliest sense to develop in the fetus. Human babies have been observed to have enormous
difficulty surviving if they do not possess a sense of touch, even if they retain sight and hearing.[84]
Babies who can perceive through touch, even without sight and hearing, tend to fare much better.

In chimpanzees, the sense of touch is highly developed. As newborns, they see and hear poorly but cling
strongly to their mothers. Harry Harlow conducted a controversial study involving rhesus monkeys and
observed that monkeys reared with a "terry cloth mother," a wire feeding apparatus wrapped in soft
terry cloth that provided a level of tactile stimulation and comfort, the monkey who had the real parent
were considerably more emotionally stable as adults than those with a mere wire mother (Harlow,
1958).

Touching is treated differently from one country to another and socially acceptable levels of touching
vary from one culture to another (Remland, 2009). In Thai culture, for example, touching someone's
head may be thought rude. Remland and Jones (1995) studied groups of people communicating and
found that touching was rare among the English (8%), the French (5%) and the Dutch (4%) compared to
Italians (14%) and Greeks (12.5%).[85] Striking, pushing, pulling, pinching, kicking, strangling and hand-
to-hand fighting are forms of touch in the context of physical abuse. In the Journal of Nonverbal
Behavior, McDaniel et al. assessed touch as a form of communication among people from different
nations under the lens of culture, relationships, and a number of body areas touched. Latin Americans
are known to have a high degree of tactile activity in contrast to Asians who are considered a no-contact
culture as they often steer away from public display of affection (PDA).
Proxemics

Proxemics is defined as the use of space as a form of communication, and includes how far or near you
position yourself from others; it can be influenced by culture, race/ethnicity, gender, and age. Edward T.
Hall invented the term when he realized that culture influences how people use space in communication
while working with diplomats,[86] and published his findings on proxemics in 1959 as The Silent
Language.[50] Proxemics also play a big role in business as research shows that gender and invasion of
customers' privacy without previous ties negatively affect the outcome of deals.[87] Besides, in high
contact cultures, people are generally more comfortable in closer proximity, whereas individuals in low
contact cultures feel more comfortable with a greater amount of personal space. Hall concluded that
proxemics could cause misunderstandings between cultures as cultures use of proxemics varies and what
is customary in one culture may range from being confusing to being offensive to members of a different
culture.[88]

According to Edward T. Hall, the amount of space we maintain between ourselves and the persons we
communicate with shows the importance of the science of proxemics. In this process, it is seen how we
feel towards others at that particular time. This resonates with proxemics and viewing it through the
cultural lens, people use their space differently because of the meaning behind it as in a spectrum of
cultures, ideologies differ.[89] Within American culture, Hall defines four primary distance zones: (i)
intimate (touching to eighteen inches) distance, (ii) personal (eighteen inches to four feet) distance, (iii)
social (four to twelve feet) distance, and (iv) public (more than twelve feet) distance.

Intimate space is any distance less than 18 inches, and is most commonly used by individuals when they
are engaging with someone with whom they feel very comfortable, such as a spouse, partner, friend,
child, or parent. Personal space is a distance of 18 inches to 4 feet and is usually used when individuals
are interacting with friends. Social distance is the most common type of proximity as it is used when
communicating with colleagues, classmates, acquaintances, or strangers. Public distance creates the
greatest gap between the individual and the audience and is categorized as distances greater than 12
feet in distance and is often used for speeches, lectures, or formal occasions.[90] It occurs in situations
where two-way communication is not desirable or possible. When that space we maintain is invaded,
Hasler et al. state that we unconsciously turn on defense mechanisms that include changes in eye gaze
or orientation as well as moving away to convey your discomfort to the other person especially when no
primary interpersonal relationship exists.

In relation to verbal communication

When communicating face-to-face with someone, it's sometimes hard to differentiate which parts of
conversing are communicated via verbally or non-verbally.[91] Other studies done on the same subject
have concluded that in more relaxed and natural settings of communication, verbal and non-verbal
signals and cues can contribute in surprisingly similar ways.[92] Argyle,[31] using video tapes shown to
the subjects, analysed the communication of submissive/dominant attitude, (high and low context, high
context resorting to more strict social classes and take a more short and quick response route to portray
dominance, low context being the opposite by taking time to explain everything and putting a lot of
importance on communication and building trust and respect with others in a submissive and relaxed
manner),[93] and found that non-verbal cues had 4.3 times the effect of verbal cues. The most
important effect was that body posture communicated superior status (specific to culture and context
said person grew up in) in a very efficient way. On the other hand, a study by Hsee et al.[94] had subjects
judge a person on the dimension happy/sad and found that words spoken with minimal variation in
intonation had an impact about 4 times larger than face expressions seen in a film without sound.
Therefore, when considering certain non-verbal mannerisms such as facial expressions and physical cues,
they can conflict in meaning when compared to spoken language and emotions. Different set ups and
scenarios would yield different responses and meanings when using both types of communication. In
other ways they can complement each other, provided they're used together wisely during a
conversation.[31]

When seeking to communicate effectively, it's important that the nonverbal conversation supports the
verbal conversation, and vice versa. If the nonverbal cues converge with what we are saying verbally,
then our message is further reinforced.[95] Mindfulness is one technique that can help improve our
awareness of NVC. If we become more mindful and present to how our body is moving, then we can
better control our external nonverbal communication, which results in more effective communication.
[96]

Interaction

When communicating, nonverbal messages can interact with verbal messages in six ways: repeating,
conflicting, complementing, substituting, regulating and accenting/moderating.

Conflicting

Conflicting verbal and nonverbal messages within the same interaction can sometimes send opposing or
conflicting messages. A person verbally expressing a statement of truth while simultaneously fidgeting or
avoiding eye contact may convey a mixed message to the receiver in the interaction. Conflicting
messages may occur for a variety of reasons often stemming from feelings of uncertainty, ambivalence,
or frustration. When mixed messages occur, nonverbal communication becomes the primary tool people
use to attain additional information to clarify the situation; great attention is placed on bodily
movements and positioning when people perceive mixed messages during interactions. Definitions of
nonverbal communication creates a limited picture in our minds but there are ways to create a clearer
one. There are different dimensions of verbal and nonverbal communication that have been discovered.
They are (1) structure versus non-structure, (2) linguistic versus non-linguistic, (3) continuous versus
discontinuous, (4) learned versus innate, and (5) left versus right hemispheric processing.[97]: 7

Complementing

Accurate interpretation of messages is made easier when nonverbal and verbal communication
complement each other. Nonverbal cues can be used to elaborate on verbal messages to reinforce the
information sent when trying to achieve communicative goals; messages have been shown to be
remembered better when nonverbal signals affirm the verbal exchange.[35]: 14

Substituting

Nonverbal behavior is sometimes used as the sole channel for communication of a message. People
learn to identify facial expressions, body movements, and body positioning as corresponding with
specific feelings and intentions. Nonverbal signals can be used without verbal communication to convey
messages; when nonverbal behavior does not effectively communicate a message, verbal methods are
used to enhance understanding.[35]: 16

Structure versus non-structure

Verbal communication is a highly structured form of communication with set rules of grammar. The rules
of verbal communication help to understand and make sense of what other people are saying. For
example, foreigners learning a new language can have a hard time making themselves understood. On
the other hand, nonverbal communication has no formal structure when it comes to communicating.
Nonverbal communication occurs without even thinking about it. The same behavior can mean different
things, such as crying of sadness or of joy. Therefore, these cues need to be interpreted carefully to get
their correct meaning.[97]: 7–8

Linguistic versus non-linguistic

There are only a few assigned symbols in the system of nonverbal communication. Nodding the head is
one symbol that indicates agreement in some cultures, but in others, it means disagreement. On the
other hand, verbal communication has a system of symbols that have specific meanings to them.[97]: 8

Continuous and discontinuous

Verbal communication is based on discontinuous units whereas nonverbal communication is continuous.
Communicating nonverbally cannot be stopped unless one would leave the room, but even then, the
intrapersonal processes still take place (individuals communicating with themselves). Without the
presence of someone else, the body still manages to undergo nonverbal communication. For example,
there are no other words being spoken after a heated debate, but there are still angry faces and cold
stares being distributed. This is an example of how nonverbal communication is continuous.[97]: 8

Learned versus innate

Learned non-verbal cues require a community or culture for their reinforcement. For example, table
manners are not innate capabilities upon birth. Dress code is a non-verbal cue that must be established
by society. Hand symbols, whose interpretation can vary from culture to culture, are not innate
nonverbal cues. Learned cues must be gradually reinforced by admonition or positive feedback.

Innate non-verbal cues are "built-in" features of human behavior. Generally, these innate cues are
universally prevalent and regardless of culture. For example, smiling, crying, and laughing do not require
teaching. Similarly, some body positions, such as the fetal position, are universally associated with
weakness. Due to their universality, the ability to comprehend these cues is not limited to individual
cultures.[97]: 9

Left versus right-hemispheric processing

This type of processing involves the neurophysiological approach to nonverbal communication. It

explains that the right hemisphere processes nonverbal stimuli such as those involving spatial, pictorial,
and gestalt tasks while the left hemisphere involves the verbal stimuli involving analytical and reasoning
tasks. It is important to know the implications in processing the differences between verbal and
nonverbal communication messages. It is possible that individuals may not use the correct hemisphere
at appropriate times when it comes to interpreting a message or meaning.[97]: 9

Clinical studies

Principles

From 1977 to 2004, the influence of disease and drugs on receptivity of nonverbal communication was
studied by teams at three separate medical schools using a similar paradigm.[98] Researchers at the
University of Pittsburgh, Yale University and Ohio State University had subjects observe gamblers at a
slot machine awaiting payoffs. The amount of this payoff was read by nonverbal transmission prior to
reinforcement. This technique was developed by and the studies directed by psychologist Robert E.
Miller and psychiatrist A. James Giannini. These groups reported diminished receptive ability in heroin
addicts[99] and phencyclidine abusers,[100] contrasted with increased receptivity in cocaine addicts.
Men with major depression[101] manifested significantly decreased ability to read nonverbal cues when
compared with euthymic men.

In some subjects tested for ability to read nonverbal cues, intuitive paradigms were apparently employed
while in others a cause and effect approach was used.[102] Subjects in the former group answered
quickly and before reinforcement occurred. They could not give a rationale for their particular responses.
Subjects in the latter category delayed their response and could offer reasons for their choice. The level
of accuracy between the two groups did not vary nor did handedness.[103]

Obese women[104] and women with premenstrual syndrome[105] were found to also possess
diminished abilities to read these cues. In contradistinction, men with bipolar disorder possessed
increased abilities.[106] A woman with total paralysis of the nerves of facial expression was found
unable to transmit or receive any nonverbal facial cues whatsoever.[107] Because of the changes in
levels of accuracy on the levels of nonverbal receptivity, the members of the research team hypothesized
a biochemical site in the brain which was operative for reception of nonverbal cues. Because certain
drugs enhanced ability while others diminished it, the neurotransmitters dopamine and endorphin were
considered to be likely etiological candidate. Based on the available data, however, the primary cause
and primary effect could not be sorted out on the basis of the paradigm employed.[108]

Elements of Paralanguage:

(1) Pitch: Pitch is the highness or lowness of the voice; it is similar to pitch on a musical scale. We
associate higher pitches with female voices and lower pitches with male voices. We associate low-
pitched voices with strength, sexiness, and maturity, and high-pitched voices with helplessness, tension,
and nervousness.

We also vary our pitch to reflect our mood and interest in conversing. Your pitch expresses your
emotional state; or making a statement or asking a question.

(2) Volume: The power of your voice, its loudness or volume, also affects perceptions of intended
meaning. Some whisper or blast through their volume. An aggressive person is often very louder. In
contrast, if you are soft spoken, others may take your behavior nervousness. Effective Interpersonal
Communicators Regulate Volume in an Effort to Promote Meaningful Interaction. Your volume should
reflect the nature of your message.

(3) Pace/Rate: Speaking rate is the third vocal signal affecting the communication of meaning. Most of us
speak at an average rate of 150 words per minute. When we speed up our speech, exceeding 275 to 300
words per minute, it is difficult for others to comprehend what we are saying, and our message thus
becomes virtually unintelligible. In contrast, if we speak too slowly, others may perceive us as tentative
or lacking in confidence or intelligence. It quickens to relay agitation, excitement, and happiness, and it
falls to convey seriousness, serenity, or sadness.

(4) Articulation and Pronunciation: The sound attributes of articulation and pronunciation affect message
intelligibility as well as perceptions of credibility. Articulation is the way you pronounce individual
sounds. Ideally, even during person-to-person contact, the sounds of your speech are sharp and distinct.
When you fail to utter a final sound (a final t or d, for example), fail to produce the sounds of words
properly. When you mispronounce a word, you may suffer a loss of credibility, and those listening to you
may find it more difficult to make sense of what you are saying.

(5) Voice Modulation: Intonation refers to the tonal variation, modulation pertains to the way we
regulate, vary, or adjust the tone, pitch, and volume of the sound or speaking voice. Modulation of voice
brings flexibility and vitality to your voice, and you can express emotions, sentiments, impatience, careful
planning, despondency and suspicions etc. If you do not pay special attention to the modulation of your
voice, then your voice becomes flat. Word stress and sentence stress also play an important role in voice
modulation.

(6) Hesitations and Silence: Hesitations and silence are the final paralinguistic variables we will consider
here. Knowing when to pause is a critical skill. When nervous or tense, we may exhibit a tendency to fill
all pauses. Some time we insert meaningless sounds or phrases such as uh, you know, or okay in the
effort to fill voids. These non fluencies, or hesitation phenomena, disrupt the natural flow of speech and
adversely affect how others perceive your competence and confidence.

Chronemics and Proxemics

We are living in an era where communication is crucial. We are communicating in order to achieve
something, to express our feelings or to sort out some problems; we communicate to get someone to do
something, to behave in a certain way.

We can do all these things saying nothing at all. Our body does all the talking. At this conclusion got
Albert Mehrabian whose research material showed that the verbal messages without tone or inflection
of the voice have only 7 % impact. The remaining 93% consists of tone of voice and other sounds
occurring during the speech act and non-verbal cues, 38% and 55% respectively.

Non-verbal communication falls into seven categories:

Paralanguage,
Proxemics,

Haptics,

Chronemics,

Artifacts,

Kinesics,

Environment,

Paralanguage is the science of vocal qualities that usually accompany speech. It includes the rhythm,
pitch and the tempo of our voice, also our crying, snoring or laughing. Through paralanguage we can say
what it is the emotional state f a person if he is sad, happy nervous or even if he is sincere.

Some cultures rely on paralanguage especially on the tone of voice, to tell the meaning of the words.
These languages are Thai, Vietnamese or Chinese.

Proxemics refers to how near people are to something or to other people. E. T. Hall coined the term of
proxemics from the Latin root prox- and the suffix -emic as in “proximity” and “systemic”. He defined it as
the science that studies how people usually organize their space, their houses and the places where they
work.

Proxemics has three fundamental areas: space, distance and territory. According to proxemics’ spatial
extension, Hall proposed a classification of this behavior. His theory states that the proxemic behavior
covers up three dimensions: micro-, meso-, and macrospace.

Microspace deals with the “immediate surroundings” (Proxemics:The Semiotics of Space p411) of a
person, this space is considered more private, “mesospace is the further proximate environment within
the person’s reach” (Proxemics:The Semiotics of Space p411) and macrospace is the space that extends
over vast territories ending by covering up cities.

In what concerns the distance area of the interaction, Hall identifies four levels of distances:

Intimate distance is up to 45 cm from the body, the individual does not allow everyone in this space,
since it requires extensive contact.

The personal distance is the invisible barrier that someone builds in order to separate him from the
other people. It extends from 45 to 120 cm.

The social distance ranges from 120 to 360 cm; this type of distance we often meet in classrooms and in
different kinds of meetings.

From 360 cm further we talk about the public distance, where the person it is outside his circle of
activities, events, interests. This is the perfect distance desired by strangers.

Haptics, or the tactile communication, sometimes is used to replace the speech act even if it is
considered the most primitive way of communication. Edward Hall showed in his studies that there are
cultures that tend to encourage touching and some cultures that do not. Contact cultures are many
Central American cultures as well as many south European countries. In Thailand, Sri Lanka touching the
head is restricted because the head is considered to be sacred.

The nature of haptics is influenced not only by the culture but also by the relationship between the
interacting people, by their age, by the situation, and the duration of the touching act, as well as by its
location, if it is done in private or publicly; it is also influenced by the relative pressure of the touch and
by its intentional or accidental nature.

Chronemics refers to the non-verbal channel of time, especially how people perceive the notion and the
value of time. It is a powerful tool to know how to organize your time and how to react in time. People
agendas, their lifestyle, their patience to wait and listen are affected by the correct use of time.

Time is perceived differently in every corner of the world. For people in the United States, time is
something concrete, perceptible. To them it can be bought, saved, wasted and measured; they plan what
they want to do and to happen. For Arabs instead, an individual who wants to know his future is seen as
irreligious or insane, because in their culture.

Presentation Strategies

magine you are walking across your campus. As you pass the student center, you see a couple of people
who have set up at a table outside, and they’re passing out information about the student honor society.
Open windows in the music building share the sounds of someone practicing the piano in the art studio.
Upon entering your class building, you are greeted by student-made posters illustrating various phases of
the process of cell division. An open class door allows you to watch a young man in a lab coat and
protective gear pour liquid nitrogen over items in a tray while the rest of his classmates look on with
great interest. Your own instructor is setting up the computer screen at the front of your class when you
walk in, loading up the Powerpoint that he plans to use for the day.

All of these are examples of presentations, and it’s very likely that you’ll be asked to participate in similar
activities during your college career. Presenting, whether face-to-face or online, is a skill you will hone as
a college student in preparation for your future career.

Presentation Types

Presentations can take many forms and potentially serve many purposes. When reading the definitions
below, keep in mind that many presentations often combine several elements into a hybrid form. You
may have to pick and choose what will work best for you depending on the instructor and the course.
Let’s start with the different genres or types of presentations.

Informative

Some presentation assignments will ask you simply to deliver information about a topic. Often these
presentations involve research, which you will shape and present to your instructor and classmates.
Typically, informative presentations ask that you NOT share your opinion about the subject at hand
(which can be more challenging than it seems). With an informative presentation, your goal is to educate
your audience by presenting a summary of your research and “sticking to the facts.”

Persuasive

Unlike informative presentations, persuasive presentations ask that you not only form an opinion about
your subject but also convince your audience to come around to your point of view. These presentations
often involve research, too, and the findings of your research will be used to bolster the persuasive case
you’re making.

Lesson Delivery

You may be asked to do a “Teaching Presentation,” which will require you to specialize in one topic of the
course and give your fellow classmates instruction about it. In short, you become the teacher of a
subject. Often your presentation will be the only time that this subject is covered in the class, so you will
be responsible for making sure that you provide clear, detailed, and relevant information about it. You
may also be asked to provide questions on the subject to be included in a quiz or test.
Demonstration

These action-based presentations typically model some behavior or subject matter that has been
introduced previously in the class. Unlike the Lesson Delivery presentation, a demonstration adds a level
of performance in which you show and tell the the audience what you know. You might perform the
demonstration yourself, as a way of illustrating the concept or procedure, or you might provide
classmates with instructions and guidance as they do it themselves.

Poster

Poster presentations should convey all the information on a subject necessary for a viewer to consider
on her own. They often consist of short, punchy wording accompanied by strong visuals—graphs, charts,
images, and/or illustrations. Posters frequently require research to prepare, and they allow for some
creativity in design. Depending on the assignment, your poster may be part of a gallery of poster
presentations with your classmates. Your poster has to communicate everything that is important
without you being there to explain it to your audience.

OnlineOnline

Similar to poster presentations, online presentations are generally asynchronous—meaning they don’t
require you to be present at the same time as your viewer. They often serve similar purposes as poster
presentations, but due to the online format, they allow for more interactive possibilities, such as sharing
a pertinent video or animated graph. Your online presentation must stand alone to teach your audience
everything they need to know.

Solo and Group Presentations

You may be asked to present as an individual or as part of a group.

Individual presentations put all of the responsibility for preparation, research, and delivery on you. You
rightfully take all the credit for the final product you produce.

Group presentations, in contrast, often involve more complicated tasks and therefore require more
participants to make them. Your instructor may make suggestions about how the work should be
divided, or the group may delegate tasks internally. Grades may be assigned equally to everyone in the
group, though many instructors assign individual grades based on some participation-level factor to
inspire each member to pull his or her own weight.
Presentation assignments are often open to creative interpretation, which gives you a lot of room to
explore new techniques and add a personal touch to the task.

Think About Audience

Now that you’ve learned a bit about the various types of presentations, it’s helpful to turn to another
important part of presenting: the audience. Like reading and writing, presenting is a form of
communication. Whether you’re presenting information, giving a demonstration, creating a poster, or
trying to change people’s minds, your goal is to get your message across to your audience. For that
reason, it’s important to remember that they may not interpret the information you are presenting
exactly as you have. It’s your job as a presenter to explain your ideas using specific details, succinct and
clear wording (avoid jargon), vivid descriptions, and meaningful images. As you organize your
presentation, keeping this imaginary audience in mind can help you gauge how much background
information and context to provide.

Choosing Media and Format for Visual Aids

Perhaps you’ve heard the phrase “Death by PowerPoint” to explain that all-too-familiar feeling of being
slowly bored to death by a thoughtless presenter who’s droning on and on about boring slide after
boring slide. If you’d like to know what the experience is about, and you have time for a laugh, watch the
following video, starring stand-up comedian Don McMillan. McMillan pokes fun at bad presentations,
but he has some very sound advice about what not to do.

You may consider using PowerPoint for your presentation, and that’s perfectly fine. PowerPoint can be a
very effective tool with the right organization, layout, and design. Below is a list of five common pitfalls
that you can and should avoid, and doing so will go a long way toward making your PowerPoint
presentation successful:

Choosing a font that is too small. The person in the very back of the room should be able to see the
same thing as the person in the front of the room.

Putting too many words on a slide. Remember it’s called PowerPoint, not PowerParagraph! Keep your
bullet points clear and succinct.

Having spelling errors. Have somebody proofread your slides. Any typos will detract from your
presentation.

Choosing distracting colors that make it hard to read the information. PowerPoint gives you a lot of color
choices in their design templates. The ideas in your brilliant presentation will be lost if your audience is
struggling to read the content.
Selecting images or visuals that do not clearly align with the content. For instance, a cute photo of your
cat may look lovely up on the screen, but if it doesn’t connect to your topic, it’s just fluff that detracts
from your message. Every slide counts, so make sure the visuals support your message.

Practicing for the Presentation

Once you’ve put together your presentation and have an idea of the audience that will hear and see it,
it’s time to deal with the “nerves” that can accompany the performance part of the presentation. let’s
consider some strategies for reducing anxiety about the presentation. Let’s turn to a final list of pointers
for the “performance” part of the presentation, when you actually present your plan to an audience.
You’ve worked hard as the owner of this presentation, so have confidence in your work. It’s tough to
remember this when you’re nervous, but you’re the person who knows the most about your
presentations. The following activity can help you get there.